Ancient civilization is the cradle of European culture. Antiquity is the cradle of European culture. Text of this presentation

Greece is a state in southern Europe, on the Balkan Peninsula, bordered by Albania, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Turkey. Greece is washed by the Aegean and Ionian seas. Greece has about 2 thousand islands, which account for almost 20% of the entire country. Mountains occupy almost a quarter of the country's territory. The highest point of Greece is Mount Olympus, with a height of 2,917 meters. The country is mainly dominated by rivers flowing from the mountains, short, stormy, with picturesque rapids and waterfalls, often carrying their waters to the sea in narrow canyons. The longest river in Greece is the Alyakmon, which is almost 300 km long. There are over 20 lakes in Greece.

Greece is a Parliamentary Republic. The head of state is the President. The head of government is the Prime Minister.

State language: Greek. In addition to it, often used: English, German, Italian, French.

Orthodox Christians make up -97.6% of the population, Muslims -1.3%, Catholics -0.4%, other religions are also represented.

The first settlements on the Aegean coast date back to the Neolithic era. Already in the III millennium BC, state formations of the early feudal type appeared on the island of Crete. Later, cultural centers arose in the south of the Balkan Peninsula, the islands of the Aegean Sea, the coast of Thrace, and the western coast of Asia Minor. Ancient Greece (Hellas) is the general name for the ancient Greek states. The centuries-old history tells about their formation, development, prosperity, wars, victories and defeats. In the II century BC, Greece became a Roman province, in the IV-XV centuries AD, Greece became part of the state formed during the collapse of the Roman Empire - Byzantium. The capital of Byzantium was Constantinople. From the 15th century, Greece was ruled by Turkey. During the Greek National Liberation Revolution (1821-1829), Greece was declared independent. After Turkey's defeat in the war with Russia, according to the Andriapolis Peace Treaty, the country's autonomy was recognized. Greece became an independent state in 1830.

Until 1973, Greece was a constitutional monarchy, the official head of state was King Constantine II, who ascended the throne in 1964 after the death of King Paul I. In April 1967, the junta of "black colonels" led by Georgios Popadopoulos carried out a coup d'etat and established a military dictatorship ... In 1973, the government announced the decision to overthrow Constantine II, Greece became a presidential republic. After the fall of the reactionary regime, in July 1974, a civilian government headed by Konstantinos Karamanlis came to power. Since November 17, 1974, Greece is a parliamentary republic with a presidential form of government.
Popular attractions.

Famous Athenian Acropolis- a visiting card of the Greek capital, as well as an important historical, archaeological and architectural monument. The Acropolis is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The word "acropolis" is translated from ancient Greek as "upper city" or "fortress". Often, the acropolis were built on an inaccessible hill and were well fortified. The Acropolis were an excellent refuge in case of hostilities. The famous Athenian Acropolis is an ancient fortress located on the top of a 156-meter rocky hill overlooking Athens with many beautiful ancient temples and other structures. During archaeological excavations, it was found that the hill was inhabited already in the 4th millennium BC. In 480 BC. during the Greco-Persian War, the Acropolis was seriously destroyed by the Persians. Large new construction on the Acropolis began in 447 BC. at the initiative of Pericles. Mostly buildings from this period have survived to this day.

Among the most interesting structures of the Acropolis, the monumental Propylaea deserves special attention - a marble covered gate with five aisles in the central part and wings-porticoes adjoining them on both sides, one of which once housed the Pinakothek. The propylaea are made of white Pentelian marble interspersed with the darker Eleusinian. To the right of the Propylaea, on a steep ledge faced with marble, is the Temple of Niki Apteros.

Of interest is the legendary Parthenon - the main temple of Ancient Athens and a magnificent monument of ancient architecture, erected in honor of the patroness of Athens and all Attica - the goddess Athena. For the construction of the temple, white Pentelian marble was used. The famous ancient Greek sculptor Phidias was responsible for the decoration of the building.

Of no less interest is the Erechtheion, which has no analogues in ancient Greek architecture. Due to the connection of several sanctuaries in it (the eastern part of the temple is dedicated to the goddess Athena, and the western part to Poseidon and King Erechtheus), it has an original asymmetrical layout. On the south side, the temple is adjoined by the Pandroseion portico, the architrave of which is supported by six marble statues of caryotid girls.

On the southeastern and southern slopes of the Acropolis, you can see two ancient theaters - the Theater of Dionysus and the Odeon of Herodes Atticus. The latter is used for its intended purpose and today, it is the main stage for the annual Athens festival.

Situated at the foot of the hill, the New Acropolis Museum, which opened in June 2009, is of course worth a visit. A fantastic collection of ancient artifacts and various architectural fragments, collected during the archaeological excavations of the Athenian Acropolis, is considered one of the best in the world among such collections.

Arch of Hadrian- a monumental gate, somewhat reminiscent of the Arc de Triomphe in Rome. This building is located in the city of Athens on Amalis Avenue. The arch was built in 131 AD. in honor of the Roman emperor Hadrian on the ancient road leading from the center of Athens, its oldest district of Plaka, to the complex of buildings in the eastern part of the city, among which the Temple of Olympian Zeus (Olympion) can be noted. On the wall in the center above the ceiling, on both sides, there are two inscriptions that call Theseus Hadrian the founders of Athens. From the side of the acropolis it is written "This is Athens, the ancient city of Theseus." On the side of Olympion, the inscription reads that "This is the city of Hadrian, not Theseus." Researchers suggest that the arch divided the city into an old and a new part. There is also a second version: the inscription on the side of the new city testifies to the special role of the Roman emperor in the life and development of Athens. The new part of the city was called Adrianapolis.

The arch is 18 m high, 13.5 m wide and 2.3 m deep. It was built of white Pentelikon marble, which was used in the construction of many Athenian buildings. The arch was carved out of solid marble, without the use of cement or other building mixtures. Individual parts of the structure were fastened with special brackets of a special design. The arch is completely symmetrical. The reconstruction of this monument of ancient architecture was carried out in 2006-2008.

Ancient agora... In the heart of Athens, northwest of the Acropolis, are the ruins of the Ancient Agora. During the period of ancient Greece, from the beginning of the 6th century BC, it was the political, financial, administrative, cultural and religious center of the city, second only in importance to the Acropolis. Here justice was done, trade deals were made, athletic and theatrical competitions were held. It was through the Ancient Agora that the famous Panathenaean path leading to the Acropolis ran, along which solemn processions marched during the Panathenaeus-religious and political festivities in honor of the patroness of the city, the goddess Athena. Today, the Ancient Agora is one of the most interesting sights of the capital, as well as an important archaeological and historical site. The first excavations of the Ancient Agora were carried out in the second half of the 19th century by the Greek Archaeological Society and the German Archaeological Institute. Systematic work began in the 20th century by the American School of Classical Studies in Athens. The results of the excavations were impressive, therefore, at the state level, they decided to demolish a huge number of modern buildings in order to be able to establish the boundaries of the Ancient Agora. The tremendous work carried out by archaeologists made it possible to determine the location and purpose of a large number of various structures, both public administrative and religious - the temples of Hephaestus, Apollo and Aphrodite, the standing of Zeus, the Royal standing, the so-called Tolos (the seat of the government of Ancient Athens), the mint , the altar of the Twelve Gods, Metroon, Agrippa's Odeon and more. Today, on the eastern edge of the Agora, stands the impressive Stand of Attalus, erected in the middle of the 20th century. The gallery is not only of architectural interest, but also home to the Agora Museum. The exposition of the museum contains unique ancient artifacts found during excavations of the Agora and its environs and perfectly illustrating the history of the ancient city. The earliest exhibits date back to the 4th millennium BC.

Meteora monasteries... A few kilometers from the city of Kalambaka are the famous Meteora - one of the largest and most revered monastic complexes in Greece. The monasteries are picturesquely located on the tops of the Thessalian Plain towering on the northwestern edge of the incredibly beautiful huge steep cliffs. These rocks themselves are a rare geological phenomenon and were formed about 60 million years ago. It is thanks to their unique location that the monasteries got their name, because in translation from Greek the word "meteors" literally translates as "soaring in the air."

Researchers believe that the first hermitage of the Holy Spirit was founded here in the middle of the 10th century by a certain Barnabas. Although it is likely that these hard-to-reach rocks were chosen by hermits much earlier. For a long time, settlers settled in caves and rocky depressions, climbing to the tops of stone massifs with the help of rearranged wooden scaffolds, which were later replaced by suspended ladders and a winch with a net. In 1160 the Stagi (Dupiani) skete was built, which became the "progenitor" of the monastic community.

In 1334, the Monk Athanasius of Meteorsk, who left Holy Mount Athos due to the invasion of the corsairs, arrived on the Thessalian lands together with like-minded people. It was Athanasius who gave these rocks the name "Meteora". He also founded the Transfiguration Monastery, or the Great Meteor, the largest of the Meteors, located on the highest and most inaccessible rock, at an altitude of 613 meters. It is from this moment that the true flowering of Meteors begins. By the 16th century, the unique location, which allows the monasteries to be maximally safe from invasions of robbers and robbers, as well as strict observance of the laws and rules laid down by the Monk Athanasius, made it possible to create a thriving monastic community with many monasteries. Today there are 24 known monasteries.

Only six monasteries have survived and operate to this day:

Transfiguration Monastery (Great Meteor),

Varlaam Monastery,

Monastery of the Holy Trinity,

Rusanu Monastery (Saint Barbara),

Monastery of St. Stephen,

Monastery of St. Nicholas Anapavsas.

In addition to fantastic landscapes and a stunning atmosphere of calm and tranquility, these shrines are interesting for their architecture, an abundance of beautiful old frescoes, icons, and other church relics.

In 1988, the Meteora monasteries were included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. In 1922, steps were cut into the rocks, which greatly facilitated access to the monasteries.

Parthenon... The ancient Greek temple of the Parthenon is located on the famous Athenian Acropolis. This main temple in Ancient Athens is a wonderful monument of ancient architecture. It was built in honor of the patroness of Athens and all Attica - the goddess Athena. The date of the beginning of the construction of the Parthenon is 447 BC, it was installed thanks to the found fragments of marble tablets, on which the city authorities submitted financial reports. The construction lasted 10 years. The temple was consecrated in 438 BC. at the feast of Panathenaeus, work on the decoration and decoration of the temple was carried out until 431 BC. The initiator of the construction of the temple was Pericles, an Athenian statesman, a famous commander and reformer. The design and construction of the Parthenon was carried out by the famous ancient Greek architects Iktin and Kallikrates. The decoration of the temple was carried out by the greatest sculptor of those times - Phidias. Very high quality Pentelian marble was used for the construction. The building was built in the form of a peripter - a rectangular structure surrounded by columns. The total number of columns is 50, 8 columns on the facades and 17 columns on the sides of the building. The ancient Greeks took into account that straight lines are distorted at a distance, so they resorted to some optical techniques. For example, the columns do not have the same diameter along their entire length, they taper towards the top, and the corner columns are also inclined towards the center. Thanks to all this, the structure seems to be perfect. There used to be a statue of Athena Parthenos in the center of the temple. The monument was 12 meters high and was made of gold and ivory on a wooden base. In one hand, the goddess held a statue of Nike, and with the other she leaned on a shield, near which the serpent Erichthonius was curled up. On the head of Athena there was a helmet with three combs (the middle one with the image of the sphinx, the side ones with griffins). A scene of Pandora's birth was carved on the pedestal. Unfortunately, the statue has not survived to our time and is known from descriptions, images on coins and a few copies. For many centuries, the temple was attacked more than once, part of the temple was destroyed, and historical relics were plundered. Today, some parts of the masterpieces of ancient sculptural art can be seen in famous museums around the world. Most of Phidias' magnificent work has been destroyed by people and time.

Currently, restoration work is underway, in the plans for the reconstruction of the maximum reconstruction of the temple in its original form in ancient times. The Parthenon, part of the Acropolis of Athens, is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Propylaea of ​​the Acropolis of Athens Is another monument of ancient Greek architecture. The word "propylaea" comes from the prefix "pro" (from Lat. To or before) and "pilea" (from the Greek. Gate), which literally translates - "in front of the gate", although in fact it is just a gate - an entrance, a passage. Usually, "propylaea" are the front gates formed by porticos and colonnades. Such structures are typical of ancient Greek architecture. The Propylaea was built on the site of an old gate that was destroyed by the Persians. The building was designed by the ancient Greek architect Mnesicles. Construction continued from 437 BC. to 432 BC The monumental gate was made of white Pentelian marble interspersed with darker Eleusinian marble, perhaps for contrast. The structure consists of a central part and two adjoining wings, one of which housed the Pinakothek art gallery. The facade of the central part consists of six Doric columns, which in their proportions are similar to those of the Parthenon. These columns divide the center section into five openings. The middle opening is the widest, it was intended for solemn processions. It was once closed by a bronze gate. In Christian times, both wings were converted into churches. In the 13-14 centuries, the Propylaea was the seat of the Duke of Athens, De la Roche. During the Ottoman period, it was the headquarters of the Turkish garrison and an ammunition depot, which led to the explosion and destruction of the Propylaea in 1656. After the end of the War of Independence, all medieval and Turkish buildings were demolished and archaeological excavations began. In 1975, during the reconstruction of the Acropolis, part of the restoration work was carried out on the Propylaea. The global seven-year project for the reconstruction of the Acropolis of Athens was completed in 2009. The Propylaea of ​​the Athenian Acropolis are included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Ancient Greek Temple of Niki Apteros located in the Athenian Acropolis. It is also called the Temple of Athena-Nike. In translation from the Greek "Nika" means "victory", and Athena is the goddess of victory in war and wisdom. The temple is the very first Ionian temple in the Acropolis and is located on a steep hill to the right of the Propylaea. Here, the locals worshiped the goddess in the hope of winning a long war with the Spartans and their allies (Peloponnesian War). Unlike the Acropolis, where the sanctuary could only be accessed through the Propylaea, the Nike sanctuary was always open. The temple was built between 427 and 424 BC. the famous ancient Greek architect Callicrates, on the site of the more ancient temple of Athena, which was destroyed by the Persians in 480 BC. The building is an amphiprostyle - a type of ancient Greek temple, on the front and back facades of which there are four columns in one row. The stylobate of the temple has three steps. The friezes are decorated with sculptural reliefs depicting the gods: Athena, Zeus, Poseidon and scenes of military battles. The surviving fragments of the sculptural frieze are displayed in the Acropolis Museum and the British Museum, while copies are fixed on the temple. Like most of the structures of the Acropolis, the Temple of Niki Apteros is built of Pentelikon marble. After the completion of construction work, around 410 BC, the temple was surrounded by a parapet to protect people from falling off the cliff. From the outside, it was decorated with bas-reliefs depicting Nika. Inside the temple was a statue of the goddess Nike. In one hand the statue had a helmet - a symbol of war, in the other a pomegranate - a symbol of fertility. Usually the Greeks depicted a goddess with wings, but this statue had no wings. This was done on purpose so that the victory would not leave the city. This is where the name of the temple of Niki Apteros comes from - an unimaginable victory.

Erechtheion. On the northern side of the Acropolis, next to the Parthenon, is the ancient Greek temple of the Erechtheion. This architectural and historical monument is rightfully considered the pearl of ancient Greek architecture and one of the main temples of ancient Athens. It was built in 421-406 BC. and is dedicated to a whole galaxy of gods. According to legend, the temple was built on the site of a dispute between Athena and Poseidon for power over Attica. The Erechtheion was replaced by an older temple, which was located on this site, but was destroyed during the Greco-Persian war. Construction began by Pericles, but it was completed after his death. Perhaps the architect was the architect Mnesicles. The Erechtheion has no analogues in ancient Greek architecture. It is made in the Ionic style and has an asymmetrical layout, not only because of the unevenness of the surface of the earth on which it was built, but also because of the variety of sanctuaries connected in it. The temple had two main entrances - from the north and east, they were decorated with porticoes. The eastern part of the Erechtheion was dedicated to the goddess Athena, and the western part to Poseidon and King Erechtheus. On the south side of the temple is the famous portico of Pandroseion, named after the daughter of King Cecropus Pandrosa. Architrave is supported by six marble statues of caryatid girls. This is the main attraction of the Erechtheion. Today all of them have been replaced with copies, while the originals are in museums. One of the caryatids is kept in the British Museum; the rest are in the Acropolis Museum. The entire structure was surrounded by a frieze with overhead figures, but it has not survived to this day. The wreckage is kept in the Acropolis Museum. In ancient times, there was a salt spring in the temple, which, according to legend, Poseidon carved out of the rock with his trident, and in the open courtyard of the temple there was a sacred olive tree donated to the city by Athena. Once in the temple there was a wooden statue of Athena, which allegedly fell from the sky. The statue was made from a sacred olive tree. The Erechtheion also contained a golden lamp by Callimachus and a statue of Hermes. It also housed the altars of the god of crafts Hephaestus and the hero Booth. The temple got its name in honor of the Athenian king Erechtheus, whose grave was located under the northern portico. And today you can see the grave of the first king of Attica, Kekrop, near the western facade of the temple. The temple underwent major changes in the 7th century AD, when it was converted into a Christian church. During the Ottoman Empire, the temple was used as the harem of the Turkish Sultan. The first real restoration of the temple was carried out after Greece gained independence. Today the Erechtheion is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List as part of the Athenian Acropolis.

Popular cities and resorts.

Attica- the region of Greece where Athens is located. Attica is located in the southeast of the country, and in the south it is washed by the waters of the Saronic Gulf. The climate in Atika is Mediterranean, which heals the body thanks to its dryness. Here plantations of vineyards, fruit and olive trees grow everywhere. A vacation in Attica is a great opportunity to combine acquaintance with Athenian antiquities and relaxation at the sea. There are a large number of public and private beaches on the coast of Attica, and excellent resort hotels have been built.

Athens- the capital of Greece and one of the most ancient cities in Europe. The city is located in the southern part of the Attica Peninsula, in a valley surrounded by small mountains from the west, east and north. From the south, the city is washed by the waters of the Saronic Gulf.

Athens got its name from Athena, the goddess of wisdom in Greek mythology. The history of the city goes back several thousand years. After the golden age in which Socrates, Plato and Aristotle lived, the city experienced a decline in the Middle Ages. The city of Athens experienced its rebirth in 1834 as the capital of independent Greece. It was in Athens, in 1896, that the first Olympics of the "new" time took place.

Now Athens is a large metropolis with a population of 4.5 million people. Athens is a huge open-air museum of antique architecture and is simply an amazingly beautiful and hospitable city.

The center of Athens is divided into a number of distinctly distinct areas. Behind the Acropolis, which is the core of the ancient city, lies Plaka, the oldest residential area in Athens. Here you can find monuments of the ancient, Byzantine or Turkish period - such as the octahedral Tower of the Winds, the tiny Byzantine church - the Little Metropolis or the graceful stone door of the Turkish religious school - madrasah, the building itself has not survived. Most of the old houses in Plaka have now been converted into shops for tourists, cafes, night bars and restaurants.

Descending from the Acropolis to the northwest, you come out to the Monastiraki area, where the shops of artisans have been located since medieval times.

Having gone further along the street of the University in the southeast direction, you can go to the center of the modern city. Passing the richly decorated buildings of the National Library, the University and the Academy, you can get to Syntagma (Constitution) Square - the administrative and tourist center of Athens. On the square there is a beautiful building of the Old Royal Palace, hotels, outdoor cafes, banks and institutions. Further east, towards the slopes of Lycabettus Hill, is Kolonaki Square, a new cultural center that includes the Byzantine Museum, Benaki Museum, National Art Gallery, Conservatory and Concert Hall. Further south are the New Royal Palace, the National Park and the Great Panathenaean Stadium, reconstructed and restored to host the revived Olympic Games in 1896.

Today's Athens is a modern city with a huge pace of life, modern and romantic at the same time, with lively streets and squares, with bright multicolored shop windows, but also with secluded quiet alleys, with calm and secluded quarters such as Plaka and Metz. In the countless shops of Athens, the customer will find whatever he wants; Athenian restaurants and taverns can satisfy any visitor.

Corfu island(Kerkyra in Greek) is located in the northwestern part of the Ionian Sea. The amazing landscape of the island combines mountains and plains, secluded coves and long beaches, monuments of ancient and modern architecture.

As the crossroads of East and West at the entrance to the Adriatic, the island always attracts attention. Romans and Normans, Goths and Venetians, Turks and French, English and Russians passed through its lands. Corfu brings together the traditions of many cultures, which gives the island an incomparable charm. Corfu has a Mediterranean climate with almost no rain in summer. The best time to travel is: late March - mid June or early September - late October.

The unique beauty of the capital of the island of Corfu - the city of Corfu - is given by absolutely dissimilar architectural elements, as well as the remnants of various cultures that flourished on the island, united into one whole. The old town in Corfu is the largest "living" medieval complex in Greece, protected by the state. The layout of the streets here is chaotic, and the picturesque narrow streets - "cantunya" (you can only walk along them) lead to monuments, Byzantine churches, Venetian staircases and stone-clad springs.

Corfu is a city of two fortresses. On one side, the city is fenced off by the Old (Sea) Fortress - a Byzantine fortress, rebuilt and fortified by the Venetians in 1546. On the other hand, near the Old Port, there is the New (Coastal) Fortress, built between 1576 and 1588 to protect the city from Turkish attack.

"Muraya" - a sea embankment with lanterns, stretching along the medieval wall, is very picturesque: on one side it is bordered by a bright green sea, on the other - bright green vegetation.

The island of Corfu is an ideal place for a relaxing family and luxury holiday, as well as for sports lovers. The coastline of the island with excellent beaches and the azure sea water of the Ionian Sea stretches for 217 km. A small secluded cove can be found here, even during the height of the holiday season, when the crowded resorts of the east coast are filled with tourists. The most beautiful and sparkling yellow sand beaches are found in Agia Gordia, Korissi Lagoon, Agios Georgios, Marathia, Kassiopia, Sidari, Roda and other places.

Corfu can be noisy and crowded, especially at the height of the summer season, when not only charter flights, but also cruise ships from various European cities constantly arrive on the island.

The cosmopolitan atmosphere of the island resorts offers the opportunity to combine relaxation with a variety of activities and pleasures of intense nightlife. At the disposal of tourists and visitors to the island are ultra-modern tourist complexes, luxury hotels, family hotels and inexpensive studios.

In the town of Kontokali there are a lot of taverns, shops, a harbor, where there are more than 600 yachts. The most beautiful olive grove in Corfu is located in Messonghi. And in the village of Moraitika, tourists will be pleased with a large number of bars, taverns and discos.

The island of Crete is one of the largest islands in Greece. Crete is washed by three seas - Ionian, Aegean and Mediterranean. The climate here is one of the mildest and healthiest in Europe. A whole chain of resort villages stretches along the coast of the island. On the north coast of Crete, the water is warmer than on the south because of the passing current.

Thousands of tourists come to Crete every year to see the remains of the Minoan civilization that flourished here from about 2600-1400 BC. - one of the first civilizations in Europe. Crete is home to a large number of ruins from the Minoan era (the palaces of Knossos and Phaestos). The Venetian castle in Rethymno, the Samaria gorge, as well as many other smaller gorges are also of interest for tourists.

Inhabited for millennia, Crete preserves a varied heritage from the Roman, Venetian and Turkic periods of rule - Venetian fortresses, Turkish mosques and Byzantine monasteries.

If you prefer a combination of relaxation on the island with unforgettable excursions to the places of ancient civilizations, then the island of Crete is the best choice. Crete offers holidaymakers unlimited opportunities for a great holiday in first-class hotels, holiday villages or seaside complexes, bungalows with private gardens, designed in such a way as not to disturb the purity and harmony of the environment. Crete is perfect for recreation and youth with its small budget and thirst for entertainment, and respectable tourists, accustomed to comfort.

The large modern city of Heraklion - the capital of Crete - is a commercial center filled with hotels, shops and transport, and also a starting point for tourists wishing to get to know the island.

Rethymno is a romantic city, in the construction of which the Venetians, Turks, and local residents took part. This has left an indelible mark on the appearance of the city with narrow Venetian streets, minarets of ancient mosques and small markets with spices and sweets.

Chania is a jasmine city with ray-like streets leading from the ancient port deep into the city, framed by trade shops and leather workshops.

Kos island the second largest island in the Dodecanese archipelago and one of the largest international tourist centers in Greece. Due to its mild climate with a very large number of sunny days and an abundance of freshwater springs, Kos is one of the greenest of the Greek islands. It is not for nothing that it has earned the right to be called the "garden of the Aegean Sea".

Kos is also known throughout the world as the birthplace of Hippocrates, the founder of medical science. Nowadays, almost 2.5 thousand years after the death of the great scientist, the theatrical festival "The Oath of Hippocrates" is annually held here.

The largest resort of Kos is Kardamena, which has transformed in a short period of time from a small fishing village into a well-developed resort town with hotels, restaurants, bars and discos. The sandy beaches of Kardamena are empty only when there is no swimming season. The best beaches on Kos stretch westward, with the white sandy Paradise Beach being one of the most popular.

In other coastal towns there are hotels of various levels with excellent service, in the best traditions of European resorts. There are gorgeous beaches in the southern part of the island in the Kefalos Bay to the east of the city of the same name.

The city of Kos is the largest city on the island, its administrative center and at the same time a port. The city is young, its modern part is rebuilt in the Mediterranean style. The Archaeological Museum is located in the central square of Eleutherias (Freedom), which contains a unique exhibition of exhibits illustrating the rich history of the island.

Those who arrive in the city by sea are greeted at the port by the ancient fortress of the Knights of St. John, built in the 15th century. There are many cozy restaurants and bars in the port where you can taste national Greek cuisine, local wines and admire the picturesque panorama. Lovers of boat trips can rent yachts, boats and traditional boats.

Near the port there is a large archaeological area with ruins of buildings from the Hellenistic and Romanesque eras - Gymnasia, Odeon, as well as: the temple of Aphrodite, the temple of Hercules, Roman baths and Roman villas with fragments of mosaics. The aqueduct connects the fortress with a small square where an ancient plane tree grows, according to legend, planted by Hippocrates himself.

Island of rhodes- the main island of the Southern Sporades (Dodecanese) archipelago, located in the Aegean Sea, not far from the coast of Turkey. According to legend, when the island of Rhodes rose from the sea, Apollo was fascinated by its beauty and endowed him with his blessing. Rhodes is a magnificent nature and climate, many architectural monuments of various periods, from ancient Greek to modern.

Small forests of pines, cypresses, evergreen oaks, Mediterranean-type shrubs are the main vegetation of the island. On the coastal lowlands there are vineyards, orchards, citrus plantations, olives. Rhodes is the largest of the Dodecanese islands and ranks first in Greece for the number of sunny days.

The capital of the island of Rhodes is the city of Rhodes, founded in 408 BC. Behind the powerful fortress walls is the old medieval town - one of the attractions of Rhodes. A walk through cobbled streets and narrow alleys takes you centuries ago. Here you will see: the Palace of the Grand Master, the ruins of a medieval castle and the ancient Acropolis, an archaeological museum and other monuments of history and architecture.

Also, do not miss the opportunity to visit the famous Valley of the Butterflies, located near the village of Kalamonas. Archeology enthusiasts should definitely visit Kamiros, the famous "Pompeii of Rhodes", as well as ancient Ialysos with its Byzantine monasteries, the ruins of the Acropolis and the temple of the goddess Athena.

Of great interest is the town of Lindos with the ruins of the temple of Athena - Lindia, located on the site of an ancient city. Wonderful nature, excellent sandy beaches, the beautiful bay of St. Paul welcomes thousands of tourists every year. In summer, every two weeks there are celebrations with national music, wine and dancing. With an excellent climate, a good range of hotels, as well as numerous historical monuments, the island of Rhodes has been recognized by UNESCO as a World Cultural Heritage Site.

Rhodes is washed by the waters of the Aegean and Mediterranean seas. The Aegean coast is characterized by choppy waves and pebble beaches, while the Mediterranean coast is characterized by sand and calm waters. The Aegean coast attracts surfers, and the Mediterranean coast attracts lovers of quiet beach and family holidays with children.

The tourist center of Kallithea - Faliraki is one of the popular resorts of the island, known for its hotels and beaches, as well as great opportunities for sports and entertainment lovers. Kallithea is also famous for its mineral springs.

Two of the most famous resorts of the island - Ixia and Ialyssos are located 10 minutes' drive from the city of Rhodes. Both tourist centers are renowned for their excellent surfing conditions, as this is where the best wave and the best wind on the island.

There are several other tourist areas on the island: Lindos, Archangelos, Embona and others. They are characterized by small secluded coves and sandy beaches.

A large network of hotel complexes, European level of service, an abundance of restaurants with European and Greek national cuisine, traditional fish taverns, uzeri, snack bars and bars, as well as numerous variety shows, shows, casinos and entertainment are always at your service. The colorful picture of nightlife is in perfect harmony with the picturesque sandy beaches, transparent clear sea and the beauty of the natural corners of Rhodes.

Peloponnese- the southernmost part of mainland Greece. Once upon a time it was an island, but the geological process taking place in this area, twice connected and separated it from the mainland. Later, as a result of the retreat of the sea, the Isthmus of Corinth arose. In the 19th century, a canal was made in this strip of land, which for the third time, but already artificially, turned the Peloponnese into an island. The climate in the Peloponnese is Mediterranean in the coastal regions and moderately continental in the central regions.

The Peloponnese peninsula is one of the few untouched places left in Greece. This is a place where life flows in its former unhurried rhythm, where every piece of land revives myths and great historical events in our minds. The Peloponnese carries the sound of the sea, the grandeur of the mountains, the aroma of vineyards, olive and citrus groves. The towns, villages and thermal springs that made the region famous in ancient times attract thousands of visitors today.

Many Peloponnesian cities, villages, resorts that were important in antiquity have not lost it in our time. Three large highways lead to places teeming with important archaeological sites, where the land itself is a witness to different historical eras. It is on the Peloponnese that the legendary ancient cities are located: Mycenae, Sparta, Epidaurus, Argos, Corinth, Patra.

Historical heritage is by far the most attractive side of the Peloponnese. Arriving here, you must visit such masterpieces of world architecture as the famous ancient theater, magical classical temples, medieval castles, mountain monasteries and Byzantine churches, as well as the circular fortress wall in Messene, which rises and falls along the hillsides for 9 km.

It is worth strolling along the cozy streets of the ancient cities of the Peloponnese, buying handmade souvenirs in the memory of the trip, and, lying on the velvet sandy beach by the clear azure waters, admire the picturesque landscapes of high mountains covered with evergreen oaks and pines.

Even before reaching the canal on the Isthmus of Corinth, you can get your first impression of the beauty of the Peloponnese by visiting the city of Loutraki. This city is a hydropathic center with many hotels.

Kayafas - the same resort - hydrotherapy; nestled in the shade of pine trees, this city was already known in antiquity for its spring with healing waters.

The Peloponnese cannot yet boast such an extensive hotel base as, for example, the island of Crete. However, here you can also find hotels for every taste, including those belonging to famous Greek chains.

The coastline of the Peloponnese is very indented: there are many narrow coves with beautiful beaches framed by steep cliffs.
The climate of the Peloponnese resorts is milder than in the rest of Greece, which contributes to the influx of tourists. All conditions for family and children's recreation are created here.

City of Thessaloniki- the capital of Greek Macedonia. The appearance of the city captures the turbulent history of this region, since for centuries its masters were the Romans, Byzantines, Ottoman Turks. They all contributed to the culture of the city.

Thessaloniki got its name from the names of the young beauty Thessalonica, the half-sister of Alexander the Great and the wife of the Macedonian king Kassander, who founded this city in 315 BC. From 170 BC the city became the capital of the Roman province of Macedonia. The first Christian churches were built here in the 5th century. In the Middle Ages, Saracens, Normans, and also Ottoman Turks came here. During the Second World War, the city was occupied by the Nazis, 50 thousand local Jewish residents were killed in the city. In 1997, Thessaloniki was chosen as the cultural capital of Europe.

Thessaloniki is a unique open-air museum of Byzantine art. Many interesting historical sights are scattered around the city. Of interest are: the tomb of King Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, with golden sarcophagi, valuable utensils and weapons, as well as excavations of ancient Pella - the first capital of the Macedonian kingdom. From the village of Litohoro near Thessaloniki, the route of climbing Mount Olympus begins.

The city of Thessaloniki is located on the shores of the Thermal Gulf, famous for its clear water. Many local beaches have been awarded the European Community Blue Flags, an award for the cleanliness of the sea and coastline.

Tourists are waiting for unforgettable all kinds of entertainment: diving, surfing and scuba diving. Children will be delighted with each of the four water parks, where a variety of exciting rides, water slides and artificial wave pools await them.

Also Thessaloniki is the center of the intellectual and artistic life of modern Greece. The Thessaloniki International Film Festival is held here every autumn. In the city you can visit many different exhibitions, go to museums, theaters.

Thessaloniki has a large selection of shops, restaurants, cafes and discos. The most expensive boutiques are located on Tsimisku Street. The largest selection of entertainment establishments in the area, preserved in the style of the 18th-9th centuries - Ladadika.

Where to stay.

Today Greece attracts tourists not only with its amazing nature, but also with a developed tourist infrastructure. The hotel infrastructure of Greece is represented by hotels of various levels, both on the mainland and on the islands. Many hotels are all-inclusive, although there is also a fine selection of half-board or breakfast options. In Greece, there is an "old" system of grading hotels - the letter. That is, the class level of the hotel is indicated using letters, from L - luxury (analogous to European five stars) and to E - hotels that are not assigned any category.

Most of the family-type hotels are located in Halkidiki, Crete, Rhodes, Corfu. Thanks to the rapid development of tourism infrastructure in Greece, many new hotels have been built, as well as old ones have been modernized. In the competitive struggle, hotel owners began to pay more attention to creating special conditions for families with children, which today makes it possible to say with confidence that Greece is an ideal place for a family vacation. As a rule, such hotels are equipped with playgrounds, attractions, sports grounds, a babysitting service is provided, and animators work.

For those who care about health and wish to combine relaxation with wellness, there are many hotels in Greece that have at their disposal well-equipped fitness rooms, gyms, spas, saunas, beauty salons and much more.

Leisure in the private sector is also very popular, namely the rental of villas, cottages or apartments in the immediate vicinity of the seashore. This type of vacation is optimal for large companies, families with children, as it allows you to save on living for a large number of people. The "plus" of accommodation in a cottage - here you feel like in your own home, a minus - service (food, cleaning, laundry) is not included in the rent.

Greek pensions (paradosiakoi oikismoi) can be considered no less popular. They can be found both in big cities and in the provinces. Pensions are either separate apartments with a shower for 2-3 people, or small cottages with rooms for 4 people.

Greece has many well-equipped camping sites. It should be noted that parking outside of them is prohibited. Usually, the cost of an overnight stay in a campsite is 5-7 euros per person when staying in a house, within 8 euros for a "caravan" and a little less for an overnight stay in a tent.

There are 10 youth hostels in Greece, which are members of the International Association. Here you can also find a large number of hostels that are members of the Greek Association of Youth Hostels. If you want to stay in such a hostel, you will need an IYHF card. In most cases, you can purchase it directly at the hostel, or pay a little extra on top of the existing rate. Towels and bed linen are charged separately. Accommodation prices range from 7-9 euros per day.

For pilgrims and simply religious tourists, there is the possibility of living in monasteries. You need to know that while living in such a place, you will need to fully comply with the routine of the monastery, as well as the requirements for dress code. It is also possible that men can stay only in a men's monastery, and women, respectively, in a women's monastery.

Excursions and attractions in Greece

The history of Greece is rooted in the very distant past. The country is rightfully considered the cradle of Western civilization and democracy. Unique natural landscapes, excellent climate, an abundance of historical and architectural sights, impressive religious shrines and, of course, traditional Greek cuisine attract a large number of tourists from all over the world every year.

The capital of Greece, Athens, is one of the most beautiful and ancient European cities with a huge number of museums, architectural structures, unique ancient monuments and temples from different historical eras. The real gem of Athens is the Ancient Acropolis with its majestic structures that perfectly illustrate the skill of the ancient architects. The National Archaeological Museum contains a rare collection of ancient artifacts of colossal historical value.

Interesting sights of Greece include the ruins of the ancient Greek city of Delphi, located on the slope of Mount Parnassus, which in the ancient world was considered the focus of the earth. Here was the sanctuary of Apollo with his famous Delphic Oracle. The ancient Greek city of Eleusis, famous for its Eleusinian mysteries, is also considered an important historical monument.

Among the religious shrines of Greece, the most impressive is the monastery complex of Meteor, located near the city of Kalambaka. Meteora gained its fame due to its unique location on the tops of sheer cliffs in the Thessaly Valley.

Greece includes about 2,000 islands. Crete is the largest island in Greece. The island is rich in beautiful architectural structures. Crete is also famous for its picturesque gorges.

Rhodes is the pearl of the Mediterranean and is one of the most beautiful islands in Greece. Its picturesque bays, clear azure waters, the most important archaeological sites and knightly castles create an unforgettable flavor. Rhodes gained world fame thanks to the statue of the Colossus of Rhodes, one of the seven wonders of the world, which was located on the island in antiquity.

The natural landscapes of Corfu are also impressive, in perfect harmony with the unique architectural landmarks inherited from the various cultures that have ever flourished on the island. The main square of the island's capital, Spianada (Esplanade), is the second largest square in Europe.

In the southern part of the Aegean Sea is the Cyclades archipelago, in the center of which is the island of Delos. It is one of the most important mythological, historical and archaeological sites in Greece. The uninhabited island of Delos is a unique place being a huge open-air museum. Among the popular tourist destinations of the Cycladic archipelago are islands such as Naxos, Mykonos, Thira and Paros. The island of Thira gained its fame thanks to the active volcano Santorini, whose eruption 3500 years ago is considered the most powerful in the history of the earth. There is an assumption that it was this volcanic eruption that destroyed the legendary Atlantis.

Greek cuisine

Greek cuisine is simple, healthy, unassuming and uses the very best products: olives, fruits and vegetables, fresh fish cooked in the best local olive oil. Meat - usually lamb or pork - is stewed, baked, or barbecued. Cheeses are very important in the local cuisine: salted feta is used in salads, halloumi is often grilled and amari is a soft mild cheese like ricotta, used in sweet and spicy dishes.

Useful information.

Tipping to waiters is usually 5-10% of the order amount. Tipping is not accepted for taxi drivers.

A visa is required to enter the country.

Churches and monasteries are open to the public, each according to its own rules. Churches are open during services. As a rule, museums are open every day, except Mondays, from 8 am to 3 pm. In the summer, some museums are open until 19. The Acropolis is open on summer evenings, on a full moon.

The shops are open on weekdays and Saturdays from 9 am to 3 pm and from 5.30 pm to 8.30 pm. Supermarkets are open from Monday to Saturday from 8 am to 8 pm.

On weekdays, banks are open from 8.30 am to 2 pm (Friday to 1.30 pm).

In Greece, value added tax (VAT) ranges from 8% to 36%. VAT refunds are made for purchases in stores that have the inscription "tax-free". The store issues a special receipt upon purchase, which must be shown at customs when leaving Greece along with the purchased item. Customs officers put a stamp on the receipt and send it to the store, which is obliged to transfer the VAT amount to you within a month.

Pharmacies in the country are open all days except Sunday, and on Monday, Wednesday and Saturday they close at 13:00. In case of acute illness, you need to call an ambulance, and not look for the nearest hospital.

Beware of pickpockets and bag thieves. Especially you need to be vigilant in the center of Athens, in public transport, in historical places of Greece popular among tourists.

Emergency phones.

Tourist Police - 171 (in Athens), 922-7777 (outside Athens)
Police - 100
Fire brigade - 199
Ambulance - 166

National characteristics of Greece. Traditions.

Head bobbing from bottom to top means “no” in Greece and “yes” from top to bottom. In Greek, the sound "ne" means "yes," and negation sounds like "ooh."

The Greek "tomorrow" ("avrio") means something indefinite or a rejection.

In a Greek home, it is not customary to take off your shoes.

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MHC presentation Antiquity: the cradle of European culture.

Antiquity. Antiquity (from Latin antiquus - antiquity) is a set of historical forms of social consciousness, religion, mythology, philosophy, science, art in the countries of Western Asia, in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. The era of antiquity began with the Olympic Games in 776 BC. BC, and ended with the fall of Rome in 476 AD. NS. Since antiquity covers a fairly long period of time and human history, it is customary to subdivide it into several stages. Also in antiquity, one should look for the origins of many values ​​that later made up European culture. Ancient Greek temple.

The Cretan-Mycenaean period is the prehistory of antiquity. End of III-II millennium BC NS. - Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations. The emergence of the first state formations. Development of navigation. Establishing trade and diplomatic contacts with the civilizations of the Ancient East. For Crete and mainland Greece at this stage, different periods of development are distinguished, since on the island of Crete, where a non-Greek population lived at that time, statehood was formed earlier than in Balkan Greece, which suffered at the end of the 3rd century. BC NS. the conquest of the Achaean Greeks. In fact, the Cretan-Mycenaean period is the prehistory of antiquity.

Minoan civilization (Crete). The Minoan civilization was a state ruled by a king. The Minoans traded with Ancient Egypt and exported copper from Cyprus. The architecture is characterized by reinterpreted Egyptian borrowings (for example, the use of columns). The Minoan army was armed with slings and bows. A characteristic weapon among the Minoans was also a double-sided ax labrys. Like other peoples of Old Europe, the cult of the bull (tavrokatapsia) was widespread among the Minoans. Minoans smelted bronze, produced ceramics and built palace complexes from the middle of the 20th century BC. NS. (Knossos, Festus, Mallia). King-priest. Fresco in the Palace of Knossos.

Early Minoan period (XXX-XXIII centuries BC). General characteristics of the period: Dominance of generic relations. The beginning of the development of metals. The rudiments of a craft, the development of navigation, a relatively high level of agrarian relations. Jugs for storing grain and olive oil.

Middle Minoan period (XXII-XVIII centuries BC). General characteristics: the period of "old" or "early" palaces. The emergence of early state formations in different parts of the island. Construction of monumental palace complexes in several regions of Crete. Early forms of writing. Ruins of the Palace of Knossos on the island of Crete.

Late Minoan period (XVII-XII centuries BC). The flourishing of the Minoan civilization. At this time, the unification of Crete took place, the sea power of King Minos was created. This period was characterized by the flourishing of monumental construction ("new" palaces in Knossos, Mallia, Festa) and active contacts with the ancient Eastern states. Natural disaster of the middle of the 15th century. BC NS. becomes the cause of the decline of the Minoan civilization, which created the preconditions for the conquest of Crete by the Achaeans. King Minos.

Mycenaean civilization (Balkan Greece). Early Helladic period (XXX-XXI centuries BC). Dominance in Balkan Greece of tribal relations among the pre-Greek population. The emergence of the first large settlements and proto-palace complexes. Middle Helladic period (XX-XVII centuries BC). The resettlement in the south of the Balkan Peninsula of the first waves of speakers of the Greek language - the Achaeans, accompanied by a slight decrease in the general level of socio-economic development of Greece. The beginning of the disintegration of tribal relations among the Achaeans. Late Helladic period (XVI-XII centuries BC). The emergence of an early class society among the Achaeans, the formation of a productive economy in agriculture, the emergence of a number of state formations with centers in Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, Thebes, etc., the formation of an original written language, the flourishing of the Mycenaean culture. The Achaeans subjugate Crete and destroy the Minoan civilization. In the XII century. BC NS. a new tribal group invades Greece - the Dorians, the death of the Mycenaean state.

Theater (Greek θέατρον - the main meaning is a place for spectacles, then - a spectacle, from θεάομαι - I look, I see). One of the areas of art in which the feelings, thoughts and emotions of the author (creator, artist) are transmitted to the viewer or a group of spectators through the actions of an actor or a group of actors.

Greek theater. The Greek theater was a huge open building. The stage consisted of a long narrow platform and was walled on three sides, of which the back (with a canopy) was called skene, the side ones were called paraskenion, and what we call the stage was called proskenion. The semicircle of seats for spectators raised by ledges was called the amphitheater, the place between the stage and the amphitheater was called the orchestra; the choir was housed here, which was directed by a luminary (the leader of the choir). With the development of dramatic action, a tent (skene) was attached to the orchestra, where the actors dressed and changed clothes (each of the actors performed several roles). The Greek theater did not know sets in the usual sense of the word. This influenced the design technique of the Greek tragedy. The actors wore masks, koturny (high shoes with wooden heels) and long cloaks up to the toes (their color depended on the role - the kings, for example, wore red cloaks). All this was supposed to give the actor high growth and greatness, which made him like a god or a hero, whom he portrayed. In accordance with this, the actor's gesture was exaggerated, and his recitation was solemn, pathetic. Aspendos.

Antique drama. Ancient Greek drama developed from a ritual performance in honor of the god Dionysus. It was usually accompanied by round dances, dances and songs (praises). The content of these songs was the legend of the adventures of Dionysus. Their performers reproduced this legend with dances and facial expressions. Then the presenter emerged from the choir, to whom the choir answered. His role was often performed by professional actors who already existed at that time (dancers, various amusing masters who entertained the crowd at gatherings). Some researchers believe that in ancient times a priest spoke about the sufferings of the god Dionysus, who sacrificed a goat on the altar (a goat in Greek is tragos, hence the tragedy). Dionysus

Aeschylus. (Old Greek Αἰσχύλος, 525 BC - 456 BC) - Ancient Greek playwright, founder of the genre, the father of European tragedy. The era of Aeschylus's youth was a time of fierce struggle between the Peloponnesian tragedy and the primordial Attic praise. The most famous work of Aeschylus is the trilogy "Prometheus" about a titan who came into confrontation with Zeus himself (unfortunately, only the second part of the tragedy, "Prometheus chained", has survived to this day). The last known trilogy of Aeschylus (458 BC) is his "Oresteia" - fortunately, preserved in its entirety (tragedies: "Agamemnon", "Choephora" (libation bearers) and "Eumenides"). The content of this trilogy is the fate of the Atrid family in the person of its most glorious representatives Agamemnon and his son Orestes.

Sophokles (ancient Greek Σοφοκλής, 495 BC - 405 BC) - Athenian, together with Aeschylus and Euripides forms a triad of the most famous ancient tragedians. He introduced new adaptations to the stage production of plays: he increased the number of actors to three, and the number of choreasts from 12 to 15, reduced the choral parts of the tragedy, improved the scenery, masks, and introduced painted decorations. Seven tragedies have come down to us, of which, in terms of content, three belong to the Theban cycle of legends: "Oedipus", "Oedipus in Colon", "Antigone"; one to the Hercules cycle - "Deianira", and three to the Trojan cycle: "Eant", "Electra" and "Philoctetus". In addition, about 1000 fragments have survived from various writers.

Euripides (ancient Greek Εὐριπίδης, 480 - 406 BC) is an ancient Greek playwright, a representative of a new Attic tragedy, in which psychology prevails over the idea of ​​divine fate. Paid great attention to the development of female roles. Of the 92 plays attributed to Euripides in antiquity, the names of 80 can be restored. We have survived 18 tragedies, of which Res is believed to have been written by a later poet, and the satirical drama Cyclops is the only surviving example of this genre. Euripides' best dramas are lost to us; the most famous of the survivors is Ippolit. Among the surviving plays, the earliest is "Alkesta", and the later ones include "Iphigenia in Aulis" and "Bacchae".

Ancient Greek comedy. The ancient Greek comedy was born on the same festivities of Dionysus as the tragedy, only in a different setting. If tragedy is basically a ritual worship, then comedy is a product of amusements that began when the liturgical part of the Dionysians, gloomy and serious, ended. In Ancient Greece, they organized processions (komos, hence the comedy) with wild songs and dances, put on fantastic costumes, entered into disputes, fights, threw jokes, jokes, often obscene, which, according to the ancient Greeks, was encouraged by Dionysus. During these amusements, the main elements of the comic genre arose: the Doric everyday scene (mime) and the Attic accusatory choral song.

Aristophanes Aristophanes (ancient Greek Ἀριστοφάνης) (444 BC - between 387 and 380 years, Athens) - ancient Greek comedian, "the father of comedy." The largest representative of political comedy. He waged a fierce struggle against the democracy that was in power during the Peloponnesian War. Aristophanes was a supporter of peace, since the war had a detrimental effect on the landowning aristocracy, whose ideology he expressed. This determined the reactionary nature of his philosophical and moral views. Of the 44 comedies written by Aristophanes, only 11 have survived: "The Horsemen", "Birds", "Lysistrata", "Frogs" and others. Aristophanes caricatured Socrates, often parodying his contemporary Euripides, an exponent of democratic sentiments. Most of his comedies were evil satire on Democratic rulers, including Cleon and Pericles. He played the role of Cleon in the comedy "The Babylonians" himself, since the actors did not dare to do this, fearing the revenge of the ruler.

Antiquity is the common name for Greco-Roman history and culture accepted in science. The chronological framework of the antique period is conditional - it usually begins with the end of the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization and ends in the 4th century, with the era of barbarian invasions in Europe and the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476). The area of ​​distribution of ancient culture is very wide and covers the entire Mediterranean region, the territories of Europe, in some of its forms the ancient culture was grafted in the territories of the Near and Middle East up to India.

The main political features of the ancient period are the design of two main types of state and political structure: democracies in Greece (5th century), empire in Rome (1st century BC).

The main state and cultural centers of antiquity were Greece and Italy. It was the specific features of their cultures that became legislative in the territories of the classical Mediterranean. The dominant religious and mythological system of the period, with all local differences, constantly emerging new cults, the wide influence of Eastern religions, was Greco-Roman.

If up to 3 c. BC NS. the appearance of the Mediterranean antique culture was predominantly Greek and Greco-Eastern, then with the entry into the Mediterranean of Rome, the universalist tendencies of the new state had a leveling effect on the entire culture, linguistic situation, and religious systems.

In the 6th century. BC NS. Greek philosophy is born, Pythagoras calls himself the first philosopher. The first schools of thought soon emerged. The main trends in the philosophical thought of antiquity were Pythagoreanism, Platonism, Aristotelianism, Stoicism, Cynicism, Neoplatonism, Epicureanism.

The main milestones in the history of ancient art were the geometric period, or the Homeric period (10-8 centuries BC), archaic (8-6 centuries BC), classical and Hellenistic, during which the formation of the main types of architecture, order system, sculpture develops - from the hieratic idol-like kouros and corners of the late 7th century. to statues with complex movement.

Greek painting is almost lost for us (the works of the great Parrasius, Zeuxis. Polygnotus, Nikias, etc. are known to us only from descriptions), and its main body at the present time is black-figure and red-figure vase painting of the 6-4th centuries. BC NS.

The main theme of Greek art is man. The Greeks knew deep psychology in art. They have an image of a wide variety of feelings and emotions, the most complex angles and poses are possible in the depiction of movement (in the art of Hellenism), however, the dominant “truly Hellenic” image has become a noble and ideally beautiful image, over which changeable feelings have no power.

Question 19 Culture of Ancient Greece.

In the history of Dr. Gr. 8-6c. BC. are characterized by big changes in households. activities, social. life, to-re. One of the largest acquisitions of the arch. period there are works by Homer "Iliad" and "Odyssey". In the 7-6 centuries. BC. appeared gr. lyrics, one of the first lyres. poets are considered Archilochus. In the first floor. 6c. BC. on the island of Lesbos created Sappho, the work of the cat. was the pinnacle of dr. Gr. In 8-6c. in dr. Gr. there was a rise in the creative arts and ar-ry. In the 7th century. BC. buildings made of stone appear. Ch. way these are temples. In the process of forming gr. ar-ry there are 3 main directions: Doric (used mainly in the Peloponnese, characterized by simplicity and severity of forms), Ionic (lightness, harmony, decorativeness), Corinthian (refinement). Temples arch. period: Apollo in Corinth and Hera in Paestum. In the sculpture of arch. period, the main place is occupied by the image of a bang. Gr. Artists are trying to master the correct construction of the bang's body, to learn how to convey movement. Painting ch. arr. known to us from vase paintings. In the 6th century. black-figure painting dominates; figures are depicted on a yellow surface with black varnish. At the end of the 6th century. red-figure painting appears, when the figures remain in the color of clay, and the background is black-lacquered. Generalization of knowledge about the environment. the world were the basis for the development of f-fi. Thales was the founder of the Miletsk school of physics, who believed that the fundamental principle of the world is water, from a cat. everything arises in the cat. everything turns. For the first principle was also considered "apeiron", indefinite, eternal matter, air, fire. Ancient Greek. f-f and mathematician Pythagoras founded f-fskoy school in Yuzh. Italy. According to his f-fi, the world consists of quantitative patterns, cat. can be calculated. The merit of the Pythagoreans was the development of theorems, the theory of music, built on numerical ratios, the establishment of a number of countless patterns in the world. The idealistic line in f-fi, founded by the Pythagoreans, was continued by the Eleian f-fs school. The victory over Persia gave Gr. complete power in Sredr'e. War production, trade, the use of slave labor contributed to the development of all branches of the cop. Classic period. In cl. period drama develops. The emergence of gr. theater was associated with the cult of the god of wine Dionysus. The actors performed in goat skins, and therefore this genre was called "tragedy" ("song of the goats"). Famous playwrights of this period were Aeschylus ("Chained Prometheus"), Sophocles ("Antigone" and "King Oedipus"), Euripides ("Medea", "Electra"). From prose genres in the classical period rhetoric flourishes - the ability to clearly express one's thoughts, convincingly defend one's position. Among the f-fskie problems in cl. During the period, the understanding of the essence and place of man in the world is advanced on 1 plane, consideration of the problems of being and the fundamental principle of the world continues. A materialistic interpretation of the problem of the fundamental principle was put forward by Democritus, having developed the doctrine of atoms. Ancient Greek. the sophists taught that “man is the measure of all things,” and the essence of things depends on their connection with people. Socrates saw the way to the attainment of truth in self-knowledge. Plato to explain being developed the theory of the existence of "ideas". Plato paid considerable attention to state issues, he proposed a draft of an ideal polis, which physically forms her high moral qualities. But the rise and flowering of g-zma are deeply contradictory. Good and evil were intertwined in the most bizarre way. Science, poetry, ar-ra, fine arts are developing. But the problems of general relations are solved with a dagger and poison, conspiracies and wars. The Borgia family went down in history, headed by Pope Alexander 7 - a murderer, robber and lecher, but endowed with a brilliant talent as a state figure. Harmony in social device was not achieved, passions took possession of individuals, prompting them to act without stopping at anything and not thinking about the consequences.

Introduction.

ANTIQUE AS A CRADLE OF EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION.

1. The world significance of the literature of Ancient Greece. 2. Antiquity and the East. 3. Ancient heritage in Europe. 4. Antiquity and Russian culture. Geography and Ethnography of the Ancient World. 6. Sources of knowledge about antiquity. 7 Greek way of life. 8. Periodization of Greek literature. 9. Interdisciplinary communications. 10. Literature.

The history of mankind provides an important lesson: everything in life is transient. People are leaving, the appearance of cities and natural landscapes are changing. Much turns to dust in ruthless time. The only thing that time is not subject to is great art.

Ancient Greece played a unique role here. Its civilization, art and literature.

THE HISTORICAL ROLE OF HELLAS.

The Greeks themselves called their country Hellas, themselves - the Hellenes. The concepts of Ancient Greece and Hellas have a synonym: antiquity. "Antique" translated from Latin means: ancient, ancient. At the everyday level, we perceive antiquity as an era, infinitely from us; lazy, fabulous, steeped in myths. She is associated with the school textbook "History of the Ancient World". We just don’t think about how much of what was created by the ancient Hellenes organically entered our everyday life. Meanwhile, Ancient Greece is the cradle of European culture.

In everyday speech, in books, newspapers, magazines, we, literally at every step, come across a multitude of words of Greek and Latin origin, which constitute a layer of social and political vocabulary. Concepts and terms: economics, politics, philosophy, aesthetics, logic, dialectics, many others are constantly heard. The buildings around us, the architecture of palaces, stadiums, theaters, temples, many of their constructive solutions - columns, capitals, arches, vaults, bas-reliefs, moldings, full of symmetry and harmony - are the fruit of the ancient Greeks' creativity. Even in elementary grades, schoolchildren, mastering the fundamental laws of mathematics and physics, become familiar with the discoveries of the great scientists of antiquity, Archimedes, Pythagoras, Euclid.

The ancient Greeks were founders in various fields of knowledge. They laid the foundations for many exact, natural and humanitarian sciences: physics and mathematics, anatomy and astronomy, philosophy and philology, pedagogy and aesthetics, history and eloquence. The conceptual conclusions of Plato and Aristotle about the essence and laws of art retain their inherent value today. Every year millions of tourists come to Greece to see with their own eyes the immortal monuments of antiquity, such as the Parthenon and Erechtheion, the Propylaea, the Temple of Zeus. They ascend reverently to the Acropolis hill, towering over Athens.

GREECE HOMELAND OF DEMOCRACY.

One of the main merits of the ancient Hellenes was that they gave mankind the great idea of ​​democracy. Athens, during its heyday, provided an example of such a system of government that corresponds to the will of the majority of the free population. The word "democracy" means the rule of the people. Democracy presupposed the participation of all free citizens in public affairs, in government, discussion and adoption of laws. At the heart of Greek democracy were the fundamental principles: the election of power, the responsibility of power and the turnover of power.

Humanity has learned different forms and types of government: monarchy, despotism, empire. The twentieth century has revealed the dire results of the domination of totalitarian regimes. Only democracy meets human nature to the greatest extent and therefore provides conditions for development, constant reform and improvement. Winston Churchill was right when he argued that democracy is by no means perfect, but humanity has not yet invented anything better than it.

Democracy in Greece created the most favorable conditions for the development of all forms of creative activity. The heyday of democratic Athens under Pericles coincided with the greatest rise of literature and art.

1. The world significance of the literature of Ancient Greece

The main genres of modern literature: epic, lyric, novel, story, tragedy and comedy, poem and ode, satire, fable and epigram, oratorical, historical and philosophical prose originated and formed among the ancient Greeks and Romans. Over the course of a long historical development, these genres have undergone changes and enrichment.

Enduring universal human values, embodied in literary images, in the artistic creations of antiquity. And let a person today cover the distance not in carts or horses, but in comfortable cars, jet planes, spacecraft. Let him know immeasurably more about the world than his distant ancestors. But human nature itself has hardly changed in comparison with the era of Homer and Aeschylus. A person is born and dies, suffers from ailments and grows decrepit, loves happily and unrequitedly, jealous and cheating, raises children and loses them, shows stinginess and selfishness, courage and kind-heartedness, generosity and meanness, lust for power and cowardice. These eternal passions and feelings are captured, and, moreover, with unsurpassed aesthetic completeness, in the creations of the great Hellenes - Homer and Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, Aristophanes and Menander, Anacreon and Sappho.

And today we continue to worry about the fate of Penelope, anxiously waiting for her husband; the devoted Andromache; the adamant Prometheus and who experienced the bitter insight of the unfortunate king Oedipus, who fell from the pinnacle of power and glory into the abyss of shame; ruthless and vengeful Medea, abandoned by her husband and repaid by killing her own children.

Plots and images of ancient mythology and literature are distinguished by harmonious completeness and plasticity, transparent and deep meaning. Through the centuries have passed, embodied in countless literary, pictorial, sculptural, musical compositions of the figures of Greek myths, such as Hercules and Orpheus, Pygmalion, Daedalus and Icarus, Antaeus and Tantalus.

2. Antiquity and the East

The Greeks, in turn, inherited all the best that was in the cultures of other states, in particular the Ancient East. In the Middle East, in Egypt, China, India, long before the appearance of the first Greek states, powerful monarchies and richest civilizations flourished. At the time of the invasion of the Achaean (Greek) tribes on Crete (15th century BC), ancient Egypt was going through a period of rise, established hegemony over Syria, the state of Assyria entered the "middle" period of its history, and the most ancient hieroglyphic writing already existed in China ... The Trojan War, captured in Homer's "Iliad", coincided in time with the collapse of the Hittite (XVIII-XII centuries BC) kingdom, and in parallel with the later "Homeric Greece" - the ancient state of Israel was created in Palestine, the kingdom was strengthened Scythians appeared in Urartu in the Caucasus, in Eastern Europe, and Carthage was gaining strength in North Africa. During the heyday of Athens, i.e. V century. BC NS. there was a major clash with the Persian state: the Greco-Persian wars, which lasted for several decades, left a deep imprint both in art and in the attitude of the ancient Hellenes.

The Greek states had diverse ties with ancient Egypt, which supported trade with Crete, Cyprus, Aegina. After the campaigns of Alexander the Great, the Greeks penetrated into Syria, Palestine, Egypt.

The cultural ties between Greece and the East are diverse, but not fully understood. The famous Palace of Knossos in Crete looks like the majestic structures of the eastern monarchs. In Egypt at this time the "Book of the Dead" was created, tales about two brothers, about Pravda and Krivda, love lyrics; there was a rich literature in Palestine and Syria; Bogazgeyskaya and Ugarit libraries; in India - the great poem "Rig Veda"; in China - the book of ancient songs "Shijing".

The Mycenaean leaders of the tribes that lived in the Peloponnese pursued an expansionist policy aimed at the East, participated in the colonization of the coast of Asia Minor. The documents in the Egyptian and Hittite languages ​​mention the tribes "Azaizvasha" and "Lanauna", which corresponds to the references to the Greeks in the Homeric epic. They are called there Achaeans and Danaans.

The early Greek philosopher, mathematician and astronomer Thales (624-546 BC), who was revered as one of the Seven Wise Men, was fond of travel and visited Egypt more than once.

Papyrus (a herbaceous plant growing in the swamps of the Euphrates and the Nile) was brought to Greece from Egypt, which was used as writing material. The Berlin Museum, for example, contains a papyrus extract from the Iliad, recorded in the 1st-2nd centuries. n. NS. Thanks to the found papyrus manuscripts, Hesiod, Greek lyricists (Alcaeus, Pindar), the great tragedians Sophocles and Euripides, and many others have come down to us.

In the mid-1980s, the American linguist C. Watkins made a sensational discovery. Among the archaeological documents on the ancient history of Asia Minor, he discovered a passage in the Luwian language. It is one of the dead languages ​​of Asia Minor, in which a fragment of epic poetry is written, which, apparently, is 500 years older than Homer's Iliad. It follows from this passage that Troy, possibly, was called Vilusa among the locals, and the Trojans themselves spoke the Luwian language. If we accept this version as justified, then it should be considered that the Trojans are the indigenous population of Asia Minor, that they are nationally alien to the Greeks, and had a written language earlier than the Greeks. All this, by no means, diminishes the greatness of the Iliad and The Odyssey, but sheds new light on the origin of two masterpieces of world literature.

Eastern themes were reflected in folklore, in the legend of the Argonauts who visited Colchis, the territory of Western Georgia. Weaving products of the inhabitants of the mountains were highly valued. The Caucasian tribes, who spoke 70 languages ​​and 300 dialects, were drawn into trade relations with Greece, and later with Rome. Later, in the Roman era, about 130 translators were required to communicate with them.

Evidence of fruitful ties with the East were also "heaps of Greek historians Xenophon and Herodotus. The first of them, for example, repeatedly visited outside Greece, participated in the campaign of the Persian king Cyrus the Younger against his brother Artaxerxes. He fascinatingly told about everything he experienced in the book" Anabasis " (or "Cyrus's Campaign.") This is one of the first memoirs in European literature. Xenophon also owns the famous work "Cyropedia" (or "Cyrus's Education"), It recreates the image of Cyrus the Elder, about whose exploits legendary fame has survived.

Herodotus, "the father of history", a tireless traveler, whose travel routes ran far beyond Hellas, in Babylon, Scythia, Egypt, Colchis, southern Italy, Asia Minor. He saw many areas with his own eyes, he spoke about others from hearsay. In his main work "History" - descriptions of many lands from Egypt and Arabia to India and Ethiopia, characteristics of such eastern kings as Cyrus, Darius, Cambyses. Herodotus includes such episodes as the childhood of Cyrus, Helena in Egypt, the treasures of the Egyptian king Rampsenit, the stay of Darius with the Scythians, and many others, reworked in the form of short stories. His work is a kind of encyclopedia of knowledge about the past not only of Greece, but also of its eastern neighbors.

3. Ancient heritage in Europe

ROME AND THE MIDDLE AGES.

In 146 BC NS. Greece ceased to exist as an independent state, turned into a province of the Roman Empire. But the Romans, fortunately, turned out to be people grateful in relation to the spiritual wealth that they took possession of. They adopted both the Greek language and Greek culture, literature, philosophy, oratory. Evidence of the development of the artistic experience of the ancient Hellenes is the legacy of outstanding Roman poets and philosophers, such as Cicero, Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Seneca, etc.

With the fall of the Roman Empire (476 AD) and the onset of the Middle Ages, the importance of the ancient, primarily Greek, heritage decreases markedly. The mainstream Catholic Church had a negative attitude towards all areas of spiritual life that were not permeated by orthodox Christian ideology. Only the Roman poet Virgil was lucky, who was declared a Christian author who predicted the birth of Jesus Christ.

RENAISSANCE.

The next stage is the Renaissance, also called the Renaissance, "the greatest progressive revolution", marked by an unprecedented creative take-off in all areas of artistic activity. Italy was the birthplace of the European Renaissance. From there, humanistic ideas penetrated France, England, Germany. The art of the Renaissance, freed from medieval scholasticism and dogmatism, was permeated with the ideas of humanism, which affirmed the highest value of man. The individual, his nature, free and natural in all its manifestations, was placed in the center of artistic attention.

The most important feature of the Renaissance was the general interest in antiquity. At this time, the actual discovery of the previously forgotten, hidden artistic heritage of Ancient Greece, as well as Rome, took place. In contrast to medieval dogmatism, normativity, schematism, asceticism, humanist writers found in antiquity a living and free ideal of the beautiful. It is based on loyalty to nature. In the works of Homer and Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, humanists were introduced to large-scale, relief human characters. The Renaissance titans Dante and Petrarch, Shakespeare and Rabelais drew plots and themes, found fruitful sources of artistic ideas in the creations of the ancient Hellenes.

CLASSICISM.

The next era, marked by a lively attention to the ancient heritage, was classicism. It flourished in Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The very name of this literary movement indicated that it was oriented towards the classics, towards the most perfect examples in literature, ancient Greek and Roman. The core of the aesthetics of classicism was the cult of reason and "imitation of nature."

These provisions were most fully generalized and formulated by the French writer Nicolas Boileau in his famous, normative treatise "Poetic Art" (1674). Its provisions were embodied in the artistic practice of great masters. In his treatise, Boileau praised the ancients:

This must be why we love Homer so much,
That the belt of beauty had been given to him by Venus.
A priceless treasure is hidden in his creations:
For all ages they are like a spring of delights.

In the tragedies of Corneille, Racine, and partly in the comedies of Moliere, the demand for three unities was realized: the unity of place, time and action; it was declared an indispensable element of a dramatic work.

In Germany, interest in antiquity was stimulated, in particular, thanks to the tireless work of Johann Winckelmann, the historian of ancient art, who saw in antiquity "noble simplicity and calm grandeur." Winckelmann's fundamental work History of the Art of Antiquity (1763) was a revelation to readers.

In the 1780s, Goethe and Schiller, each in their own way, developed the concept of the so-called. "Weimar classicism"; in antiquity, they are captivated by the pathos of life-affirmation, the ideal of a harmonious personality and artistic perfection. In the tragedy Iphigenia in Taurida (1787), Goethe reworks the ancient Greek myth in accordance with the aesthetics of classicism. In the second part of Faust, Faust's marriage to the beautiful Helen symbolizes the great role of ancient beauty. In the poem "The Gods of Greece", Schiller sadly reflects on the irrevocably gone world of beautiful Hellas. In "Letters on the aesthetic education of man" he insists on the enduring value of ancient art, being convinced that education based on his examples can spiritually and morally enrich and elevate the individual.

In general, interest in antiquity in Europe never faded away. Romantics appeal to her: the English poets Byron and Shelley, the German poet Hölderlin, the playwright Kleist, the French poet and novelist Hugo.

ANTIQUE AND XX CENTURY.

Antiquity in the literature of our century is a huge and fascinating topic. Episodes of Homeric poems at the heart of and one of the greatest novels of the XX century - "Ulysses" (1922) by James Joyce. Mythological plots and motives are actively used by many of the largest playwrights. Among them are Hoffmannsthal and Hauptmann, Anui and Sartre, Giraudoux and Brecht, Eugene O "Neil and Maxwell Anderson, Tennessee William and Bernard Shaw. Writers are attracted by such dramatic figures as Alexander the Great, Pericles, Cleopatra, Spartacus, Julius Caesar, Ner and etc.

Often, plots and images of the ancient world are embodied in cinema, music and ballet.

4. Antiquity and Russian culture

Living relationships between Hellas and Russia were stimulated by the fact that Greek colonies and settlements were located on the northern and Caucasian coast of the Black Sea, as well as in the Crimea. In the chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years" (XII century), one can read that from time immemorial, along the Volkhov and Dnieper rivers, ran "the great way from the Varangians to the Greeks": from the shores of the Gulf of Finland, the Normans passed to the Black Sea and sailed to Constantinople ( Constantinople). With the adoption of Christianity, Yaroslav the Wise attracted translators of Greek books.

Ivan III was married to the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine - Sophia Palaeologus. She arrived in Moscow in 1472, accompanied by a whole staff of her courtiers, who contributed to the spread of Greek culture. It is known that Ivan the Terrible amassed a valuable library of Greek books, and in his writings he repeatedly referred to the authority of ancient authors. The Cathedral of the Annunciation in the Kremlin (construction began in the 15th century) was decorated with paintings and frescoes depicting Homer, Virgil, Plato, Aristotle and others.

Since the beginning of the XVIII century. antiquity is increasingly being integrated into Russian culture. Founded in Moscow in 1687, the educational institution - the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy becomes a hotbed for training personnel for the needs of the state and the church, teachers, students of medical schools; in it, among the disciplines were the ancient Greek and Latin languages.

An expert and admirer of antiquity was Lomonosov, who translated Greek and Roman authors. In 1755, Moscow University was founded, which became one of the centers for the study of ancient culture. Since the 18th century, the number of translations of ancient Greek authors into Russian has been steadily growing. Russian readers organically perceive the concepts and images of the ancient world. Creating the poem "Monument", Derzhavin, and later Pushkin were inspired by the ode of the outstanding Roman poet Horace: "I erected a monument. According to Radishchev, Homer and Virgil" will be read, the human race will not be destroyed for a generation. "

Antique motifs literally permeate the early lyceum lyrics of Pushkin, who also translated Greek (Anacreon) and Roman (Catullus) poets. More than once the image of the Roman poet Ovid, removed from Rome by order of the Emperor Augustus, appears in his work. Pushkin, being in exile in Bessarabia, not far from the places where the Roman poet languished, felt a deep consonance between his fate and that of Ovid. In 1829, a translation of the Iliad by N. Gnedich was published in Russia - this was a remarkable page in the literary life of the country. Pushkin responded to the creative feat of Gnedich with inspired lines:

I hear the silenced sound of the divine Hellenic speech;
I sense the great old man's shadow with an embarrassed soul.

In 1849 Zhukovsky translated The Odyssey. It is difficult to name a major Russian writer who would not have appreciated the works of the Hellenes with enthusiastic words and somehow would not have reflected them in his work ... Gogol wrote about the happy fullness and richness of life, captured in the Homeric epic. Belinsky - about the unspeakable pleasure that he experiences, joining the Greek masterpieces: ... Greek art was the liberation of man from the yoke of nature, a wonderful reconciliation of spirit and nature ", it" enlightened and spiritualized all the natural inclinations of man. " And further: "All forms of nature were equally beautiful for the artistic soul of the" Hellene. " In the just opinion of the critic, the Greek and Latin languages ​​"should be called the cornerstone of all education, the foundation of schools." Created in the ХГХ century. in Russia, classical gymnasiums provided thorough training in the field of Latin and Ancient Greek, as well as ancient literature. In the main universities, for example, Moscow, St. Petersburg, departments of classical philology were created.

Leo Tolstoy, already at the zenith of his fame, being the author of War and Peace, starts studying the ancient Greek language in order to perceive Homer in the original. Among the translators of antique, in particular ancient Greek, literature were, in addition to Gnedich and Zhukovsky, many outstanding poets: L. Mei, A. Fet, V. Veresaev, A. Maikov, A. Grigoriev, Vyacheslav Ivanov, I. Annensky, D. Merezhkovsky and others. In the poetry of the "Silver Age" - antique plots, images, motives vary with particular persistence. The remarkable Greek poetess Sappho became the heroine of Mirra Lokhvitskaya's poems. An ardent admirer and connoisseur of Hellas and its art was the poet and critic Innokenty Annensky. Images of Ancient Greece are present in many poems of the early Osip Mandelstam, in particular, in the collection "Stone". Composer Igor Stravinsky wrote the ballets Agon, Apollo Musaget, Orpheus based on ancient subjects. An outstanding connoisseur of antiquity was V. Ya. Bryusov, a connoisseur and translator of Roman literature. For almost a quarter of a century, with interruptions, he worked on the recreation of Virgil's poem "Aeneid" in Russian.

It would not be an exaggeration to say that the attitude towards the ancient heritage, the level of its study and development is one of the indicators of the cultural development of a given country or society. In the ХГХ century. a strong scientific school for the study of antiquity was developing in Russia. At the turn of the century, serious works appeared in this area, including textbooks for grammar schools (EF Korsha, FF Zelinsky, SI Sobolevsky, etc.). The traditions of this school were continued in the post-October period: textbooks on ancient Greek literature (IM Troisky, II Tolstoy, SI Radzig, etc.), an academic three-volume history of ancient Greek literature and a two-volume history of Roman literature were published; a large number of reference books and dictionaries on mythology, ancient art. The researches of modern connoisseurs of the ancient world S.S.Averintsev, M.L. Gasparov, V.N. Yarkho, M.E. Grabar-Passek, N.F.Deratani, A.A. Some of them acted both as researchers and as translators. The works of ancient Greek authors were published in such highly authoritative editions as the 200-volume Library of World Literature, in the series: Literary Monuments, Library of Ancient Literature, Ancient Drama, etc. Two-volume illustrated work Myths of the Nations of the World, including rich material on antiquity, was awarded the State Prize. The pride of not only domestic, but also world science is the works of AF Losev (1895-1988), a venerable philologist, philosopher, musicologist, specialist in logic and mathematics. Antiquity was central to his many studies. One of the main ones is the multivolume "History of Ancient Aesthetics", about which Academician DS Likhachev rightly noted that this is "work, which, it seemed, was only within the power of an academic institute." After the death of the scientist, scientific conferences are held in his honor - "Losev Readings". In Moscow, in the house on the Arbat, where AF Losev lived, a scientific center - "House of Losev" is being created. His works are recognized abroad.

5. Geography and ethnography of the ancient world

When starting the study of ancient Greek literature, it is useful to imagine the natural conditions and landscapes of Hellas. This is significant, since the Hellene fully and organically felt his dissolution in nature. And she, in turn, is present in the best works of verbal art.

"DAUGHTER OF THE SEA AND LAND".

The southern part of Greece was formed by the Peloponnese peninsula, a harsh region, an area overgrown with oak forests, with slopes descending to the sea. Central Greece was separated from the Peloponnese by the Corinthian Gulf. Two provinces stood out here: Attica and Boeotia, they later formed the basis of the Athenian state. Among the cities, Athens and Eleusis were widely known. Northern Greece was a labyrinth of rocky, wooded mountain ranges. The passage through them was the Thermopylae Gorge, which also became famous as the site of the legendary feat of 300 Spartans who fell in the fight against the Persians. Here towered the highest mountain in Greece - Olympus, the abode of the gods. Thrace was adjacent to the northern coast of the Aegean Sea, and mountainous, inaccessible Macedonia was located to the west of Thrace.

Life in Greece was defined by the proximity of the sea, the combination of land and water. Greece is surrounded by seas: its southern part is washed by the Mediterranean Sea, to the west of the peninsula - the Ionian Sea with a number of large islands, including Ithaca, on which the palace of Odysseus was located. The Black Sea was known to the Greeks for a very long time (it was called Pontus Euxine). Passing the Propotinda (Sea of ​​Marmara), the Greeks went to the Black Sea and sailed to Colchis, to the Crimea, to Scythia.

The Aegean Sea played a remarkable role in the fate of the Greek civilization, which was, as it were, an internal sea, since the Greek lands were located around it. He was sometimes called "the king of the sea." The Aegean Sea was scattered with many small islands, which facilitated the tasks of young shipping. Among the islands there were several that left a noticeable mark on history: Paros, Keos, Delos. The islands formed like natural bridges between Europe and Asia.

The southern "bridge" was the elongated island of Crete, as if enclosing the Aegean Sea. It was rich in cypress forests (now almost extinct) and became the most powerful maritime state in Greece. The island of Rhodes off the coast of Asia Minor was also known. There was a middle "bridge" of the islands connecting Attica with Asia Minor. North "bridge" - a series of islands that departed from Thessaly; among them are Chios, rich in wine and marble, as well as the famous island of Lesvos, where the poet Sappho lived. The western Asia Minor coast consisted of several provinces, such as Phrygia, Misia, Lydia, Caria. There were several ports and cities located near the sea. Among them was the legendary city of Ilion (Troy), sung in Homer's poem.

A pleasant scenic landscape combined with a subtropical climate. Summer is not hot due to the proximity of the sea. Mild winters last two to three months. The sea with numerous bays is convenient for fishing, valleys for agriculture and viticulture; an abundance of minerals, ores, silver mines contributed to the development of crafts and metallurgical production. The famous Russian philologist-classic FF Zelinsky wrote about this: “Such was this cozy little world, this is the only complete and close combination of sea and land in Europe. European culture, created by the Greek people, is "the daughter of the sea and the earth."

THE ANCIENT POPULATION OF GREECE.

Information about the most ancient population of Greece and adjacent lands is scarce. It is known about the tribes that have long lived in the south of the Balkan Peninsula, which were called Pelasgi. There were also tribes of the Achaeans; in any case, this is the name under which they act in Homer's Iliad. The Ionians lived in Central Greece, the Cretans lived in Crete. As a result of the movement of tribes in the 1st millennium BC. NS. in the end, something like this was the case. In the north of Greece and in the middle part, as well as on the islands of the Aegean Sea, the Aeolians settled; slightly to the south - the Ionians; in the Peloponnese, in Laconia, Messenia - the Achaeans; in the remaining provinces of the peninsula, as well as on the islands of Rhodes and Crete - the Dorians. Along with the process of displacement and movement of tribes, there was a gradual transition from primitive communal-clan relations to a higher stage of development of society. Property and social differences began to appear.

COLONIZATION.

Colonization was another important phenomenon in the most ancient period of history. The framework and horizons of the Greek world were constantly expanding. The Greeks were excellent navigators. They went to sea not only out of a passion for adventure, but also out of necessity. The lack of fertile soil in mainland Greece caused the need for bread and some other products, prompting the Greeks to develop new lands.

Initially, the process covered the coast of the Aegean Sea. The shores of Asia Minor were especially actively colonized. There was colonization in the western direction, the Greeks landed in southern Italy, on the island of Sicily, as well as in the south of modern France, where the city of Massalia (present-day Marseille) was founded. The Greeks also penetrated into northern Africa, where they had dangerous competitors - the Phoenicians. There the Greeks founded the colony of Cyrene (on the territory of modern Libya). The ruins of the Temple of Apollo and the theater have been preserved from it. An important direction of colonization was the northeast. Greek colonies appeared on the shores of the Hellespont (Dardanelles) and the Propontis (Sea of ​​Marmara). The RiBiik shopping center stood out here. as well as the colony of Chalcedon. A little later, a colony of Byzantium arose, founded in the 7th century. BC e., which became a staging post on the way to the Black Sea region. Later, Byzantium was renamed Constantinople.

The Black Sea region was inhabited by warlike tribes, so colonization in this area slowed down somewhat. Nevertheless, from about the 7th century. BC NS. Greek settlements and cities began to appear on the shores of the Black Sea. So the Black Sea region acquired its "Hellenic border".

One of the most significant Greek colonies was founded at the Dnieper-Bug estuary and was called Olbia. The city of Feodosia was founded in the Crimea, and on the site of modern Kerch - the city of Panticapaeum, which later became the capital of the Bosporus kingdom. On the Caucasian coast, the inhabitants of Miletus founded two colonies not far from present-day Sukhumi and Poti: Dioscuriadu and Phasis. The Ionians established colonies on the Taman Peninsula, the main of which is Phanagoria in the Kuban River delta. Near Sevastopol there was a colony of Chersonesos, and next to present-day Rostov - Tanais. Excavations in Greek cities in the Black Sea region and the Crimea have given us many finds of material culture, which are kept in Russian museums.

The Greek settlers certainly had a cultural impact on the Scythians who roamed north of the Black Sea. Their introduction to agriculture led to the fact that the Black Sea region became a kind of granary of stony Greece, and bread became the main export item.

All this was reflected in the myth of the goddess of agriculture, Demeter. She handed Triptolemus, the son of the Eleusinian king Keleus, ears of wheat and on a winged chariot sent him to the northern Black Sea region, instructing him to give them to people and teach agriculture. Demeter, through Triptolemus, blessed this previously wild land, so that it would become fertile and grain-bearing for all times.

6. Sources of knowledge about antiquity

What are the sources of our knowledge about the era, separated from us by millennia? What documents and evidence is at the disposal of modern science?

LITERARY MONUMENTS.

First of all, these are the works of ancient historians: Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon and others, as well as orators, philosophers. They are also literary works, invaluable in cognitive terms. Only one exhaustive enumeration of what was engraved on the shield of Achilles in Canto 18 of the Iliad gives a rather capacious impression of the everyday life of the Greeks of the Homeric era. The most important aspects of the life of the Greeks, their concepts, morality, family relations are revealed for us in the tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and especially in the comedies of Aristophanes. The history of Greek literature is from time to time enriched with happy finds: previously unknown texts by the Greek comedian Menander ("Gloom"), poets Archilochus and Callimachus were discovered. Even myths and legends, for all their fantasticness, can enrich our information about the life, traditions and concepts of the ancient Hellenes. Unfortunately, the monuments of ancient literature, especially ancient Greek, have not been completely preserved. So out of about 90 tragedies of Aeschylus, we know only 7. Only a small part of the verses of the wonderful Greek poets-lyricists Archilochus, Anacreon, Sappho and others have come down to us.

PAPYRUS AND PARGEMENT

The works of Greek literature were written on papyrus. Wide sheets were made, which were rolled up into special scrolls. In the I-I centuries. BC NS. papyrus began to be replaced by parchment made from animal skin. Of course, many papyrus and parchment scrolls have perished over the centuries. The texts that have come down to us are usually the fruit of repeated rewriting. It should be remembered that some works have disappeared, because for a long time there was a selection of what was considered necessary for the school, for special study and memorization. Today we have at our disposal not only complete, finished works, but also numerous excerpts, the so-called. fragments.

In the sands of Egypt, for example, pieces of papyrus with fragments of text are often found. But they are also of value to science and are being studied. Another source is various inscriptions in ancient Greek on buildings, tombstones, stones, and earthen vessels. Useful information is also contained in ancient Greek coins, testifying to the state of the economy. Some of the coins are engraved with portraits of the Hellenic kings, as well as their names.

FINDINGS OF ARCHEOLOGISTS.

But the richest and most valuable results come from archaeological expeditions. The most famous is the expedition of the German self-taught scientist Heinrich Schliemann (1822-1890), who, in search of Homer's Troy, excavated on the coast of Asia Minor, in fact, proving that the basis of the Iliad was historical events, artistically transformed. Schliemann gave impetus to subsequent archaeological discoveries.

The discoveries made by the English archaeologist Arthur Evans (1851 - 1941) are invaluable. Successful excavations, begun in 1900, made it possible to present the previously unknown world of material culture, to prove that the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization flourished about two to three thousand years ago in the Aegean Sea region.

Its center was on the island of Crete, which was active in trade with the nearby islands. The mining of precious metals was carried out there, there was a school of first-class craftsmen, creators of the famous Cretan products made of gold and enamel. Apparently, the wealth of the local nobility found an echo in the fabulous myth of Minos, who, with his touch, turned any object into gold. He was considered the powerful king of Crete and the surrounding islands.

KNOSSOS PALACE.

Evans discovered the most ancient settlement, the ruins of a palace of hewn stone. It was named the Palace of Knossos and is considered the main possession of Minos. As a result of lengthy archaeological work, it was possible to establish that this is a vast palace complex, created during the XX-XV centuries. BC NS. All this is described by A. Evans in the fundamental five-volume work "The Palace of Minos at Knossos" (1921-1936).

The palace consisted of several tiers, its area is up to 16,000 m2, it was distinguished by oriental splendor, had a rectangular shape, it had living rooms, halls for ceremonies, verandas, balconies, warehouses. Outwardly chaotic, in fact, it was built very economically, comfortably, adapted to the local climate; inside it, light spread through the stairwells and light shafts.

There were also discovered colorful frescoes, the creators of which demonstrate high artistic technique. The frescoes, executed by them in a realistic manner, made it possible to judge what was the court and religious life of the island. Apparently, the nobility concentrated around the palace, and the ruler also performed the functions of the high priest. In addition to the "elite", the tsar and the courtiers, there was a social stratum of artisans - potters, sculptors, jewelers, masons.

At the turn of the III-II millennium BC. NS. the culture of Crete flourishes. Several more palaces were built. Then the Cretan civilization perished; apparently, one of the reasons was a volcanic eruption, supplemented by an earthquake, which led to landslides on a number of islands, after which whole areas of land were under water.

Perhaps this event served as the basis for the ancient myth of Atlantis, which was a huge island that sank to the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean. The evidence of this event is contained in two dialogues of the great Greek philosopher Plato: Timaeus and Critias. Until now, the controversy about Atlantis does not subside: various versions of its existence are being put forward. In 2000, near the coast of Egypt, at the bottom of the sea, the ruins of an ancient Greek city were discovered with preserved household items, amphoras, and statues.

MYKENA.

In Homer's poem Iliad, we find mention of the gold-rich Mycenae. Today it is obvious that we are talking about another center of pre-Homeric culture that arose in the 2nd millennium BC. NS. after sunset of Crete. Mycenae, located on mainland Greece in the northern part of the Peloponnese, was the center of an early slave state.

The first excavations in Mycenae were started by the already mentioned Heinrich Schliemann, who discovered mine tombs carved into the rocks. Together with the remains of the dead, many valuable items were found there: vessels, jewelry, portrait gold masks, crowns, bronze swords inlaid with precious stones. One of the mine tombs was named “the tombs of Agamemnon”. Schliemann and other scholars believe that it could have belonged to Agamemnon, king of Argos, commander-in-chief of the Greek troops who fought at Troy, that is, one of the main characters of Homer's Iliad.

There were also two palaces of impressive size in Mycenae. For a long time, scientists judged the Mycenaean culture only by examining the palace ruins and household items. But after the Mycenaean writing was unraveled in 1953, the content of the inscriptions on numerous clay tablets became clear.

Deciphering the writing was not an easy task. And here the unique experience of the English archaeologist Michael Ventris (1922-1956), who during the Second World War served as a specialist in ciphers, helped. Having recognized the secret of the Mycenaean writing, he made a sensational discovery that enriched world science. He proved that the inscriptions at Mycenae, as well as at Pylos, were made in a special linear script. Although the tablets read by Ventris contained only lists of household items, related to purely economic documents, they made it possible to understand the essential features of Mycenaean society. The state was ruled by the tsar, also the privileged elite rallied around him, while ordinary people, farmers, cattle breeders, artisans, served the palace economy. So the findings and efforts of archaeologists have opened the curtain over "prehistoric Greece" for us.

In the era of the Greco-Mycenaean culture, other states existed on the territory of Greece, which fought among themselves, made campaigns of conquest. One of the military expeditions, as it has now become obvious, was the Trojan War, described in the Iliad. In the XIII-XII centuries. BC NS. the tribes of the Balkan Peninsula swept away small slave kingdoms in the process of moving south. They also destroyed Mycenae. Some Greeks, fleeing from enemies, swam across the Aegean Sea and settled in Asia Minor. It was among these settlers that the myths of the Trojan War turned out to be enduring.

For a long time, the Greeks did not have a common literary language. They spoke and wrote in three dialects: Ionian, Dorian, and Aeolian. The Athenians spoke the Attic dialect, which constituted, as it were, the core of the Ionian dialect. The historian Herodotus wrote in Ionian, and the poet Sappho in Aeolian. Pindar composed his odes and hymns in Dorian. However, they understood each other well enough. The literary language developed later in the Hellenistic era.

"CHILDHOOD OF HUMANITY".

Greek literature is unique and unique. Thinkers of different eras did not skimp on the most flattering epithets regarding her artistic contribution. “The world of antiquity is charming,” Belinsky enthused. “In his life there is a grain of everything great, noble, valiant, because the basis of his life is the pride of the individual, the inviolability of personal dignity.” Marx wrote that Greek art and epos "continue to provide us with artistic pleasure and, in a certain respect, retain the significance of a norm and an unattainable model." In the works of the Greeks, we are amazed by the depth, monumentality and at the same time naivety, spontaneity, for the Greeks, in the words of the same Marx, were "normal children", and their art reflected "the childhood of human society, where it developed most beautifully."

7 Greek way of life

How did the ancient Hellenes, who stood at the origins of European civilization, who created great artistic values, lived? What was the Hellenic type purely outwardly? Here is one of the descriptions belonging to R. Kh. Adamantius, a famous physician (5th century BC): “In those areas where the Hellenic race has survived in its purest form, the population is quite tall, broad shoulders, slim, strong addition; they are blond with a white skin color and a firm, though delicate blush, they have straight, strong legs with graceful feet, a round, medium-sized head on a strong neck. ... Among all peoples, the Greeks stand out for the beauty of their eyes. "

ELLYN: CHARACTER AND MENTALITY

And what can you say about the distinctive features of the national character of the Hellene, his mentality? This is not an easy question.

Probably, a kind of universalism, a generous variety of talents should be considered a happy feature of the Hellenic national character. The Roman satirist Juvenal noted that the Greeks who flooded Rome showed obvious abilities in various types of crafts. Aristotle made the following observation: those who live in cold climates are distinguished by their energy, but not enough mental alertness; the inhabitants of Asia and hot countries, with intellectual liveliness, lack energy. The Hellenes have a lively and active mind. These features largely explain the attractive, unfading features of Hellenic art: harmony, clarity. This is a consequence of the mental balance of their creators.

The Hellenic mentality is also characterized by a rejection of extremes, one-sidedness. “Nothing too much” is one of the essential postulates that determine his behavior. The Hellene combined fantasy with rationality, feeling with intelligence, and passion with cold calculation. Let's add to this curiosity, the desire to discover and learn the unknown, which determined the success of the Hellenes in a variety of sciences and crafts. Savvy, resourcefulness, the ability to adapt to unexpected situations, these historically formed features of the Hellenic were vividly embodied in Homer's Odyssey, this truly Hellenic character. AF Losev sees in the Odyssey an expression of the “Pontic spirit”: “Odysseus is precisely the bearer of Pontian practical rationality, an intelligent and far-sighted ability to navigate in difficult circumstances, tireless energy and organizational activity, the ability to speak eloquently and convincingly, the finest diplomacy, cunning and political art ".

The subtlety of the mind is a prominent feature of the Greeks.

The historian Herodotus reads: "Since ancient times, the Hellene has been distinguished from the barbarian by his quick-wittedness and lack of stupid credulity." Cicero testifies to the witty nature of the Hellenes and willingly quotes their well-aimed, subtle judgments. The French philosopher Auguste Renan emphasizes the light outlook inherent in the Hellenes: the Greeks, like true children, as they really were, perceived life so joyfully that they never had the idea of ​​sending curses to the gods, finding “nature unjust and insidious in relation to man. "

The idea of ​​happiness by many Hellenes is instructive. Herodotus gives his conversation with the Lydian king Croesus. Herodotus explains to the powerful ruler why he considers the Athenian Tellus to be "the happiest of men." First, Tell's home state was happy; he had wonderful children and lived to the time when all his children had grandchildren and grew up safely; secondly, according to our understanding, he had sufficient means of livelihood, and he ended his days with a glorious death during the battle of the Athenians with the Eleusians; he helped his enemies to flee and died a courageous death; thirdly, the Athenians buried him at the expense of the state in the same place where he fell, and honored him with high honors. " So, the main ethical values ​​of the Hellene: civic virtues; love for your state; deeds worthy of ancestors; healthy offspring.

UPBRINGING AND EDUCATION.

The universal endowment of the Hellenes was not a gift from heaven. It was formed by the whole way of their life. Upbringing and education have always remained the subject of vigilant concern. The prestige of spiritual and intellectual activity was unusually high. Talented people were surrounded by honor and attention.

A reasonable question arises: where did the Greeks get their time to engage in creative work? To participate in the work of courts, attend a national assembly? Of course, the bulk of the thankless physical labor was performed by slaves. The free were largely spared from it. However, they were also engaged in business: crafts, trade, navigation, construction work and many others. But the working day was usually limited to six hours. The Greeks were quite modest, unassuming in everyday life, in terms of clothing and food. The winged words of Pericles: "We love beauty combined with cheapness" became a peculiar motto of the Hellenes. The life of the Greeks was not like the splendor of the East. In the classical period, the goal in life was not the accumulation of wealth, but the spiritual and physical improvement of the individual. The following epigram reminded of this:

Six hours for work are adjusted; those behind them
As a symbol of their signs, they say to the mortal: "live."

And what did it mean: live? First of all, communication with nature. With a neighbor. There was also another wise Greek saying: "Man is a deity to man."

SPIRIT OF COMPETITION.

The development of the abilities "programmed" in man was stimulated by the spirit of competition, which pervaded all spheres of life of the Hellenes. In the Greek language there was a special concept: agon, that is, struggle, competition. Sports, especially gymnastic competitions, as well as artistic (poetic and musical) and equestrian competitions prevailed. Revealing the best, whether it be writing tragedies, playing the cithara, singing, philosophical discussion, oratory, beauty contests, etc., awakened the need for improvement, in honing skills.

FEATURES OF HOUSEHOLD WAY.

The ancient Greeks were considered sociable people, inclined to jointly discuss the affairs of the state. Often they united in circles, communities of interest. But their privacy remained largely hidden from prying eyes. The house of the Hellene, with its windows, "face", turned to the inner courtyard; it was usually built of raw bricks, the floors were adobe or stone, sometimes marble, the roofs were tiled. Houses were, as a rule, two-story, and in Athens for a long time they were both small and uncomfortable. Even famous military leaders owned modest dwellings. The poor, on the other hand, huddled in huts, adhered to the rocks and mountain ledges.

The house of a wealthy Hellene was two-story, with a total area of ​​250-300 m2. The yard occupied about 60-80 m 2. The house was erected in such a way as to be maximally adapted to the local climate and lighting. The historian Xenophon set out the following requirements for a home: it should be “pleasant for the owner”, “cool in summer, warm in winter”.

The ground floor usually housed up to 10 rooms; they formed the male and female half. The main room of the house was called andron, the so-called. men's room. It was intended for men's gatherings and feasts, that is, symposia. Another important room was the hearth room where the family gathered for dinner. Some of the rooms on the ground floor were used as workshops for household chores. The female part of the house, called the gyneque, was on the second floor. Here the wife supervised her maids and did housework.

There was no special heating in the houses. In winter, earthen vessels or jugs containing hot coal were placed in the rooms. The warmest and most comfortable place was the kitchen, where the household gathered. In addition, there was a special insulated room, a kind of home bath. Food was cooked in ceramic hearths, in special stoves resembling a bell, set directly on coals, bread was baked. At a later time, after the campaigns of Alexander the Great, the so-called. the Hellenistic period, the Greek aristocracy, imitating the eastern nobility, began to frankly gravitate towards luxury, acquiring villas with pools and fountains.

The houses had rather modest, numerous and comfortable furniture. The chairs were either stone or wooden, sometimes for a guest he was covered with a shaggy skin. Tables are round, square and oval, single and. sin legged, usually lower than modern. Clothes and utensils were hidden in large, locked chests-chests, which also served as a seat. The chests contained books and scrolls of papyri. Women's jewelry was housed in elegant caskets, which were closed with a ring-key worn on a finger. In the rooms one could also see incense-smokers. The Athenians made sure that the rooms were not overloaded with unnecessary things, and the interior remained aesthetic and pleasing to the eye.

Among the specific household utensils is a large earthenware vessel for food supplies. The pithos was somewhat smaller, where wine, oil, figs, pickles were stored. An amphora was a vase with two handles and convex sides. A vessel for mixing wine with water during meals and libations was called a crater. Drinking pure wine was considered indecent, evidence of low culture. Archilochus, denouncing his enemy Likamba, writes about him that he drank wine "unmixed."

Incense was poured into oblong vessels called lecythians. Finally, there were a considerable number of vases of various shapes, decorated with paintings. A whole area of ​​painting was developed - vase painting.

The aesthetic perfection of Greek vases is still admired today. The great English romantic poet John Keats, in his famous poem "Ode to a Greek Vase", admires the drawings captured on it. The vase itself is "a storyteller, whose inventions are truer and more artless than other inventions." In the ending of the poem, the Greek vase appears as the embodiment of classical beauty.

Say: the truth is beautiful and true
beautiful and that's enough!

Vessels of a special shape were used to store oils and perfumes, which were applied to the body. Women put cosmetic drugs in ceramic bottles.

In the later Hellenistic era, vessels made of bronze or silver were used as ceremonial dishes. Wooden dishes were not forgotten. But clay ceramics: were the most common.

For the Greeks who are moderate in food, the main products were bread, vegetables, olives, chestnuts, and fish. Meat was eaten infrequently, usually received at public sacrifices. The poor ate barley, beans, flat cakes, salted fish. The food of the Spartans was rougher than that of the Athenians.

FEATHERS.

But gourmets took their heart out at feasts, where the treat was both abundant and exquisite. In "From Xenophanes of Colophon" A.S. Pushkin describes the feast as follows:

Clean shine floor; glass bowls shine;
All guests are already crowned; another smells, closing his eyes,
Incense sweet smoke; the other opens the amphora,
The smell of cheerful wine spilling far away; vessels

Light icy water, golden loaves, amber
Honey and young cheese: - everything is ready; all decorated with flowers
The altar of the Chora is singing. But at the beginning of the meal, about others,
Should drink drink, broadcast noble speeches,
We must pray to the immortals, let us be honored with a pure soul
To observe the truth; because it’s easier. Now we get started ...

The guests reclined on couches, to each of which low tables with various dishes were brought. They took food with their hands. Soups were not relied on at the feasts. Lunch usually began with dishes that whet the appetite. The feast was a kind of ritual: it was not only an exquisite treat, but a show and entertainment. The main part of the feast, during which they drank wine, included music, playing flutes and citharas, dancing and drinking speeches. An indispensable element was the recitation of fragments from Homer's poems. Lyric poets were also read: Anacreon, Sappho. The leader of the feast not only gave the floor to one speaker or another, but also established the proportion of dilution of the wines; water. Being drunk was considered bad form. The Greeks believed that the first cup bestows health, the second pleasure, the third sleep. After the third bowl, they had to go home.

After a joint meal, sometimes a feast or a booze was organized, which was called a symposium. Some symposia grew into riotous feasts. The philosopher Plato, observing the luxurious houses of the inhabitants of the city; Akraganta (Sicily), complained that the inhabitants build them as if they were hoping for eternal life, gluttony so ugly, as if this was their last meal.

The regulars of the feasts were people whose duty it was to amuse society with rude jokes; they were called parasites (para - u, sitos - bread). This was a certain social stratum to which the playwright Eupolis dedicated the comedy "Flatterers". It shows how philosophers, artists, dramatic poets literally lay siege to the house of a certain rich man Kallia. They sneak, compete in front of him in witticisms, praise him to the skies, in fact, forcing them to take them for full allowance, feed them, dress them. We will meet something similar later in imperial Rome: crowds of half-starved clients, including impoverished philosophers, teachers, poets, will storm the houses of the rich, begging for handouts from them.

CLOTHES OF THE GREEKS.

The clothes of the Greeks were quite simple and at the same time beautiful and economical. The main clothing of the men was a chiton, a long sleeveless shirt; on top of the chiton was thrown a himation, a wide, oblong robe. The most common footwear was sandals attached to the leg with straps.

The Greek women's costume was also distinguished by its simplicity. Its main element was a tunic (chiton), which went down to the floor. The bodice and the skirt were one whole. The tunic was made with short sleeves and was fastened with a buckle on the shoulder. It was a home suit made of woolen fabric. The woman's hands were bared. The shoes were distinguished by their grace, were white or pink, decorated with a red or black border. Men wore shoes resembling boots or ankle boots. The women had sandals, shoes, or high boots.

APPEARANCE.

The Greeks cared about the freshness of the face. The skin of men who spent a lot of time in the air was usually tanned, while that of women, on the contrary, was pale. Men wore beards as a sign of masculinity. They began to shave only from the time of Alexander the Great. Men and women in general had a variety of hairstyles. Only athletes cut their hair short, others had their hair down to their shoulders. Long hair, sometimes pulled back at the back of the head or descending in the form of a ponytail, characterizes the Hellenic woman. A short haircut was worn by slaves, as well as free ones in mourning or in old age.

DECORATIONS.

Both men and women willingly used jewelry: among them are rings, diadems, rings and bracelets. Comediographer Aristophanes sneers at dandies "in earrings" with rings on sleek fingers. Interesting were the rings with seals - the symbol of the owner and mistress; often they had original images. Such a ring plays an important role in the plot in Menand's comedy "The Court of Arbitration". Popular women's jewelry included earrings, necklaces, wrists, and buckles. They were often left on dead women and men, as was discovered during archaeological excavations.

FUNERAL RITES.

The Greeks had an established funeral rite procedure: the deceased was either buried or burned at the stake, after which the ashes were poured into an urn, which could be buried or placed in a tomb. The deceased was usually placed in a cypress coffin, since cypress was considered a tree of sorrow. In honor of the deceased, commendable speeches were made, but at the same time they tried to adhere to the truth, for a lie was considered an unworthy deed. In Greece, people wore black or dark clothes during the period of mourning; only in Argos did they wear white. In Athens and Argos, mourning lasted thirty days; in other policies - less; in Sparta - only twelve.

In general, the burial ceremony was carefully designed and was an essential element of the Greek way of life. A soul that did not have a grave, according to the concepts of the Greeks, became wandering. The writings of the ancients convince us that the Hellene feared death less than the deprivation of burial. Most of all, he feared that after his death the funeral rites would not be performed. A military leader who did not perform rituals for the dead sailors after a naval battle was punished with death. Such a fate befell, for example, the son of the great Athenian statesman Pericles. And this happened even though the son returned to Athens with a victory.

Traditions and rituals played a huge role in the life of the Hellenes. This is reflected in the literature.

SLAVERY.

Greece was the birthplace of democracy and democracy. But ancient democracy, with all its enormous gains, was "historically limited. Equality of rights and opportunities extended only to free citizens, and this category did not include slaves. In the V century. BC BC, i.e., in particular, under Pericles, there were about 130 thousand citizens in Athens, but this number included women and children. Thus, less than half enjoyed the right to vote.

Aristotle wrote: “Man cannot do without tools, even to get only what is needed to sustain life. Among these tools, some are animate, others are inanimate ... A slave is an animate property and the most perfect of tools. " A thinker like Aristotle considered slavery a natural phenomenon, corresponding to the very nature of man: some people were created in order to be slaves.

How did slavery come about? It did not exist in the early, archaic stages of Greek society. It was the result of violence. First of all - wars, when prisoners were turned into slavery. Thanks to the prisoners, it was possible to enrich themselves. They were traded, they took a ransom for them.

Along with wars, piracy was a source of acquisition of slaves. Slave hunters specialized in such a craft, who made expeditions to distant lands, to the Balkans, to Scythia. In a number of Greek states, a person who did not pay off a debt could fall into debt slavery. Finally, the slave was not allowed to have a family, a wife, he could cohabit with a woman, but at the same time the children born became the property of his master. The slave did not have a name, but only a nickname, usually indicating the area where he came from.

Being the “speaking thing” of the master, the slave did not have his own property. In most Greek states, the owner could punish his slave at his own discretion, even kill, although it was not profitable for him. A slave everywhere, with the exception of Athens, was not considered a person, had no legal status, no rights. And yet, in Athens, citizens treated them softer, more humanely than in other states of Greece, where Sparta was famous for its special ruthlessness. In it, free citizens, the Spartiats, established a real regime of terror in relation to state slaves, helots.

The high level of civilization, education and culture in Athens affected the position of the slaves. The slave was, in a sense, a member of the Athenian family. He dressed like a free poor man. He could attend religious ceremonies and festivals together with free citizens. He was allowed to talk at home with his master and at the same time to behave with dignity, to express the hard-hitting truth. If in other Greek cities a slave was allowed to be beaten and insulted even on the street, then nothing of the kind was allowed in Athens. Albeit in the smallest degree, but the slaves were legally protected. In addition, the Athenian law gave the slave certain guarantees: the owner had to answer for the cruel treatment of the slave, and even more so for the murder. If the master was excessively cruel in his disciplinary measures, the slave could demand that he be sold to another master, transferred to softer hands.

LABOR OF SLAVES.

There is a popular opinion: all production in Athens was based on the exploitation of slaves, and the citizens were engaged in politics, devoted themselves to the fine arts, being freed from material concerns. However, this is not quite true. Free citizens were included in production, worked as farmers, winegrowers, fishermen, sailors. Slaves participated in the same labor processes, but stayed a step below their masters. They fell to those areas where purely physical efforts were required.

Often, slaves were able to achieve a fairly privileged status in the house of their master. This applies primarily to the "nurse" and "teacher". Taking part in education, they often became attached to their children. A similar motif is present in some of the Greek plays of Euripides, Menander, where images of domestic slaves appear ("nurse", "uncle"). In the tragedy of Euripides "Hippolytus" the nurse acts as a kind of confidante of Phaedra.

Usually the poor had no slaves. An ordinary citizen had one slave and two maids. Slaves were used in agriculture, but to a small extent; the Athenian peasant owned a small plot of land and could cultivate it himself or with the help of relatives. Slaves were much more involved in handicraft production: they were engaged in sewing clothes, pottery and leatherwork, making musical instruments, household furniture, utensils and, of course, weapons. During the construction of temples, palaces, and other large aesthetically perfect structures in Athens, both freemen and slaves, to whom the state paid their salaries, worked side by side. However, it was put in his pocket by the slave owner, who was only responsible for feeding the slave. Slave labor was indispensable in the extraction of minerals, which are rich in Greece.

THE THEME OF SLAVERY IN LITERATURE.

Although the great Greek writers and philosophers considered slavery to be natural, they often expressed their sympathy for the slaves. Homer's Odyssey contains the following lines:

Having chosen the painful lot of sad slavery for man,
Zeus destroys half of the best valor in him.

A slave, indignant at the humiliated lot, could express his protest by spoiling the tools of labor. Therefore, the slave owners tried to make them rough, clumsy. As Greek society developed, it became apparent that slavery was a disease that gradually weakened it from the inside. The slaves were not interested in the fruits of their activities, their work was not only exhausting, but also ineffective, devoid of initiative.

It is significant that in Greek drama, especially in comedy, as it develops, slaves are assigned an increasing role. This is especially true of Aristophanes, such of his plays as "Wasps", "Peace", "Frogs". In "Frogs" the slave Xanthius, witty, resourceful, even demonstrates superiority over the master. In Plutos, the slave Karion laments the slave's bitter lot:

Oh Zeus, oh gods! What a punishment
Belong to an insane master!
Let the slave give excellent advice,
Yes, the master does not want to listen to them,
Suffer the servant for this trouble!

Karion is drawn into the madness of his master and tries to help him in every possible way. In t. N. the new attic comedy of Menander, where family and household themes prevail, slaves are indispensable participants in love intrigues

EDUCATION OF A CITIZEN.

As already emphasized, good breeding and education meant, perhaps, more for the s / lins than material values. Upbringing and education were included in the "zone of responsibility" of the state. The slave was considered unhappy not because he often performed hard physical work, but because he could not join knowledge along with the free one.

The main pedagogical goal was to educate a worthy member of society, a citizen in the broadest, fullest sense of this concept. This meant achieving fame. Be worthy of ancestors, their good name. And maybe to surpass the parents in virtues. Hector, the hero of the Iliad, seeing his little son, says: “Let it be said about him once, seeing from the battle that he is superior to his father!” In the poems of Homer, and they were to a certain extent the textbooks of life, the idea of ​​the moral education of the Hellene is emphasized. The poet calls his most attractive qualities: "glorious in descendants", "faithful", "reliable", "acting as it should be according to custom."

The birth of a child was considered a solemn and joyful moment, although not always. The first question was whether the father would like to keep the child with him or if he wants to get rid of him. There was a custom: the midwife lowered the newborn to the ground so that the father could do whatever he wanted: pick it up or, conversely, leave it on the floor. In Sparta, a newborn was brought to a community home, where he was examined by the elders of the clan. If the baby was considered strong and healthy, then he was brought up as a Spartan: if he was considered weak, he was thrown into a mountain gorge on Mount Taygeta or doomed to death by starvation, left to be devoured by wild animals. Even the great Plato and Aristotle, having drawn the scheme of a just state, were inclined to believe that it was pointless to bring up an ugly child.

It happened that healthy children were also thrown. This happened among the poor, who feared that they would not be able to give them a proper upbringing, and therefore, like slaves, the child would be deprived of the benefits of life. The fate of girls was especially unenviable: in some wealthy, but large families, they did not want to share inheritances. It was believed that the boy, having matured, would be able to feed and provide for himself, the poor girl would not marry if she did not have a good dowry. Cases of abandoned children, including those born out of wedlock, were not uncommon in Greece. The plot with the thrown child is the basis of the famous play by Menander "The Court of Arbitration". Oedipus, the hero of Sophocles' dramatic trilogy, was also abandoned by his parents.

In wealthy families, the mother left breastfeeding to the nurse to keep herself free and unbound. The breadwinner could be either a slave or a poor citizen. From an early age, children in wealthy families grew up surrounded by slaves and slaves, who were looked upon as their property.

In his book Politics, Aristotle wrote: "Children should not be idle." Constant employment is essential. Otherwise, the child begins to break and beat everything that comes under his hand.

MORAL EDUCATION.

In the beginning, education was not compulsory, but it was seen as a duty of parents towards their offspring. But already in the V century. BC e., in the era of the Peloponnesian War, the Athenians were proud that among the free they had no illiterates. At the age of 7, schooling began in Athens. Both unreasonable children and adults are obliged to follow the highest law called morality.

What did the Greeks understand by morality? They saw in her health and strength of mind, sobriety of the worldview, protecting a person from evil and debauchery, a sense of shame inherent in every decent person. Morality was the essence of all virtues. Its bearer is favored by the gods and respected by fellow citizens. Morality is a priority goal of upbringing, in which coercion and fear can take place, if they are able to direct a person in the right way and contribute to the correction of his nature. With the necessary severity, the Greeks watched the behavior of the boys, not excluding physical punishment, up to and including rods. The Greek comedian Menander wrote: "He who is not beaten will not be brought up."

EDUCATION.

In Sparta, education was entirely taken over by the state. In Athens, however, a child, as soon as he left the nursery, entered under the supervision of a teacher (literally this word means "teacher"). The child was charged with obeying the teacher, even if he was a slave. The teacher was primarily an educator, not a teacher. From the age of 7, the boy was already under the tutelage of his father, who, together with the teachers, prepared him for practical life. In the early days, there were no schools in Athens. But the training was collective. Children united in groups under the guidance of a teacher, which was, as it were, a prototype of school activities. The Greeks proceeded from the principle of the unity of the mental and physical development of the individual, reasonably believing that in a person both soul, body and intellect should be beautiful.

EDUCATION OF GIRLS.

The upbringing of girls was of a special nature. Before marriage, into which the Athenian girl entered at about 15 years old, she stayed in the depths of the female part of the house, called the gynekeus. The girls were brought up by their mother: they were taught to manage the household and even mastered the basic skills of treating their neighbors. Their upbringing was built in such a way as to limit contact with the outside world as much as possible. It was believed that in a similar way, the qualities most valued in girls would be formed: modesty, good nature and tenderness. Under the close supervision of mothers and nurses, they were accustomed to needlework, to work with wool and fabric. The love for art, which distinguished the Hellenes, penetrated into the limits of the gynekos. The girls were introduced to writing, reading and music. On rare occasions, a young girl left her shelter, she could appear at some religious ceremonies. Religion had a huge impact on her mentality.

Summing up, the French historian of ancient culture P. Guiraud testifies: “If we discard the details when studying the activities of a Greek girl and the rare entertainment that interrupted them, we get a whole impression - the impression of something modest and restrained: it was life, monotonous and peaceful , dependent, but not demeaning; The girl’s ignorance was carefully maintained, but not to lower the woman’s mental level, but to preserve in all the inviolability of the subtlety of her soul and that flower of chastity, which had not yet faded under the influence of knowledge of evil or suspicion of its existence ”.

IN THE GREEK SCHOOL.

There were 3 groups of subjects in the Greek school: verbal sciences, music and gymnastics. Classes for the first two began at the age of 7; the teenager was introduced to gymnastics from the age of 14. In the process of learning to write, he memorized works full of moralizing advice, examples from the life of great people, stories about someone's generous deeds. This is how not so much literary as moral education was carried out. Later, the study of passages from Homer, tragic and lyrical poets began. Musical training included playing two well-known instruments - the zither or lyre and the flute. A gymnastics teacher called a pedotribe taught wrestling, running, jumping, discus and dart throwing. Gymnastics focused not only on sports, primarily military service was meant.

From about the IV century. BC NS. the military training of young men has acquired orderliness and purposefulness. The ephebia instigut was introduced. A young man who reached the age of 18 was considered Efebom. Efebians were included in the state lists and were obliged to serve the state from two to four years, being in the garrisons and on guard posts. After a year of service, the ephebes took an oath of allegiance to the Athenian state. In it, in particular, it was said: “I swear never to disgrace this sacred weapon, never leave my place in battle, whether alone or together with everyone I will fight for my hearth I will leave behind my fatherland not diminished, but more powerful and stronger. "

HIGHER EDUCATION.

There was also a form of education that could be conventionally called higher education. The wealthiest and most intelligent Athenian young people were involved in it. They listened to eminent scientists on subjects beyond the school curriculum: geometry, astronomy, geography, but especially rhetoric and philosophy. Quite often the words of such teachers evoked a lively response in the hearts of young people. Plato testifies: “A young man who first tasted of this source receives such pleasure as if he had found a treasure of wisdom. He is full of delight. " All this is evidence of that cult of knowledge, that respect for talents that characterize life in Athens. Recall: all Athenians, rich and poor, defended their homeland on the battlefield. If the Athenian was captured, he often found himself alive: he was saved thanks to his knowledge and skills - he was used as a home teacher.

8. Periodization of Greek literature

The history of ancient Greek literature is organically connected with the life of Hellas, its culture, religion, traditions, it reflects in its own way changes in the socio-economic and political fields. Modern science distinguishes four periods in the history of ancient Greek literature.

1. Archaic, which covers the time before the beginning of the 5th century. BC NS. This is the era of "early Greece", when there is a slow decomposition of the patriarchal-clan system and the transition to a slave state. The subject of our attention is the preserved monuments of folklore, mythology, the famous poems of Homer "Iliad" and "Odyssey", the didactic epic of Hesiod, as well as lyrics, a constellation of poets who worked in the 7th-6th centuries. BC NS.

2. Attic (or classical) covers the V-IV centuries. BC e., when the Greek city-states and, first of all, Athens, this "eye of Hellas", are experiencing a heyday, and then - a crisis, lose their independence, being under the rule of Macedonia. This is a time of remarkable take-off in all artistic spheres. These are, first of all, the Greek theater, the drama of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes; Attic prose: historiography (Herodotus, Thucydides), oratory (Lysias, Demosthenes), philosophy (Plato, Aristotle).

3. Hellenistic covers the time from the end of the IV century. BC NS. until the end of the 1st century n. NS. The subject of attention is Alexandrian poetry and the neo-attic comedy (Menander).

4. Roman, ie the time when Greece becomes a province of the Roman Empire. Main themes: Greek novel, works of Plutarch and Lucian.

9. Interdisciplinary communications.

The section "Introduction" is closely related to such sections and topics as "Literature and Life", "Science and Art, Their Commonality and Difference", "The Concept of the Literary Process", "Literary Links" (in the course "Theory of Literature"); "The value of writing in the history of the development of society and language", "The origin of the Greek alphabet" (in the course "Theory of language"); "Types and forms of government", "Democracy" (in the course "Political Science"); "Upbringing and Education in the Ancient World" (in the courses "Philosophy of Education", "History of Pedagogy"); the corresponding sections in the courses: "Ethnology", and "Sociology". Additional material to Section 4. "Antiquity and Russian Culture" is contained in the courses "History of Russia" and the corresponding chapters of courses on the history of Russian literature.

10. Literature

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Traditions in the history of culture. M., 1978.

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The history of Ancient Greece is usually divided into 5 periods, which are at the same time cultural epochs: the Aegean or Kritomeken (III-II millennium BC), Homeric (XI-IX centuries BC); Archaic (VIII-VI centuries BC); Classic (V-IV centuries BC); Hellenistic (second half of the 4th-middle of the 1st century BC).

The period of Homeric Greece Approximately in the VIII-VII centuries. BC. the blind singer-storyteller created two great poems called "Iliad" and "Odyssey" (poems were recorded several centuries later). Homer's works opened an important page in the history of ancient artistic culture. It is no coincidence that the philosopher Plato called the poet "the educator of Greece."

During this period, the Greeks built temples to their gods, but they did not reach us, only the remains of the foundations and images on vases have survived. In the VIII century. BC. the flowering of ceramics falls. With the help of a potter's wheel and roasting, many works were created, both domestic and ritual. To this day, pottery of that time has survived, painted in the so-called "geometric style" - an ornament of circles, rhombuses, triangles, etc. Amphora. 750 BC

Greek mythology There are many wonderful forces in nature, But there is no stronger man. Sophocles "Antigone" During this period, Greek mythology was formed, within the framework of which a person creates a holistic picture of the world, the main feature of which was the fabulous and religious convention. The gods of Olympus became the source of plots and images of artistic creativity.

Son of Zeus and the nymph Maya, patron saint of trade. Aphrodite's husband, lame blacksmith god, patron of fire. Goddess of wisdom and just war, Wife of the king of the gods. Patroness of family and marriage, helped women with childbirth. Goddess of the Hunt. Twin sister of Apollo. God of the underworld, consort of Persephone. The Lord of the Seas shows a violent and independent disposition. God of wine and fun. Goddess of love and beauty. Supreme Olympic god, lord of gods and people Check yourself:

The Archaic Period The art of the Greek archaic - new in style and spirit - arose in the era of the formation of republican rule, the emergence of policies - Greek city-states. The art of the Greek archaic has a special harmony and poetic Feeling, it is addressed to a person, reflects the joy of life. Greek architecture, like sculpture, took shape in the archaic era.

Temple of Apollo at Delphi During the Archaic era, Greek sanctuaries were built. The sanctuaries were the concentration of the most ancient rituals and gradually large centers of the arts. Temple of Athena Afaya on about. Aegina BC. The temple became the prototype of the Parthenon.

A large place in the art of the archaic was occupied by sculpture, which adorned not only temples, but was also an integral part of the religious cult. The new ideal of beauty - a healthy human body - is embodied in the surviving statues of Kora Kurosa of Naked Young Men - Athletes. Girls are always in robes (drapery).

The classical period of ancient art, continued the traditions of the archaic in all types of arts: architecture, painting, plastics. Classical period The greatest works of Greek art were created in the 5th century. BC NS. The beginning of this period was marked by the victorious struggle between the Freedom-loving Greeks and the Persians. In advanced policies, a democratic republican form of government is taking shape. The ideals of democratic polis, imbued with the pathos of a heroic struggle against enemies, found expression in art, literature, and architecture.

The layout of the Ereichteion is very complex and asymmetrical; the temple was built on different levels and divided into two parts. The temple is adjoined by three porticos, including the portico of the caryatids (a sculptural image of female figures carrying a ceiling). Opposite the Parthenon, the Erechtheion was erected, dedicated to Pallas Athena (mother) and her husband Poseidon Erechtheus.

Numerous sculptors worked in Greece in the 5th century. BC NS. Three of them are the most significant: Myron, Polycletus and Phidias. Myron in his work finally overcame the last vestiges of archaic art with its rigidness and immobility of forms. In the middle of the 5th century. BC NS. he created a statue of a Discus thrower of a youth throwing a disc. He conveyed the difficult pose of the athlete who was straining for a throw, vividly and convincingly. And in his other works, Miron strove to reveal all the richness and variety of human movements. Discobolus Athena Marsyas

Unlike Myron, his younger contemporary Polycletus usually portrayed a calmly standing person. Particularly famous was his statue of Dorifor (spear-bearer), an athlete-warrior who embodied the ideal of a beautiful and valiant citizen of a free polis (c. 440 BC). The pose of a young man, slightly bent one leg and leaning on the other, is simple and natural, the muscles of his strong body are conveyed vividly and convincingly. Polycletus built his sculptures according to the system of mathematically exact proportions of parts of the human body that he developed. The ancient Greeks called the statue of Doriphorus canon, that is, the rule; many generations of sculptors have followed its proportions in their works. Amazon DiadumenDorifor

At the end of the 5th century. BC NS. the period of crisis of slaveholding policies of Greece begins. The war between Athens and Sparta weakened Greece. The outlook of the Greeks and their attitude to art are changing. The majestic and sublime art of the 5th century, glorifying the hero-citizen, gives way to works reflecting individual feelings, personal experiences. Sculptor of the first half of the 4th century BC NS. Skopas depicts wounded warriors with faces distorted by suffering. Famous for his statue of the Maenad, the companion of the god of wine Dionysus, rushing in a frantic, intoxicating dance (a reduced marble copy is in Dresden, in the Albertinum). Potos Menada

They began to depict the gods in a new way. In the statues of the famous sculptor of the 4th century. BC NS. Praxiteles, the gods, having lost their greatness and power, acquired the features of earthly, human beauty. He portrayed God Hermes as having a rest after a long journey (Museum, Olympia). In the arms of God is the baby Dionysus, whom he amuses with a grape bunch. Hermes with child Dionysus Torso of Aphrodite Venus Medici Venus Apollo Saurocton

Apoxyomenus Hercules Sculptor of the second half of the 4th century. BC NS. Lysippos created a new image of the young athlete. In his statue of Apoxyomenos (a youth cleansing the body of sand), it is not the pride of the winner that is emphasized, but his weariness and excitement after the competition (Vatican Museum, Rome). Hermes putting on sandals

In addition to temples, theaters are among the highest achievements of Greek architecture. These open-air structures, with rising steps for spectators, had excellent acoustics. The theater in Epidaurus, built by the architect Polycletus the Younger in the IV century, was famous. BC NS.

The era of Hellenism A new stage in the history of Greece, which came after the conquests of Alexander the Great. At this time, art was called upon to glorify the victories of the Tsarist rulers of Greece and the countries of the East conquered by Alexander the Great. This art embodied a new idea of ​​the greatness of the world, united in the vast space of Hellenic culture. Lion Hunt Battle of Alexander the Great with the Persians

12. Name of the sculpture and era The name of the sculpture and the author.