Ministry Agriculture RF

FGBOU VPO "Ryazan State Agrotechnological

university. P. A. Kostychev"

Faculty veterinary medicine and biotechnology

Department of Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals

METHODOLOGICAL INSTRUCTIONS

To laboratory classes in animal anatomy

(section "Osteology") for 1st year students

Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology

specialty 111801.65 "Veterinary"

And the direction of preparation 111900.62

"Veterinary and sanitary examination"

Ryazan - 2012

UDC 636.4.591

Antonov Andrey Vladimirovich, Yashina Valentina Vasilievna.

Guidelines for laboratory classes in animal anatomy (section "Osteology") for 1st year students of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology in the specialty 111801.65 "Veterinary Medicine" and the direction of training 111900.62 "Veterinary and Sanitary Expertise". FGBOU VPO RSATU. Ryazan, 2012. - 24 p.

Reviewers:

Candidate of Veterinary Sciences, Associate Professor V. I. Rozanov,

Candidate of Veterinary Sciences, Associate Professor I. A. Sorokina.

Guidelines were reviewed at a meeting of the Department of Anatomy and Physiology of S.-x. animals. Minutes No. ____ dated "____" __________ 2012

Head Department, Doctor of Biol. Sciences, Professor (L. G. Kashirina).

Chairman of the Methodological Committee,

Dr. S.-H. Sciences, Professor (N. I. Torzhkov).

Foreword

1) Know the Russian and Latin names of bones, their structure and specific features.

2) Clearly represent the location of the bones in the body of the animal.

3) Know the bone composition of each area of the body.

4) Be able to determine the species affiliation of each individual bone according to its structure.

The structure of bones is studied on anatomical preparations and stands using a textbook given methodological manual as well as drawings. The final fixation of the material is carried out during training practice by dissecting corpses and living animals.

Planes and directions in the body of an animal

To accurately indicate the location of a particular organ or part of the body in the body, planes and directions are distinguished. The planes are drawn parallel or perpendicular to the axis of the body.

Sagittal planes are drawn along the axis of the body, vertically . One of them - median sagittal, or median- passes along the axis of symmetry of the body and divides it into mirror-symmetrical right and left parts. Lateral sagittal planes are drawn left and right parallel to the median sagittal plane. Frontal planes are also drawn parallel to the axis of the body, but horizontally, at different heights. On the head, these planes are parallel to the plane of the forehead. The frontal plane divides the body into upper and lower parts. Segmental planes are drawn perpendicular to the axis of the body and divide it into anterior and posterior parts.

Directions are associated with planes. The direction from the median sagittal plane to the side is called lateral and the opposite - to the median sagittal plane - medial. The direction from the frontal plane up to the back is called dorsal and down to the stomach - ventral. On the neck, trunk and tail, the direction from the segmental plane forward, towards the head, is called cranial, and back to the tail - caudal. On the head, the forward direction is called oral, nasal or rostral and back - aboral.

For directions on free limbs, the following terms apply. The direction from the torso to the ends of the fingers is called distal, and from the ends of the fingers to the body - proximal. The direction towards the dorsal (back) surface on the hand and foot is called dorsal. The dorsal surface of the hand and foot is also called dorsal. The direction from the dorsal surface of the hand to the palm is called palmar or volar, and the direction from the dorsal surface of the foot to the sole is plantar.

IN ANATOMY WHEN DESCRIBING THE STRUCTURE OF THE BODY OF ANIMALS

Paraganglia - formations genetically and morphologically similar to the adrenal medulla. They are also scattered in different places organism.

I. PLANES, DIRECTIONS AND TERMS USED

IN ANATOMY WHEN DESCRIBING THE STRUCTURE OF THE BODY OF ANIMALS

For a more accurate description of the topography and the relative position of individual parts and organs, the entire body of the animal is conditionally dissected by planes in three mutually perpendicular directions (Fig. 1).

Sagittal planes plani sagittalia(I) - vertical planes longitudinally dissecting the body from head to tail. They can be carried out in any number, but only one of them is the middle sagittal plane (median) planum medianum cuts the animal into two symmetrical halves - right and left, and it passes from the mouth to the tip of the tail. The direction from any sagittal plane outward is denoted as laterallateralis(1), and inward towards the median (median) plane - the medial medialis(2).

Frontal (dorsal) planes plani dorsalia(III) - these planes are also drawn along the body of the animal, but perpendicular to the sagittal, i.e., parallel to the horizontal plane. In relation to this plane, two directions are considered: dorsal(dorsal) dorsalis(3) - directed towards the contour of the back, and ventral(abdominal) ventralis(4) - oriented towards the contour of the abdomen.

Segmental (transverse) planes plani transversalia(II) - these planes pass across the body of the animal, perpendicular to the longitudinal planes, cutting it into separate sections (segments). In relation to these planes, two directions are considered:

a) on the body cranially e (cranial) cranialis(5) oriented towards the skull and caudal(tail) caudalis(6) oriented towards the tail;

b) on the head oral(oral) oralis(7) or nasal(nasal) nasalis, or rostral rostralis- oriented towards the entrance to the mouth or towards the top of the nose, and aboral(anti-gate) aboralis(8) - towards the beginning of the neck;

Rice. 1. Planes and directions

Planes: I - sagittal; II - segmental; III - frontal.

Directions: 1 - lateral; 2 - medial; 3 - dorsal; 4 - ventral; 5 - cranial; 6 - caudal; 7 - oral (nasal, rostral); 8 - aboral; 9 - palmar (volar); 10 - plantar; 11 - proximal; 12 - distal.

c) on the limbs - cranial and caudal, but only up to the hand and foot. In the region of the hand and foot, the anterior surface is called dorsal or dorsal dorsalis(3); posterior surface of the hand palmar or palmar(volar) palmaris seu volaris(9), and on the foot - plantar or plantar plantaris (10).

The directions along the long axis of the free limbs are defined in terms of: proximal - proximalis(11), i.e. the end of the leg closest to the body or any link closest to the body, and the distal - distalis(12) - the furthest from the body.

By combining the considered terms in various combinations, it is possible to indicate the dorsocaudal, ventromedial, craniodorsal, or any other direction on the body.

II. OSTEOLOGY (osteologia)

Osteology- the doctrine of the bones, which, together with cartilage and ligaments, form the skeleton. The skeleton is a mobile basis of the body, consisting of bones and cartilage, connected to each other by means of joints and adhesions. Skeleton sceleton(Fig. 2) is a passive part of the apparatus of movement, which is a system of levers for attaching muscles, as active organs of movement, it is also a support and protection for internal organs.

The entire skeleton is divided into axial And peripheral. TO axial The skeleton includes: the skeleton of the head, neck, trunk and tail. The skeleton of the neck, trunk and tail is based on the vertebrae. Together they form spinal column – columna vertebralis. The skeleton of the body also includes the chest, represented by the thoracic vertebrae, ribs and sternum.

Peripheral skeleton - represented by the skeleton of the thoracic and pelvic limbs.

Rice. 2 Horse Skeleton

A - cervical spine; B - thoracic spine; C - lumbar spine; D - sacral spine; E - tail section of the spinal column.

1 - scapula; 2 - humerus; 3 - ulna; 4 - radius; 5 - bones of the wrist; 6 - bones of the metacarpus; 7 - bones of the fingers; 8- sesamoid bones; 9- pelvic bones; 10 - femur; 11 - patella; 12 - tibia; 13 - fibula; 14 - tarsal bones; 15 - bones of the metatarsus.

Consider the structure of a vertebra using the example of a vertebra from the thoracic region, since only in it can complete bone segment, which includes a vertebra, a pair of ribs and an adjacent section of the sternum.

Vertebra – vertebra seu spondylus- in its structure refers to short, symmetrical bones of a mixed type. It consists of a body, an arch (arc) and processes (Fig. 3).

Vertebral body - corpus vertebrae(1) - is the most permanent columnar component. At its cranial end is a convex head caput vertebrae(2), on the caudal - concave fossa fossa vertebrae(3), on the ventral surface - ventral crest crista ventralis(4). On the sides of the heads and pits of the vertebral body there are small cranial and caudal costal fossae (facets) fovea costalis cranialis and caudalis(5, 6).

Arch (arc) of the vertebra arcus vertebrale lies dorsally from the body and forms the vertebral foramen together with the body foramen vertebrale(7). At the junction of the arch with the body there are paired cranial and caudal intervertebral (vertebral) notches incisura intervertebralis (vertebralis) cranialis and caudalis(8, 9). From adjacent (adjacent) notches, intervertebral foramens are formed foramen intervertebrale. An unpaired spinous process departs dorsally from the arch processus spinosus(10). On the arches there are small paired cranial and caudal articular (arc) processes for connecting them to each other processus articularis cranialis and caudalis(11, 12); while the articular surface (facet) on the cranial articular processes is facing dorsally, and on the caudal processes - ventrally.

Transverse processes extend laterally from the arch processus transverses(13). They carry an articular costal (transverse costal) fossa or facet fovea costalis transversalis(14) for connection with the tubercle of the rib, as well as a small rough mastoid process processus mamillaris(15) for muscle attachment.

Rice. 3. Thoracic vertebra

1 - vertebral body; 2 - head of the vertebra; 3 - fossa of the vertebra; 4 - ventral crest; 5 - cranial costal fossae (facets); 6 - caudal costal pits (facets); 7 - vertebral foramen; 8 - cranial intervertebral (vertebral) cuttings; 9 - caudal intervertebral (vertebral) notches; 10 - spinous process; 11 - cranial articular processes; 12 - caudal articular processes; 13 - transverse process; 14 - costal (transverse costal fossa (facet); 15 - mastoid process.

CERVICAL VERTEBRAE – vertebrae cervicales.

In mammals, the neck skeleton is formed by 7 vertebrae with a few exceptions (in the sloth - 6-9, in the manatee - 6). They are divided into typical- similar in structure to each other (according to the account 3, 4, 5, 6), and atypical(1, 2, 7).

A characteristic feature of typical cervical vertebrae (Fig. 4) is the presence of two-branched (forked) transverse costal processes (4) and transverse (transverse) foramens - foramen transversarium(5), - located at their base. In typical cervical vertebrae, the rudiments of the ribs grow to the transverse processes, therefore these processes are called not only transverse, but also transverse costal - processus costotransversarius.

Rice. 4. Typical cervical vertebrae of a horse

1 - head of the vertebra; 2 - fossa of the vertebra; 3 - spinous process; 4 - transverse costal processes; 5 - transverse hole; 6 - cranial articular processes; 7 - caudal articular processes;

Peculiarities:

At a large cattle typical cervical vertebrae have relatively short bodies (the vertebrae are almost cuboid), the heads are hemispherical in shape, the spinous processes are short, rounded, thickened at the ends, their height gradually increases from 3 to 7, and ventral crests are well defined.

At the pig the vertebrae are short, the arches are narrow, the interarch foramens are wide (the distance between the arches of adjacent vertebrae), the heads and fossae are flat, the spinous processes are relatively well developed, there are no ventral crests, there are dorsoventral foramina at the base of the transverse costal processes (the lateral vertebral foramens are foramen vertebrale laterale.

At the horse the vertebral bodies are long, the heads are hemispherical in shape, the spinous processes are in the form of rough combs, the ventral crests are well developed (except for the 6th vertebra).

At the dog the vertebral bodies are relatively long, the heads and fossae are flat, set obliquely in relation to the body. The spinous process on the 3rd vertebra is absent, while on the rest, their height gradually increases in the caudal direction.

7th cervical vertebra (Fig. 5) unlike the typical ones, it has a short non-branching transverse costal process (1), without an intertransverse foramen in it. The spinous process is more developed than on typical cervical vertebrae. At the caudal end of the body, there are caudal costal fossae (3) for articulation with the heads of the first pair of ribs.

Peculiarities:

In cattle the spinous process is high and wide, stands vertically, the articular processes are wide and spaced from each other, the head and fossae are prominent (hemispherical).

At the pig the head and fossa of the vertebra are flat. There are lateral vertebral foramens running dorsoventrally.

At the horse the spinous process is relatively poorly developed, the head and fossa are well expressed, hemispherical in shape.

At the dog the spinous process is styloid in shape, the head and fossa are flat, placed obliquely in relation to the body.

Rice. 5. The seventh cervical vertebra of the horse

1 - transverse costal processes; 2 - spinous process; 3 - caudal costal fossae; 4 - cranial articular processes; 5 - caudal articular processes;

First cervical vertebra - or atlas - atlas(Fig. 6) - characterized by the absence of a body. It has an annular shape. On the atlas, dorsal and ventral arches (arcs) are distinguished - arcus dorsalis and ventralis with dorsal and ventral tubercles - tuberculum dorsale(1) and ventrale(2). The ventral arch replaces the body of the atlas. From the side of the vertebral foramen, it bears a facet (fossa) for the odontoid process of the 2nd cervical vertebra - fovea dentis(3). On the side of the atlas are wings - ala atlantis(4), which are modified transverse and articular processes fused into a lateral mass - massa lateralis. On the ventral surface of the wings is the wing fossa - fossa atlantis(5). At the cranial end of the atlas there are cranial articular fossae - fovea articularis cranialis s. atlantis(6) for connection with the condyles of the occipital bone, and on the caudal - caudal articular fossae - fovea articularis caudalis(7) - for connection with the 2nd cervical vertebra. At the anterior end of the wing of the atlas is a wing opening - foramen alare(8), connected by a gutter to the intervertebral foramen - foramen intervertebrale(9). At the caudal end of the wings there is a transverse outlet - foramen transversarium (10).

Rice. 6. Atlas horse

A - dorsal surface; B - ventral surface.

1 - dorsal tubercle; 2 - ventral tubercle; 3 - facet (fossa) for the odontoid process of the 2nd cervical vertebra; 4 - wings of the atlas; 5 - wing fossa; 6 - cranial articular fossae; 7 - caudal articular fossae; 8 - wing hole; 9 - intervertebral foramen; 10 - transverse hole.

Peculiarities:

In cattle the wings are massive with a weakly pronounced fossa, lie horizontally, there is no transverse (intertransverse) opening.

At the pig the wings are narrow and thick, the alar fossa is small, the transverse foramen is located on the caudal margin of the atlas, it has the shape of a canal and opens into the alar fossa. The fossa for the odontoid process is deep. The ventral tubercle is directed caudally in the form of a process.

At the horse the wings of the atlas are thin and bent ventrally, as a result of which the wing fossae are deep. The transverse opening is located on the dorsal surface of the wing. Of the three holes, it is the larger one.

At the dog wings of atlas are flat, thin and long, elongated latero-caudally, set almost horizontally. The dorsal arch is wide and without tubercle. The wing opening has been replaced by a notch (11).

Rice. 7. First cervical vertebra (atlas)

A - cattle atlas; B - pig atlas; B - dog atlas.

Second cervical vertebra - axial, or epistrophy - axis s. epistropheus(Fig. 8) - the longest of the seven. It is characterized by the presence, instead of the head, of an odontoid process, or a tooth - dens(1) , spinous process in the form of a ridge - crista(2) , with weak non-branching transverse costal processes (3) with transverse foramina (4) in the form of a canal and cranial intertransverse foramina (5).

Rice. 8. Second cervical vertebra (epistrophy)

A - horse epistrophy; B - epistrophy of cattle; B - epistrophy of a pig; G - dog epistrophy.

Peculiarities:

In cattle the odontoid process looks like a hollow half-cylinder, and the crest looks like a square plate with a raised caudal edge.

At the pig the odontoid process is obtuse, cone-shaped, the crest is high, its posterior edge is raised dorsally, the anterior one is oblique. There are dorsoventral openings (6).

At the horse the odontoid process is semi-conical in shape with a flat dorsal surface and a convex ventral one. The powerful crest bifurcates caudally and fuses with the caudal articular processes. The ventral crest is well defined.

At the dog the odontoid process is long, cylindrical. The crest hangs over the odontoid process in the form of a beak, and merges caudally with the caudal articular processes. The cranial intervertebral foramina are replaced by notches.

thoracic vertebrae -vertebrae thoracales(Fig. 9) - characterized by the presence of two pairs - cranial and caudal costal facets (fossae) on the vertebral body, short transverse processes with a facet for the costal tubercle and well-developed spinous processes inclined caudally to the diaphragmatic vertebra - vertebrae anticlinalis. On the diaphragmatic vertebra, the spinous process is placed vertically. On subsequent vertebrae, the spinous processes are directed cranially. The last vertebra lacks caudal costal facets.

Peculiarities:

In cattle 13 (14) thoracic vertebrae. They are characterized by a rounded fitted body, the length of which exceeds the width. The costal facets, especially the caudal ones, are extensive. Instead of caudal intervertebral notches, there may be intervertebral foramen. The spinous processes are wide, lamellar with sharp, uneven edges. Diaphragmatic call -

Rice. 9. Thoracic vertebrae

A - the thoracic vertebra of the horse; B - thoracic vertebra of cattle; B - thoracic vertebra of a pig; G - thoracic vertebra of the dog.

nok is the last one.

At the pig 14-17 thoracic vertebrae, the shape of the body approaches the transverse oval, the length is less than the width. These vertebrae, along with the intervertebral foramina, also have dorsoventral (lateral) foramina passing through the base of the transverse processes. Spinous processes along the entire length of the same width with pointed edges. Diaphragmatic vertebrae - 11th.

At the horse 18 (19) thoracic vertebrae, their bodies are triangular in shape with deep costal fossae and well-defined ventral crests. The length of the body does not exceed the width. Instead of intervertebral foramina, as a rule, there are deep intervertebral caudal notches. Spinous processes with a wide caudal margin, club-shaped thickened at the apex. From the 1st vertebra, in which the spinous process is short, wedge-shaped, their height increases to the 4th, and then decreases to the 12th. Diaphragmatic vertebra 15 (14, 16), mastoid processes with pointed edges.

At the dog 13 (12) thoracic vertebrae. The vertebral bodies are transversely oval in shape, the length is inferior to the width, the costal fossae are flat. On the last four vertebrae, the cranial costal fossae are displaced from the heads to the lateral surface of the body, while the caudal ones are absent. The spinous processes of most vertebrae are gently curved and narrowed towards the apex. Diaphragmatic vertebra - 11th. The last vertebrae have pronounced accessory processes - processus accessorius subulate shape.

The thoracic region, in addition to the vertebrae, includes the ribs and the sternum.

Ribs– coste(Fig. 10) - consist of a long curved bone rib, or costal bone - os coste- and costal cartilage - cartilago costalis. The number of paired ribs corresponds to the number of thoracic vertebrae.

On the bone rib, the vertebral end, body and sternal end are distinguished. At the vertebral end of the rib there is a head - caput costae(1) - and tubercle of the rib - tuberculum costae(2). The head is separated from the tubercle by the neck of the rib collum costae(3). On the head of the rib, two convex facets are visible, separated by either a groove or a ridge - Crista capitis costae(4) - , for articulation with the bodies of two adjacent vertebrae. The tubercle of the rib articulates with the transverse process of the vertebra.

On the proximal part of the body, the ribs are corpus costae- below the tubercle, a costal angle is distinguished - angulus costae(5). On the body of the rib along its convex caudal edge on the medial side there is a vascular trough - sulcus vascularis-, and along the concave cranial edge on the lateral side - a muscular groove - sulcus muscularis.

Rice. 10 Horse Ribs

1 - head of the rib; 2 - tubercle of the rib; 3 - neck of the rib; 4 - groove of the head of the rib;

5 - costal angle.

The sternal (ventral) end of the bone rib is rough, connected to the costal cartilage. In cattle from 2 to 10 ribs, in pigs from 2 to 7 ribs, the ventral ends of the bony ribs are covered with articular cartilage.

Costal cartilages - cartilago costalis- articular facets are connected to the sternum.

The ribs that connect to the sternum are called sternal, or true – costae sternales, s. verae. Ribs that do not connect to the sternum are called asternal, or false - costae externales, s. spuriae. Their cartilages overlap each other and, together with the last bone rib, form a costal arch - arcus costalis.

Sometimes there are hanging ribs - costa fluctuans-, the ventral ends of which do not reach the costal arch and are enclosed in the muscles of the abdominal walls.

Rice. 11. Ribs

A - ribs of cattle; B - pig ribs; B - dog ribs.

Peculiarities:

In cattle 13 (14) a pair of ribs. The ribs are characterized by long necks, saddle facets on the costal tubercles, a large but uneven body width: the vertebral end of the rib is 2.5-3 times narrower than the sternal end. The cranial edge of the rib is thick, the caudal edge is sharp. The costal angles are well defined. Costal cartilages 2 to 10 have articular facets at both ends.

At the pig 14-17 a pair of ribs. The ribs are relatively narrow, spirally curved along the longitudinal axis. The facets on the tubercles are flat. The angles of the ribs are clearly defined. Costal cartilages 2 through 7 have articular facets at both ends.

At the horse 18 (19) a pair of ribs. The ribs are narrow, thick, of uniform width. The neck of the rib is short, tubercle with a slightly concave facet.

At the dog 13 (12) a pair of ribs. The ribs are narrow, evenly rounded, characterized by a large curvature (hoop-shaped). The tubercles have convex facets.

breast bone or sternum – sternum(Fig. 12) - closes the ventral wall of the chest, connecting the ventral ends of the sternal ribs. It consists of a handle, body and xiphoid process.

Sternum grip - manubrium sterni (praesternum)(1) - part of the bone lying in front of the place of attachment of the second pair of costal cartilages.

The body of the sternum corpus sterni(2) - consists of 5-7 pieces (segments) - sternebra, - connected, depending on the age of the animals, by cartilaginous or bone tissue. From the sides, at the border of the connection of the segments, it has costal notches or pits - incisurae costales sterni(5) - 5-7 pairs, for articulation with costal cartilages.

xiphoid process - processus xiphoideus(3) - is a continuation of the body and ends with the xiphoid cartilage - cartilago xiphoidea(4).

Rice. 12. Breastbone

A - the chest bone of the horse; B - sternum of cattle; B - sternum of a pig; G - the sternum of the dog.

1 - handle of the sternum; 2 - the body of the sternum; 3 - xiphoid process; 4 - xiphoid cartilage; 5 - costal notches or fossae; 6 - costal cartilages.

Peculiarities:

In cattle in cattle, the handle of the sternum is massive, raised dorsally, connected to the body by a joint. The first pair of costal cartilages is attached to the anterior end of the handle. The body is compressed in the dorsoventral direction, strongly expanded caudally. It has 6 pair of rib cuts. The xiphoid cartilage is in the form of a wide thin plate.

At the pig the handle of the sternum is laterally compressed, acts as a wedge in front of the first pair of ribs, and is connected to the body by a joint. The body is shaped like that of cattle. On the body 5 pair of rib cuts. The xiphoid cartilage is short, narrow.

At the horse the handle of the sternum is fused with the body and is complemented in front by cartilage, in the form of a rounded plate, which is called a falcon. This cartilage continues backward along the ventral surface of the body and is called the crest of the sternum - crista sterni. The body, like the handle, is compressed from the sides, except for the caudal part, and resembles a pointed-bottomed boat from the side. It has 7 pair of rib cuts. The xiphoid process is absent. The xiphoid cartilage is wide, rounded.

At the dog the handle of the sternum protrudes as a tubercle in front of the first pair of ribs. The body is almost cylindrical or trihedral. The xiphoid cartilage is small and narrow.

The thoracic vertebrae, ribs and sternum form together chest (thorax). In general, it resembles a cone with a truncated top and an obliquely cut base. The truncated top serves as an entrance to the chest - Apertura thoracis cranialis, limited by the first thoracic vertebra, the first pair of ribs and the handle of the sternum. The base of the cone represents the exit from the chest - apertura thoracis caudalis-, it is limited by the last thoracic vertebra, costal arches and the xiphoid process of the sternum.

The lateral walls of the chest in the cranial part of ungulates are laterally compressed, and in the caudal part they are more rounded (especially in cattle). In dogs, the lateral wall is barrel-shaped convex.

In the region of the vertebral ribs, the chest in all animals is wide. In its anterior section, the spinous processes are very large and form, together with the vertebrae, the skeleton of the withers.

LUMBAR VERTEBRAE – vertebrae lumbales(Fig. 13). A characteristic feature of the lumbar vertebrae is the presence of long transverse costal (transverse) processes (1) lying in the frontal (dorsal) plane. In addition, their heads and fossae are poorly expressed, the spinous processes are lamellar (2), of the same height and width.

Rice. 13. Lumbar vertebrae

A - horses; B - a large horned cat; B - pigs; G - dogs.

1 - transverse costal (transverse) processes; 2 - spinous process; 3 - dorsoventral openings.

Peculiarities:

In cattle 6 lumbar vertebrae. The vertebral bodies are long with ventral ridges, and narrowed (fitted) in the middle. The cranial articular processes have grooved facets, the caudal processes are cylindrical. The transverse processes are long, with uneven edges. Caudal vertebral notches are deep.

At the pig 7 lumbar vertebrae. The bodies are relatively long. The cranial articular processes, like in cattle, have grooved facets, while the caudal processes are cylindrical. The transverse costal processes are short, often curved downwards, and have dorsoventral openings at their base (3). On the last vertebrae they are replaced by notches.

At the horse6 lumbar vertebrae. The vertebral bodies are short. Ventral crests are present only on the first three vertebrae. Their transverse costal processes are lamellar, and in the last 3 vertebrae they are thick, deviated cranially and have articular facets for articulation with each other, the 6th vertebra is connected by caudal facets to the wings of the sacral bone. The articular facets on the cranial and caudal articular processes are flat.

At the dog 7 lumbar vertebrae. The bodies lack ventral crests. The transverse costal processes are directed cranioventrally. There are additional branches.

sacral vertebrae – vertebrae sacrales(Fig. 14). Characterized by the fact that they fuse together into the sacrum - os cacrum, - or sacrum. When the sacral vertebrae grow together, the sacral canal passes between their arches and bodies - canalis sacralis. The boundaries between the bodies of fused vertebrae are visible in the form of transverse lines - linea transversae. The transverse costal processes of the first vertebra form extensive wings - ala sacralis (ala osis sacri)(1) - with ear-shaped surface - facies auricularis(2) - for articulation with the wings of the ilium. Spinous processes form at the confluence

Rice. 14. Sacral vertebrae

A - horses; B - cattle; B - pigs; G - dogs.

1 - wings of the sacrum; 2 - ear-shaped surface; 3 - middle (dorsal) crest; 4 - lateral sacral crests; 5 - intermediate ridges; 6 - dorsal sacral (pelvic) openings; 7 - cape; 8 - cranial articular processes; 9 - caudal articular processes.

middle (dorsal) sacral crest - crista sacralis medianus (crista sacralis dorsalis)(3), transverse processes - lateral sacral crests, or parts - cristae sacrales laterals(4), and the mastoid and articular processes form intermediate ridges - cristae sacrales intermediales(5). The intervertebral foramina are opened by the dorsal and ventral sacral (pelvic) foramens - foramina sacralia dorsalia et ventralia (pelvina) (6). The anterior ventral edge of the first sacral vertebra is called the cape. promontorium(7). The cranial articular processes (8) are present on the arch of the first vertebra, and the caudal articular processes (9) are present on the arch of the last vertebra.

Peculiarities:

In cattle - sacrum formed 5 vertebrae. The pelvic surface is concave and bears a longitudinal vascular groove - sulcus vascularis. The spinous processes merge completely into a crest with a thickened dorsal margin. The wings of the sacral bone are quadrangular in shape, the ear-shaped surface is directed laterodorsally. Cranial articular processes with grooved facets. The ventral sacral foramina are large.

At the pig- the sacrum is formed 4 vertebrae. Spinous processes are absent. Inter-arc openings are wide. The cranial articular processes are grooved. Wings are short and thick. The ear-shaped surface of the wings is directed laterocaudally.

At the horse – 5 sacral vertebrae. The pelvic surface is flat. The spinous processes are fused at the base, the tops are isolated, thickened and often bifurcated. The wings of the sacral bone are triangular in shape and lie in a horizontal plane, have two articular surfaces:

- ear-shaped- for articulation with the ilium, directed dorsally;

- articular- for connection with the transverse costal process of the last lumbar vertebra, directed cranially.

At the dog – 3 sacral vertebrae. The pelvic surface is concave. The spinous processes merge only at the bases, their tops are isolated. The ear-shaped surface of the wings is directed laterally. The cranial articular processes are represented only by articular facets.

TAIL VERTEBRAE – vertebrae caudales, s. coccygeae- (Fig. 15) are characterized by flat-convex heads (1) and pits and the presence of all the main elements of the vertebra only on the first five segments. In the rest of the vertebrae, the spinous processes (3) and arches are reduced and only bodies with small tubercles remain.

Rice. 15. Tail vertebrae

A - horses; B - cattle.

1 - the head of the vertebra; 2 - transverse processes; 3 - spinous process; 4 - hemal processes.

Peculiarities:

In cattle- 18-20 (16-21) tail vertebrae. Their bodies are significantly elongated in length, from 2 to 5-10 they have hemal processes on the ventral side at the cranial end - processus hemalis(4), sometimes closing into hemal arches - arcus hemalis. Transverse processes (2) in the form of thin wide plates bent ventrally. Only cranial articular processes are found.

At the pig tail contains 20-23 vertebra. The first 5-6 vertebrae have bodies compressed in the dorsoventral direction, the rest are cylindrical. Their vertebral arches are displaced caudally, go beyond the vertebral body, have spinous and articular processes. The transverse processes are lamellar, wide and long.

At the horse – 18-20 tail vertebrae. Their bodies are short, massive, cylindrical. The transverse processes are short and thick. Arcs are developed only in the first three vertebrae. Spinous processes are not expressed.

At the dog – 20-23 tail vertebrae. The first 5-6 have all the main parts. The spinous processes are subulate, bent caudally. The cranial and caudal articular processes are well expressed. The mastoid protrude on the cranial articular processes. The transverse processes are well developed, bent caudoventrally and thickened at the end. The vertebral bodies, starting from 4-5, are equipped with hemal processes. The rudiments of the hemal arches (processes) are preserved on all vertebrae and give them, together with the rudiments of the vertebral arches and transverse processes, a characteristic club-like shape.

Table 1. Number of vertebrae in mammals different types

LITERATURE

Main:

1. Anatomy of domestic animals / A.I. Akayevsky, Yu.F. Yudichev, N.V. Mikhailov and others; Ed. A.I. Akayevsky. - 4th ed., corrected. and additional .- M .: Kolos, 1984.-543 p.

2. Anatomy of domestic animals / I.V. Khrustaleva, N.V. Mikhailov, Ya.I. Schneiberg and others; Ed. I.V. Khrustaleva.- M.: Kolos, 1994.-704 p.

3. Anatomy of domestic animals / I.V. Khrustaleva, N.V. Mikhailov, Ya.I. Schneiberg and others; Ed. I.V. Khrustaleva. - 3rd ed. Rev.- M.: Kolos, 2000.-704 p.

4. Klimov A.F. Anatomy of domestic animals. - 4th ed. revised prof. A.I. Akayevsky.-M.: 1955, volume 1.- 576 p.

5. Popesko P. Atlas of topographic anatomy of farm animals. Ed. 2nd,. ČSSR, Bratislava: Nature, 1978, volume 1. - 211 p. from ill.

6. Popesko P. Atlas of topographic anatomy of farm animals. Ed. 2nd,. ČSSR, Bratislava: Nature, 1978, volume 2.- 194 p. from ill.

7. Popesko P. Atlas of topographic anatomy of farm animals. Ed. 2nd,. ČSSR, Bratislava: Nature, 1978, volume 3. - 205 p. from ill.

8. Udovin G.M. International veterinary anatomical nomenclature in Latin and Russian. [Textbook for students of veterinary universities and faculties]. - M .: 1979, volume 1. - 262 p.

Additional:

1. Akaevsky A.I. Anatomy of domestic animals. Ed. 3rd, rev. and additional M.: Kolos, 1975.- 592 p. from ill.

2. Akaevsky A.I., Lebedev M.I. Anatomy of pets.- M.: Vyssh. school, 1971, part 3. - 376 p.

3. Vokken G.G., Glagolev P.A., Bogolyubsky S.N. Anatomy of pets.- M.: Vyssh. school, 1961, part 1. - 391 p.

4. Gatje V., Pashteya E., Riga I. Atlas of anatomy. volume 1. Osteology. Myology. Bucharest, 1954.- 771 p. (Roman language).

5. Glagolev P.A., Ippolitova V.I. Anatomy of farm animals with the basics of histology and embryology. Ed. I.A. Spiryukhov and V.F. Vrakina. Ed. 4th, revised. and additional M.: Kolos, 1977.-480 p. from ill.

6. Lebedev M.I. Workshop on the anatomy of farm animals. L .: Kolos, 1973. - 288 p. from ill.

7. Malashko V.V. Anatomy of meat-producing animals.- Minsk: Urajay, 1998.

8. Osipov I.P. Atlas of the anatomy of domestic animals. - M .: Kolos, 1977.

In determining the exterior features of a dog and a comparative assessment of one or different age and breed groups, the conditional division of the animal's body into certain areas is of great help.

The dog's body is usually divided, first of all, into the stem part and limbs. The stem part consists of the head, neck, torso and tail. The head is divided into brain and facial sections.

The brain department for a more detailed orientation is divided into:

the occipital region, which lies between the head and the occipito-atlantic joints;

parietal region, located on the dorsal side of the brain section of the head, in front of the occipital region;

frontal region, located in front of the parietal region;

auricle area

eyelid area

temporal region, occupies the part of the head between the ear and the eye, bordering on the parietal region.

The front section is divided into:

the nasal region, which in turn is subdivided into the back of the nose and the lateral region of the nose;

infraorbital region, bordering on the nasal and buccal regions.

The apical section of the facial section has: area upper lip, lower lip area, chin area.

On the lateral surfaces of the face, there are: the buccal region, the region of the large chewing muscle.

On the lower side of the facial section is the intermaxillary region.

The neck lies on the border with the head, above and behind the occipital region. From the sides and cranially, the parotid region is distinguished on it, and from below - the pharyngeal region. On the neck itself, it is customary to distinguish the upper nuchal region with its nuchal edge and the lateral region of the neck. Along the bodies of the cervical vertebrae, the brachiocephalic muscle lies in a wide strip, hence the name brachiocephalic region. Ventral to this region is the cervical region in the narrow sense of the word, as opposed to the nuchal region. But it is better to call this region the lower cervical region with its laryngeal region in front and the tracheal region behind. From the sides of the lower cervical region, the jugular groove stretches.

The trunk covers the dorsal-thoracic, lumbo-abdominal and sacro-gluteal regions.

The thoracic region is divided into the region of the withers and the dorsal region. The chest from the lateral surface is called the costal region, and from below - the sternum region and presternal region.

The lumbo-abdominal region covers the lumbar region, or simply the lower back, and the vast abdominal region (belly). This area is divided into three sections by two transverse planes, one of which passes at the level of the convex part of the last rib, and the second - at the level of the maklok. The anterior section, from the first transverse line to the contour of the costal arch, gives the region of the xiphoid cartilage. The middle section is delimited into the right and left iliac regions, adjacent to the lower back from above. The place at the waist, which is in front of the maklok, is commonly called the hungry hole. Behind the region of the xiphoid cartilage is the umbilical region.

Continuing backward, the right and left iliac regions pass into the right and left inguinal regions, and the continuation of the umbilical region backwards is called the pubic region.

The sacro-buttock region has, as a continuation of the lower back, the sacral region, which passes backwards into the tail, and laterally into the gluteal region.

The thoracic limb consists of the shoulder girdle and the free section of the limb. The region of the scapula, in turn, is subdivided into the region of the scapular cartilage adjacent to the withers, the supraspinous region and the infraspinous region, separated from each other by the spine of the scapula. Ahead, on the border of the shoulder girdle and shoulder region, the shoulder joint protrudes.

The free limb includes three main regions or links: the region of the shoulder, the region of the forearm, and the region of the hand.

The area of the shoulder serves mainly as the location of the triceps brachii and is separated behind by the ulnar line. Further, the forearm and hand are isolated on the limbs. The composition of the hand includes the wrist, metacarpus and fingers of the hand.

The pelvic limb consists of the pelvic girdle and the free section of the limb. The pelvic girdle is adjacent to the sacro-gluteal region called the croup.

The free limb lies below and includes three main areas or links: the thigh area, the shin area and the foot area.

From the lower border of the gluteal region to knee joint the thigh with the area of the patella is located. Ahead and slightly above it lies the knee crease. Below the thigh is the lower leg and, finally, the foot. In the latter, the tarsus, metatarsus and toes are distinguished.

Areas of the dog's body

Topographic areas of the head: 1-5 Brain department. 1. Frontal area. 2. Parietal region. 3. Occipital region. 4. Temporal region. 5. The area of the auricle. 6-21. Facial department. 6-8 Nose area. 6. Dorsal region of the nose. 7. Lateral region of the nose. 8. The area of the nostrils. 9. Upper lip. 10. Lower lip. 11. Chin area. 12-13 Orbital area. 12. Upper eyelid. 13. Lower eyelid. 14. Cheekbone area. 15. Infraorbital region. 16. Temporomandibular joint. 17. Chewing area. 18. Cheek area. 19 The region of the upper jaw. 20. Region of the lower jaw.

Topography of the neck area: 22. Dorsal area of the neck. 23. Lateral (jugular) region of the neck. 24. Region of the parotid gland. 25. Throat area. 26-27 Ventral region of the neck. 26. Region of the larynx. 27. Area of the trachea.

Topographic regions of the chest (chest): 28. Presternal region. 29. Breast area. 30. Scapular region. 31. Rib area. 32. Region of the heart.

Topographic areas of the abdomen: 33-34. The cranial region of the abdominal wall (epigastrium). 33. Subcostal region. 34. The area of the xiphoid process. 35-36. Middle area abdominal wall (mesogastrium). 35. Iliac region. 36. Umbilical region. 37-39. Caudal region of the abdominal wall (hypogastric). 37. Inguinal region. 38. The pubic region. 39. Prepuce area.

Topographic regions of the back (dorsal): 40. Interscapular region. 41. Region of the thoracic spine. 42. Lumbar region.

Topographic areas of the pelvis and tail: 43. Sacral region. 44. Cranial gluteal region. 45. Area of iliac tubercles. 46. Caudal gluteal region. 47. Area of ischial tubercles. 48-50. Perineum area. 48. Anus area. 49. Genitourinary region. 50. Area of the scrotum. 51. Tail area.

Topographic areas of the thoracic limb: 52. Shoulder joint. 53. Axillary region (including the axillary fossa). 54. Shoulder area. 55. Area of the triceps muscle. 56. Elbow region. 57. Region of the olecranon. 58. Area of the forearm. 59. Wrist area. 60. Metacarpus area. 61. Phalange area (fingers).

Topographic areas of the pelvic limb: 62. hip joint. 63. Femoral region. 64. Knee area. 65. Popliteal region. 66. Patella area. 67. Leg area. 68. Tarsus area. 69. Heel region. 70. Metatarsal area. 71. Phalange area.

Planes and Directions

To characterize the structure of all organs, their parts, location and relationship with other parts of the body and organs, it is customary to use some special anatomical conventional terms.

First of all, the dog's body is divided by a series of planes.

A plane mentally drawn vertically along the middle of the animal's body from the mouth to the tip of the tail and cutting the body into two symmetrical halves - right and left, is called the middle sagittal plane. Planes mentally drawn vertically across the body of an animal and dividing it into a number of segments similar in structure are called segmental planes. The plane mentally drawn horizontally along the animal's body and dividing it into upper and lower parts is called the frontal plane.

The following planes are mentally drawn in the body of the animal (Fig. 10): longitudinal - sagittal and frontal and transverse - segmental.

Sagittal planes cut the animal's body from top to bottom, into right and left parts, and only one of them - the median sagittal plane - divides the animal's body into equal and symmetrical - right and left - halves; lateral sagittal planes divide the body of the animal into unequal and asymmetrical parts.

The frontal planes cut the body into upper, or dorsal, and lower, or abdominal, parts.

Segmental planes are drawn in the transverse direction and divide the body into transverse segments, or segments.

To further clarify the position of the organ and the direction of its parts (surfaces, edges, corners, etc.), the following topographic terms are used in anatomy: cranial - directed forward, towards the skull; caudal - directed towards the tail; lateral - directed to the side of the median sagittal plane; medial, directed back towards the median sagittal plane; dorsal - directed upwards in animals, towards the back; ventral - facing animals down, towards the abdomen.

Directions are indicated on the limbs: proximal - towards the body and distal - in the direction from the body.

On the thoracic and pelvic limbs, instead of the anterior surface facing forward, the term dorsal, or back, is used, for the opposite surface facing backwards - volar, or anti-back, on the thoracic limb, and plantar, or anti-back, on the pelvic limb.

BODY AREAS OF THE ANIMAL

In the body of the animal, the stem part and limbs are isolated (Fig. I). The stem part is divided into: head, neck, torso and tail. On the head, the brain and facial sections are distinguished. In the brain section, the following areas are considered: occipital, parietal, frontal, auricle, eyelids, temporal, parotid gland, laryngeal.

The facial section is divided into areas: nasal, nostril, infraorbital, upper lip, lower lip, chin, buccal, chewing muscle, submandibular.

The neck is subdivided into the nuchal region, the region of the brachiocephalic muscle, the tracheal region and the lower region of the neck.

The trunk includes the dorsal-thoracic, lumbo-abdominal and sacro-gluteal sections. The thoracic region is divided into the back and chest. The back is divided into the area of the withers and the dorsal area. On the chest, the right and left lateral thoracic regions are distinguished, as well as unpaired sternal and presternal regions.

The lumbar-abdominal region consists of the lumbar region, or lower back. On the abdomen, there are: the regions of the left and right hypochondrium, the region of the xiphoid cartilage, the right and left iliac regions, the right and left inguinal regions, the umbilical and pubic regions.

The sacro-gluteal region is divided into the sacral and gluteal regions.

Rice. 11. Areas of the body of the cow:

Brain section of the head. Regions: 1 - occipital; 2 - parietal; 3 - frontal; 4 - auricle; 5 - century; 6 - temporal; 7 - parotid gland; 8 - guttural.

The facial region of the head. Areas: a - nasal; 10 - nostrils; 11 - infraorbital; 12 - upper lip; is - lower lip; 14 - chin; 15 - buccal; 16 - chewing muscle; 17 - submandibular.

Neck. Areas: 18 - vynaya; 19 - brachiocephalic muscle; 20 - tracheal; 21 - lower region of the neck.

Dorsal-thoracic region. Areas: 22 - withers; 23 - dorsal; 24 - lateral chest; 25 - sternum; 26 - presternal.

Lumbar-abdominal. Areas: 27 - lumbar (lumbar); 28 - stomach.

Sacro-buttock department. Areas: 29 - sacral; 30 - gluteal. Thoracic limb. Regions: 31 - shoulder girdle, or scapula; 32 - shoulder; 33 - forearm; 34 - wrist; 35 - metacarpus; 36 - the first phalanx; 37 and 38 - the second and third phalanxes. Joints: 39 - shoulder; 40 - elbow; 41 - carpal; 42 - putovy (first phalanx); 43 - coronal (second phalanx); 44 - hoofed (third phalanx). Pelvic limb. Areas: 45 - pelvic girdle; 46 - groats; 47 - hips; 48 - knee cup; 49 - lower leg; 50 - tarsus; 51 - metatarsus; 52 - the first phalanx (outside the hooves); 53 - second phalanx; 54 - third phalanx. Joints: 55 - hip; 56 - knee; 57 - tarsal (hock); 58 - putovy (first phalanx); 59 - coronal (second phalanx); 60 - hoofed (third phalanx).

As part of the thoracic limb, the region of the shoulder girdle, or scapula, associated with the body, and the free thoracic limb are considered. The free thoracic limb is subdivided into the areas of the shoulder, forearm, wrist, metacarpus, first phalanx of the fingers, second phalanx of the fingers and third phalanx

FGBOU VPO "Ryazan State Agrotechnological

university. P. A. Kostychev"

Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology

Department of Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals

METHODOLOGICAL INSTRUCTIONS

to laboratory classes in animal anatomy

(section "Osteology") for 1st year students

Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology

specialty 111801.65 "Veterinary"

and direction of preparation 111900.62

"Veterinary and sanitary examination"

Ryazan - 2012

UDC 636.4.591

Antonov Andrey Vladimirovich, Yashina Valentina Vasilievna.

Reviewers:

Candidate of Veterinary Sciences, Associate Professor V. I. Rozanov,

Candidate of Veterinary Sciences, Associate Professor I. A. Sorokina.

Guidelines were reviewed at a meeting of the Department of Anatomy and Physiology of S.-x. animals. Minutes No. ____ dated "____" __________ 2012

Head Department, Doctor of Biol. Sciences, Professor (L. G. Kashirina).

Chairman of the Methodological Committee,

Dr. S.-H. Sciences, Professor (N. I. Torzhkov).

1. Preface

1) Know the Russian and Latin names of bones, their structure and specific features.

2) Clearly represent the location of the bones in the body of the animal.

3) Know the bone composition of each area of the body.

4) Be able to determine the species affiliation of each individual bone according to its structure.

The structure of bones is studied on anatomical preparations and stands using a textbook, this methodological manual, as well as drawings. The final fixation of the material is carried out during training practice by dissecting corpses and living animals.

Anatomical directions and planes. Body planes and terms for indicating the location of an organ. Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology

IN ANATOMY WHEN DESCRIBING THE STRUCTURE OF THE BODY OF ANIMALS

Planes and Directions

1. Preface

2. Planes and directions in the body of an animal