Anthropology studies man as. Anthropology. The general goal of anthropology is the study of the origin and historical existence of man
anthropology) A., or the science of man, is a label that could well be attached to what is commonly called psychology. Like psychology, psychology developed as a broad discipline devoted to the scientific study of man; like psychology, A. is a heterogeneous discipline, representatives of which can not always be clearly distinguished from representatives of other disciplines involved in the scientific study of man. What most consistently distinguishes A. from related disciplines is its focus on comparing objects with each other (especially pre-literate or so-called "primitive" languages), an interest expressed both in a careful description of the characteristics specific ob-in, and in the formulation of principles, to-rye reflect the actual knowledge of the variations of these characteristics in different ob-vah. This interest manifests itself in various ways in three broad sub-disciplines: 1. Archeology, or the study of human prehistory. about-in, based on the conclusions made on the basis of physical. evidence of their existence, obtained as a result of excavations. 2. Physical A., or the study of the origin of people. groups by research. physical distribution. characteristics (incl. not only macroscopic, but also microscopic characteristics, such as the chemical composition of the blood and genes) and a comparative study of other species, related people. mind genetically or by living conditions. Interspecific comparison extends to behavioral issled., to-rye are similar to nek-ry types issled. in Comparative Psychology and Zoology of Behavior. 3. Socio-cultural A., who studies the cultural and social. human structures. about-in. Along with various special areas, this also includes anthropological linguistics, representatives of which have much more in common with linguists than with other categories of anthropologists. All these sub-disciplines of A. are potentially relevant to one or another aspect of psychology. The rest of this article, however, will be devoted to the consideration of sociocultural A., which has the most developed relationship with psychology and emphasizes its relevance to psychology. With a scientific introduction to most sections of social and cultural A. can be found in the textbook, ed. Honigmann. Anthropological method Anthropologists have a large set of research methods, some of which were borrowed from other social. scientific disciplines. Exclusively anthropological method are field researches., to-rye assume residing of the researcher in ob-ve studied by it throughout the long period of time; participation, as far as possible, in his daily life; observation of such a life even when the researcher cannot take an active part in it, and interviewing the members of this society not only as specific people studied for specific purposes, but also as informants - that is, e., carriers of information. about the ob-ve, his daily life and beliefs. The anthropological theory of anthropological theory is associated with attempts to explain the history of culture. At the heart of most of these theories is the concept of evolution, which takes various and sometimes unexpected forms. Anthropologists of the 19th century painted an oversimplified picture of the development of culture as a sequential passage through a series of interrelated stages. At the beginning of the XX century. this approach b. h. gave way to functionalism, which studies how the distinctive features inherent in a successfully developing culture support and condition each other. Psychologists can find similarities in the ideas underlying the work of the functionalists with those of many psychologists. theories, and therefore it is not surprising that some anthropological researchers have found it useful to use the concepts of behaviorism and psychoanalysis in developing their explanations of culture. Less clear connection with psychology and sometimes even avoidance of turning to psychol. The theory is distinguished by two other anthropological approaches: diffusionism, which develops systematic knowledge about the spread and transfer of cultural characteristics from one region to another, and cognitive, or structural A., views culture as a network of meanings and meanings to be interpreted. Field research material as a source of data Conducting field research. can be motivated by theory. the anthropologist's interests and personal interest in a particular geographic area or people. All the accumulated material of field research., Covering various cultures around the world, is the result of many years of A.'s efforts to develop theories. problems and the totality of interests of all social. researchers. This body of ethnography (as the scientific study of cultures is called) is also used by psychologists who try to find answers to their questions; in most cases, such ethnographic data are the only source of information from which you can get the desired answer, since they contain information about many societies that either no longer exist or have undergone significant changes as a result of prolonged contacts with industrial societies. Are all people communities prone to war? Does the burden of war always fall on Ch. arr. on the shoulders of men and not women? Is belief in life after death widespread? Does the basis of org-ii of all about-in the family? Is incest always forbidden? Ethnographic records provide answers to such questions. While such answers are not always simple, they do provide a more accurate knowledge of human universals. nature in comparison with what can be obtained by simply generalizing knowledge only about one's own about-ve and some others when using them as primary sources. Knowledge of human universals. nature turns out to be very useful in explaining individual development in any individual about-ve and in planning psychol. research Universality, of course, does not imply the existence of some innate and non-acquired propensity. Any individual develops in a society, and all societies develop certain rules, on the basis of which control is exercised over the socialization of its new members. Ways of Thinking Anthropologists have made great efforts to understand the meaning of rituals, myths, magical rites, and other cultural phenomena and to describe the ways of thinking associated with them. Like literary critics trying to understand a particular work of art, they gravitate more towards a careful study of the specific material and its context than to abstraction and the creation of a general theory. Therefore, the result of such research, as a rule, is a detailed interpretation of the existing specific set of facts in relation to a particular ob-va, and not a theory that claims to be universally valid, and this interpretation is no easier to empirically verify than the interpretation of a work of art by a literary critic. However, cognitive anthropologists touch on such aspects of thinking that cognitive psychologists pay little attention to, and publications appearing in this area make a valuable contribution to the study of people. thinking. Universality of process B. h. psychol. research is heavily criticized on the grounds that their conclusions may be culturally biased: if the resulting principles have been tested within only one culture, they are likely to be valid only for itself. Psychologists can respond to these criticisms by conducting re-examinations. in the conditions of other cultures; the results of this kind of research. summarized in cross-cultural psychology manuals. At the same time, with respect to certain conclusions, a less direct approach, but allowing for broader conclusions, can be applied. Nek-ry features of culture cause people. learning, a cut can lead to the development of other features, and this process, to a certain extent, can be predicted on the basis of principles derived from monocultural studies. Anthropological knowledge is predominantly a product of the 20th century. However, over time, opportunities for field research. pre-written about-in, especially those to-rye have not yet undergone radical changes as a result of interaction with industrial about-you, there are fewer and fewer. Methods and theories developed by anthropologists are now increasingly used in the course of research of our own and other industrial societies. See also Acculturation, Cross-cultural psychology, Cultural differences, Rites of passage, Social psychology, Taboo I. L. Child
Today there are many sciences that study people and their relationships in society. The science of anthropology, along with sociology, social science and other similar sciences, belongs to this type of knowledge. Moreover, it must be considered both in a broad and narrow sense.
This means that the question - "Anthropology, what is it?" - it is difficult to give an unambiguous answer. In a broad sense, this is a field of knowledge that deals with the study of man, and based on the knowledge of many humanitarian and natural science disciplines, and in a narrow sense, this is the science of human biological diversity.
History of anthropology
Of course, scientists of antiquity began to be interested in man, his features. So, for example, the ancient Greeks, thanks to their observations and ideas, contributed a lot of interesting things to the science of man.
Hippocrates in his medical treatises pointed out the influence of climatic and natural conditions on the health and physical characteristics of people living in a particular territory. If you remember, the great physician had a teaching about the juices in the human body, which were interconnected with 4 temperaments.
Despite the fact that in those distant times practically no one knew the term "anthropology", what it is, it was the Greek travelers who, studying the characteristics of people living in the countries they traveled, shared their observations, made a comparative analysis and came to very interesting conclusions.
It was this knowledge that became the basis of anthropology. Aristotle, on the other hand, built a "ladder of living beings", on the steps of which he arranged animals according to the degree of complexity of their organization. He gave the penultimate step to the monkey, and then placed a man above it, as the highest being on the planet.
Domestic anthropology
In Russia, this science, one might say, originated in the first half of the 18th century. It was then that Emperor Peter the Great founded the "Kunstkamera" - the first museum of anthropology in Russia, in which anatomical preparations, samples of various deformities, found a place even in those distant times.
During this period, anatomy began to develop in the country, and such scientists as A. Protasov, S. Zabelin, A. Shumlyansky and others took an active part in this matter.
Expeditions
During this era, the Northern Expedition was also organized, which lasted exactly 10 years. Its members developed an anthropological program. Valuable information about the Siberian and Far Eastern peoples was collected, and in the 19th century, participants in a round-the-world expedition led by P.P. Pallas, made a rich contribution of anthropological and ethnographic knowledge to science.
The famous writer and ethnographer A.N. Radishchev wrote a treatise "On Man, on Mortality and His Immortality", and K. M. Baer created a theory of the monogenetic origin of four races, which led to an improvement in the method of measuring human skulls.
The development of science: the subject of anthropology
Before the great geographical discoveries, people did not yet know what anthropology is, what races are and what results from their mixing. However, after them, a lot fell into place. People gained knowledge about the peoples of Southeast Asia, America, Africa, Siberia.
The most important for anthropology was the journey of Magellan, as it confirmed the existence of antipodes. In the 17th century, E. Tyson described the anatomical features of anthropomorphic monkeys, and a century later, attempts were made to build scientifically based hypotheses about the origin of people.
Of great importance for anthropology were the works of the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus, especially his work The System of Nature. It was he who singled out a detachment of primates among mammals, subdividing it into 4 genera: humans, monkeys, lemurs and bats.
Raciality
Surely everyone knows the term Homo sapiens - “A reasonable person”. This is also a merit of the Swedish scientist. The same applies to the division of mankind into four races, which he named after the names of the continents well known in those days. So, a "reasonable person" in its external features can be European, African, Asian and American.
After this, attempts to classify races were tried by F. Bernier, J. Buffon, I. Kant, I. Blumenbach, and others. In addition, by this time, knowledge about the peoples of Australia and Oceania had appeared. In a word, anthropology was gradually born. The books written by most of the authors of this time were about aborigines inhabiting distant islands in the Pacific and Indian Oceans.
Several approaches to anthropology, tasks
In the US and Western Europe, the question: "Anthropology, what is it?" - scientists give this answer: it is a humanitarian science about a person in social, cultural and physical dimensions. It also includes ethnology, considering it an essential element.
But in Soviet science, anthropology is considered the biological science of the physical organization, origin and evolution of people and human races.
Among the Western approach, the French approach stands out as a separate line, according to which anthropology does not include the physical and material aspects of human existence. It is part of sociology. But according to the Anglo-Saxon school, this science is multidisciplinary and consists of 4 sections: anthropobiology, cultural and social anthropology, ethnolinguistics and prehistoric archeology. According to some theories, there is also philosophical anthropology.
Physical
This kind of anthropological science studies the processes, intraspecific variations and stages of the formation of a person as a species. Physical anthropologists are interested in human genetics, that is, its hereditary characteristics, as well as questions of morphology, that is, the parameters of the human body.
Scientists studying the physical side of anthropology are engaged in the analysis of the physical characteristics of a person, as well as his adaptive relationships with culture and the natural environment. Physical anthropology studies the correlation between personality type and body structure, as well as the ethology of primates.
To this end, an association was made of such specialists as anthropologists, psychologists and zoologists, who jointly study the evolution of the human skeleton and the diversity of functions of tissues and organ systems. The focus of their research is to find the relationship between belonging to a particular race and susceptibility to disease, as well as the degree of survival in certain conditions.
Philosophical approach to anthropology
Let's look at the etymology of this term. It comes from two Greek words that translate as "man" and "knowledge". That is, philosophical anthropology is a philosophical approach to the study of a person in a broad sense, and in a narrow one - a philosophical German and Western European school of philosophy, which arose in the twentieth century and proceeds from those ideas that are embedded in the teachings of Dietel's "Philosophy of Life", in the phenomenology of Husserl and etc.
All of them strive to create a structured holistic doctrine of people, through the use of data from most of the sciences of man and human society: psychology, ethology, biology, sociology, and even religion.
Philosophical anthropology originated in 1928 with the works of H. Plesner “Man and the Organic Stages” and Max Scheler “The Position of Man in Space”. In these works, scientists consider the specific differences between the ways of existence of animals and humans.
Years later, Arnold Gehlen, in his writings, presented more thoroughly what anthropology is. The books "Man and his nature, position in the world", published by him in 1940, as well as "Primitive people and late culture" in 1956, consider a person at different periods of his development.
Cultural anthropology
This area of human science studies its behavioral characteristics and results of life. In some interpretations, culture is part of the environment, which is created by the person himself. Cultural anthropology is closely related to linguistics and prehistoric archaeology.
Ethnolinguistics
To understand culture, it is necessary to consider it as a system of symbols. These are the keys to her understanding. As we know, the most common system of symbols is language - a means of verbal and written communication. Anthropologists are engaged in the study of the history of the emergence of the world's languages, their classification, the relationship between them, in order to find the historical relationship between peoples.
prehistoric archeology
What does this scientific discipline study? Its subject is anthropogenesis, the origin of Homo sapiens. She also studies the development of people to explain the historical differences in the way of life of different peoples.
This science interacts with disciplines such as physics, biology, chemistry, which allows you to study, date, and determine the purpose of the artifacts found. All this is done in order to recreate the way of life of ancient peoples.
Cultural anthropology
In some countries, this section is called social anthropology. It studies the family, political, social organization of human existence. In the US, anthropologists believe that the study of "social institutions" is insufficient. For this, it is also necessary to consider elements such as intelligence, values, technology, etc.
Unity of Anthropology
Among scientists, the question often arises as to whether human anthropology is a holistic science. Based on what was said above, we see how diverse are the interests that are united under a common name. However, one must understand that a person in itself is a very complex system. That is why the subjects of study of the science of man are so varied.
Anthropology (from Greek man and word, doctrine) is the science of man. Studying such a complex phenomenon of nature as a person, anthropology contains many aspects and facets determined by the purpose of the study.
At first, anthropology, as a natural science, paid attention to the biological nature of man. Anthropology emerges as a biological science.
For the first time, the concept of "anthropology" was associated with the appearance in 1596 of the scientific treatise Oswald Gasman "Anthropology". The dawn of this science occurs in the 19th century. Anthropology studies the origin of man, as well as the specifics of his structure and evolution. This science began to develop rapidly in the second half of the nineteenth century, when Darwin created his theory of the origin of man. Anthropology is such a field of scientific knowledge that comprehensively studies a person from the point of view of the trinity - biological, spiritual, social.
There are philosophical anthropology, religious, cultural, physical and other directions. And although this concept itself appeared at the dawn of European culture in the writings of the ancient Greek scientist Aristotle, the meaning and meaning of anthropology are continuously being reviewed and refined right up to our time.
For a long time, man was the subject of deep, but mostly speculative mythological and religious reflections, as well as artistic and poetic works. The possibility of creating scientific anthropology was seriously discussed only in the 18th century. Enlightenment philosophers (D. Hume in England and J. d'Alembert in France, etc.). However, only with the advent of the works of the great English naturalist Charles Darwin, the idea of creating scientific anthropology began to take on real shape. By this time, such social and humanitarian sciences as linguistics, sociology, ethnography, psychology, etc. were formed. The formation of scientific anthropology proceeded along two directions that did not intersect with each other for a long time:
1) the creation of anthropology as a biological science dealing with the study of the origin of man as a biological species, its development and population (in space and time),
2) the creation of anthropology as a humanitarian science that would explore the spiritual life of a person in the past and present as part of various social groups and ethnic formations. (Recently, this direction has come to be referred to as "cultural anthropology".)
In the second half of the XX century. interest in the problem of man has again increased, and a process of differentiation of research in this area has been outlined. Population, social, political and even poetic anthropology appeared. There were prerequisites for the creation of anthropology as a single complex science of man. “Anthropology sets itself the goal of knowing man in general, it embraces this issue in all its historical and geographical completeness. It strives for knowledge applicable to the totality of the era of human evolution, say, from hominids to modern races. It gravitates toward positive and negative generalizations, which are valid for all human societies from a large modern city to the smallest Melanesian tribe,” wrote the French sociologist and ethnographer C. Levi-Strauss.
In our country, academician I. T. Frolov developed a similar problem in his works. The Institute of Man, created on his initiative, as one of the main tasks, took up the development of problems of human potential. This concept includes not only the bodily health of a person, but also the ability to family life, professional work, cultural and value orientations, the ability to adapt to the world around.
Man, as a biological species, occupies a certain position in the animal world. The general plan of the structure and characteristic features make it possible to attribute a person to the type of chordates. These are signs such as the presence in the embryonic development of the notochord, neural tube and gill slit.
Humans are classified as mammals according to the following features: - intrauterine development,
- mammary and sweat glands,
- four-chambered heart
- Well developed cerebral cortex
- diaphragm, differentiation of teeth,
- warm-bloodedness,
- hairline,
- the structure of the organ of hearing and auricles,
- a certain similarity, in the structure of internal organs.
The similarity of man and animals is confirmed by the existence of rudiments in him and the appearance of atavisms. Among them, one can note such rudiments as the appendix - a rudiment of the caecum developed in herbivores, a rudiment of the third eyelid in the inner corner of the eye, well developed in birds and reptiles. Humans also have vestigial ear muscles that play an important role in other mammals when they listen. The coccyx is a rudiment represented by fused vertebrae. Rudimentary muscle at the base of the hair follicle that serves to raise hair in mammals. Wisdom teeth, often underdeveloped or missing.
Atavisms include the appearance of a tail, additional nipples, the formation of a continuous hairline.
Man, according to some signs, is referred to a number of Primates. It has signs of difference and similarity with anthropoid monkeys. Similar features include the following features: grasping limbs, one pair of nipples, the presence of nails, on the fingers, well-developed clavicles, the birth, as a rule, of one cub, replacement of milk teeth with permanent ones, four blood groups, skin structure, chromosome set.
Distinctive features are upright posture, curves of the spine, a flat chest, a wide pelvis, a well-developed thumb of the hand that is opposed, the absence of continuous superciliary arches in the skull, weak jaws, small fangs, a chin protrusion on the lower jaw, a well-developed brain part.
Thus, we can summarize that anthropology (or anthropological science) in a broad sense is the field of knowledge, the subject of which is a person.
Anthropology is a set of scientific disciplines dealing with the study of man, his origin, development, existence in the natural (natural) and cultural (artificial) environments.
In short, the subject of anthropology is the human being.1) as a general science of man, combining the knowledge of various natural sciences and the humanities;
2) as a science that studies the biological diversity of man.
Soviet anthropology, according to the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, consisted of the following main sections: human morphology, the doctrine of anthropogenesis and racial science.
Human morphology is divided into somatology and merology. Somatology studies the patterns of individual variability of the human body as a whole, sexual dimorphism in body structure, age-related changes in size and proportions from the embryonic period to old age, the influence of various biological and social conditions on the body structure, human constitution. This section is most closely related to medicine and is essential for establishing the norms of physical development and growth rates, for gerontology, etc.
Merology is the study of variations in individual parts of an organism. Comparative anatomical studies included in merology are devoted to elucidating the similarities and differences between each organ of the body and each system of human organs in comparison with other vertebrates, mainly mammals and, to the greatest extent, with primates. As a result of these studies, the family ties of man with other creatures and his place in the animal world are clarified. Paleoanthropology studies the bone remains of fossil humans and close relatives of humans - higher primates. Comparative anatomy and paleoanthropology, as well as embryology, serve to clarify the problem of the origin of man and his evolution, as a result of which they are included in the doctrine of anthropogenesis, which is closely related to philosophy, as well as to the archeology of the Paleolithic, the geology of the Pleistocene, the physiology of the higher nervous activity of humans and primates, psychology and zoopsychology, etc. This section of Anthropology deals with such issues as the place of man in the system of the animal world, his relationship as a zoological species to other primates, the restoration of the path along which the development of higher primates proceeded, the study of the role of labor in the origin of man, the allocation of stages in the process of human evolution, the study of the conditions and causes of the formation of a modern type of man.
Racial Studies, the branch of Anthropology that studies the human races, is sometimes loosely called "ethnic" Anthropology; the latter applies, strictly speaking, only to the study of the racial composition of individual ethnic groups, i.e., tribes, peoples, nations, and the origin of these communities. Racial science, in addition to these problems, also studies the classification of races, the history of their formation and such factors of their occurrence as selective processes, isolation, mixing and migration, the influence of climatic conditions and the general geographical environment on racial characteristics. In that part of racial research that is aimed at studying ethnogenesis, Anthropology conducts research in conjunction with linguistics, history, and archeology. In studying the driving forces of race formation, anthropology comes into close contact with genetics, physiology, zoogeography, climatology, and the general theory of speciation. The study of races in Anthropology has implications for the solution of many problems. It is important for resolving the issue of the ancestral home of modern humans, using anthropological material as a historical source, highlighting the problems of systematics, mainly small systematic units, understanding the patterns of population genetics, and clarifying some issues of honey. geography. Racial science is of great importance in the scientific substantiation of the fight against racism.
Biological anthropology deals with the study of historical and geographical aspects of the variability of human biological properties - anthropological features.
The subject of study of biological (or physical) anthropology is the diversity of human biological characteristics in time and space. The task of biological anthropology is to identify and scientifically describe the variability (polymorphism) of a number of human biological traits and systems of these (anthropological) traits, as well as to identify the causes that determine this diversity.
The levels of study of biological anthropology correspond to almost all levels of human organization.
Physical anthropology has several main sections - directions for the study of human biology. We can talk about historical anthropology, which explores the history and prehistory of human diversity, and geographic anthropology, which explores the geographic variability of man.
History of anthropology
As an independent scientific discipline, physical anthropology took shape in the second half of the 19th century. Almost simultaneously in the countries of Western Europe and in Russia, the first scientific anthropological societies were established, the first special anthropological works began to be published. The founders of scientific anthropology are P. Brock, P. Topinar, K. Baer, A. Bogdanov, D. Anuchin.
The period of formation of physical anthropology includes the development of general and particular anthropological methods, the formation of specific terminology and the principles of research themselves, the accumulation and systematization of materials relating to issues of origin, ethnic history, racial diversity of man as a biological species.
Russian anthropological science by the beginning of the 20th century. was an independent discipline and was based on a continuous scientific tradition of an integrated approach to the study of man.
ANTHROPOLOGY IN RUSSIA
Anthropology in Russia has become a biological science about the structure of the human body, about the diversity of its forms.
The official year of the “birth” of anthropology in Russia is 1864, when, on the initiative of the first Russian anthropologist A. Bogdanov (1834–1896), the Anthropological Department of the Society of Natural Science Lovers (later renamed the Society of Natural Science, Anthropology and Ethnography Lovers – OLEAE) was organized. The origins of anthropological research in Russia are associated with the names of V. Tatishchev, G. Miller and other participants and leaders of various expeditions (to Siberia, to the north, Alaska, etc.), accumulating anthropological characteristics of various peoples of the Russian Empire during the 18th–19th centuries.
One of the greatest natural scientists of the 19th century, the founder of modern embryology, an outstanding geographer and traveler, K. Baer (1792–1876) is also known as one of the greatest anthropologists of his time, as an organizer of anthropological and ethnographic research in Russia. In his work “On the Origin and Distribution of Human Tribes” (1822), a view is developed about the origin of mankind from a common “root”, that the differences between human races developed after their settlement from a common center, under the influence of various natural conditions in their habitats. .
The works of N. Miklouho-Maclay (1846–1888) are of great importance. Being a zoologist by profession, he glorified Russian science not so much for his work in this area as for his research on the ethnography and anthropology of the peoples of New Guinea and other regions of the South Pacific.
The development of Russian anthropology in the 60s-70s. 19th century called the "Bogdanov period". Professor of Moscow University A. Bogdanov was the initiator and organizer of the Society of Natural Science Lovers.
The most important task of the Society was to promote the development of natural science and the dissemination of natural history knowledge. The work program of the Anthropological Department included anthropological, ethnographic and archaeological research, which reflected the views of that time on anthropology as a complex science of the physical type of a person and his culture.
D. Anuchin made a great contribution to the development of Russian anthropology.
D. Anuchin's first major work (1874) was devoted to anthropomorphic apes and was a very valuable summary of the comparative anatomy of higher apes. A characteristic feature of all the activities of D. Anuchin was the desire to popularize science, while maintaining all the accuracy and rigor of scientific research. The beginning of the "Soviet period" of Russian anthropology is also associated with the activities of D. Anuchin.
3. GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE OF THE DISCIPLINE "ANTHROPOLOGY"
The general goal of anthropology is the study of the origin and historical existence of man.
Anthropology considers man as a kind of social animal, on the one hand, having powerful biological roots in the past, on the other hand, which received great differences from animals in the course of evolution, associated primarily with the strongly pronounced social nature of the human psyche.
Anthropological knowledge is necessary for students of psychological, pedagogical, medical and social specialties and all specialists working in the field of human studies. They make it possible to deepen knowledge about the biological essence of a person and at the same time emphasize his features that distinguish a person from the system of the animal world - first of all, his spirituality, mental activity, social qualities, cultural aspects of his being, etc.
The task of anthropology is to trace the process of interaction between biological patterns of development and social patterns in human history, to assess the degree of influence of natural and social factors; to study the polymorphism of human types, due to sex, age, physique (constitution), environmental conditions, etc.; trace the patterns and mechanisms of human interaction with his social and natural environment in a particular cultural system.
Students must study anthropogenesis, its natural and social nature, the relationship and contradictions of natural and social factors in the process of human evolution; learn the basics of constitutional and age anthropology and their role in social and socio-medical work; to master the concepts of racegenesis, ethnogenesis and to know the genetic problems of modern human populations; to know the basic needs, interests and values of a person, his psychophysical capabilities and connection with social activity, the system "man - personality - individuality" in its social development should be mastered, as well as possible deviations, the basic concepts of deviant development, its social and natural factors, anthropological foundations of social and socio-medical work.
4.PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Physical anthropology is a biological science about the structure of the human body, about the variety of its forms.
The diversity of man in time and space is made up of manifestations of a large number of very different features and characteristics. An anthropological feature is any feature that has a specific state (variant), which reveals the similarity or difference between individuals.
Special sections of anthropology are devoted to the study of genetic, molecular, physiological systems of signs, morphology is studied at the level of organs and their systems, at the level of the individual. The variability of these characteristics is studied at the supra-individual – population level.
The tasks of physical anthropology are the scientific description of the biological diversity of modern man and the interpretation of the causes of this diversity.
Anthropological research methods:
a) morphological;
b) genetic (especially population genetics);
c) demographic (connection of demography with population genetics);
d) physiological and morphophysiological (ecology and human adaptation);
e) psychological and neuropsychological (anthropology and the problem of the emergence of speech and thinking; racial psychology);
f) ethnological (primatology and the emergence of human society and the family);
g) mathematical (biological statistics and its role for all branches of anthropology).
Anthropology explores the historical and geographical aspects of the variability of human biological properties (anthropological features). In terms of its content, it belongs rather to the circle of historical disciplines, and in methodological terms, it definitely belongs to the field of biology.
Also historically, the division of physical anthropology into three relatively independent areas of study:
Anthropogenesis (from the Greek anthropos - man, genesis - development) is a field that includes a wide range of issues related to the biological aspects of human origin. It is the morphology of man, considered in time, measured by the geological scale;
Racial science and ethnic anthropology, studying the similarities and differences between associations of human populations of different orders. In essence, this is the same morphology, but considered on the scale of historical time and space, that is, on the entire surface of the globe inhabited by man;
Actually morphology, which studies variations in the structure of individual human organs and their systems, age-related variability of the human body, its physical development and constitution.
5.POPULATION AND ITS TYPES
Population (literally - population) is understood as an isolated set of individuals of the same species, characterized by a common origin, habitat and forming an integral genetic system.
According to a more detailed interpretation, a population is a minimal and at the same time quite numerous self-reproducing group of one species that inhabits a certain space over an evolutionarily long period of time. This group forms an independent genetic system and its own ecological hyperspace. Finally, this group for a large number of generations is isolated from other similar groups of individuals (individuals).
The main population criteria are:
Unity of habitat or geographical location (range);
The unity of the origin of the group;
The relative isolation of this group from other similar groups (presence of interpopulation barriers);
Free interbreeding within the group and observance of the principle of panmixia, i.e., the equiprobability of meeting all existing genotypes within the range (the absence of significant intrapopulation barriers).
The ability to maintain for a number of generations such a number that is sufficient for the self-reproduction of the group.
All of these biological definitions are equally fair in relation to humans. But since anthropology has a twofold orientation - biological and historical, two important consequences can be deduced from the presented formulations:
The consequence is biological: individuals belonging to the population should be characterized by somewhat greater similarity with each other than with individuals belonging to other similar groups. The degree of this similarity is determined by the unity of origin and occupied territory, the relative isolation of the population and the time of this isolation;
The consequence is historical: the human population is a special category of populations that has its own characteristics. After all, this is a community of people, and population history is nothing more than the “fate” of a separate human community, which has its own traditions, social organization and cultural specifics. The vast majority of populations have a unique, rather complex and still not developed hierarchical structure, being subdivided into a number of natural smaller units and at the same time entering into larger population systems (including ethnoterritorial communities, racial groups, etc.) .
6. ANTHROPOGENESIS: BASIC THEORIES
Anthropogenesis (from the Greek anthropos - man, genesis - development) - the process of development of modern man, human paleontology; a science that studies the origin of man, the process of his development.
The complex of approaches to the study of the past of mankind includes:
1) biological sciences:
Human biology - morphology, physiology, cerebrology, human paleontology;
Primatology - paleontology of primates;
Paleontology - vertebrate paleontology, palynology;
General biology - embryology, genetics, molecular biology, comparative anatomy.
2) physical sciences:
Geology - geomorphology, geophysics, stratigraphy, geochronology;
Taphonomy (science of the burial of fossils);
Dating methods - decay of radioactive elements, radiocarbon, thermoluminescent, indirect dating methods;
3) social sciences:
Archeology - archeology of the Paleolithic, archeology of later times;
Ethnoarchaeology, comparative ethnology;
Psychology.
The number of theories about the origin of man is huge, but the main two are the theories of evolutionism (which arose on the basis of the theory of Darwin and Wallace) and creationism (which arose on the basis of the Bible).
For about a century and a half, discussions between the supporters of these two different theories in biology and natural science have not subsided.
According to evolutionary theory, man evolved from apes. The place of man in the detachment of modern primates is as follows:
1) suborder of semi-monkeys: sections of lemuromorphs, lorymorphs, tarsiimorphs;
2) suborder of anthropoids:
a) the section of broad-nosed monkeys: the family of marmosets and capuchins;
b) section of narrow-nosed monkeys:
Superfamily cercopithecoids, family marmosetiformes (lower narrow-nosed): subfamily marmosets and thin-bodied;
Hominoid superfamily (higher narrow-nosed):
Family gibbon-like (gibbons, siamangs);
The pongid family. Orangutan. African pongids (gorilla and chimpanzee) as the closest human relatives;
Hominid family. Man is its only modern representative.
7. MAIN STAGES OF HUMAN EVOLUTION: PART 1
At present, the following main stages of human evolution are distinguished: dryopithecus - ramapithecus - australopithecine - skillful man - erectus man - Neanderthal man (paleoanthropist) - neoanthrope (this is already a man of the modern type, homo sapiens).
Dryopithecus appeared 17-18 million years ago and died out about 8 million years ago, they lived in tropical forests. These are early great apes that probably originated in Africa and came to Europe during the drying up of the prehistoric Tethys Sea. Groups of these monkeys climbed trees and fed on their fruits, since their molars, covered with a thin layer of enamel, were not suitable for chewing rough food. Perhaps the distant ancestor of man was Ramapitek (Rama is the hero of the Indian epic). Ramapithecus are thought to have appeared 14 million years ago and died out about 9 million years ago. Their existence became known from fragments of the jaw found in the Sivalik mountains in India. Whether these creatures were upright, it is not yet possible to establish.
Australopithecus, who inhabited Africa 1.5-5.5 million years ago, were the link between the animal world and the first people. Australopithecus did not have such natural defense organs as powerful jaws, fangs and sharp claws, and was inferior in physical strength to large animals. The use of natural objects as tools for defense and attack allowed Australopithecus to defend itself from enemies.
In the 60s-70s. 20th century in Africa, the remains of creatures were found, the volume of the cranial cavity of which was 650 cm3 (significantly less than that of humans). In the immediate vicinity of the find site, the most primitive pebble tools were found. Scientists have suggested that this creature can be attributed to the genus Homo, and gave it the name Homo habilis - a skilled man, emphasizing his ability to make primitive tools. Judging by the remains found dating back 2–1.5 million years ago, Homo habilis existed for more than half a million years, slowly evolving until it acquired a significant resemblance to Homo erectus.
One of the most remarkable was the discovery of the first Pithecanthropus, or Homo erectus (Homo erektus), discovered by the Dutch scientist E. Dubois in 1881. Homo erectus existed from about 1.6 million to 200 thousand years ago.
The most ancient people have similar features: a massive jaw with a sloping chin strongly protrudes forward, there is an supraorbital ridge on a low sloping forehead, the height of the skull is small compared to the skull of a modern person, but the volume of the brain varies within 800-1400 cm3. Along with obtaining plant food, pithecanthropes were engaged in hunting, as evidenced by the finds in the places of their life of the bones of small rodents, deer, bears, wild horses, and buffaloes.
8. MAIN STAGES OF HUMAN EVOLUTION: PART 2
The oldest people were replaced by ancient people - Neanderthals (at the place of their first discovery in the valley of the Neander River, Germany).
Neanderthals lived during the ice age from 200 to 30 thousand years ago. The wide distribution of ancient people not only in areas with a warm favorable climate, but also in the harsh conditions of Europe that has undergone icing, testifies to their significant progress compared to the most ancient people: ancient people knew how not only to maintain, but also to make fire, they already knew speech, their volume brain is equal to the brain volume of a modern person, the development of thinking is evidenced by the tools of their labor, which were quite diverse in shape and served for a variety of purposes - hunting animals, butchering carcasses, building a home.
The emergence of elementary social relationships among Neanderthals was revealed: care for the wounded or sick. Burials are found among Neanderthals for the first time.
Collective action already played a decisive role in the primitive herd of ancient people. In the struggle for existence, those groups that successfully hunted and better provided themselves with food, took care of each other, achieved lower mortality of children and adults, and better overcome the difficult conditions of existence, won. The ability to make tools, articulate speech, the ability to learn - these qualities turned out to be useful for the team as a whole. Natural selection ensured the further progressive development of many traits. As a result, the biological organization of ancient people improved. But the influence of social factors on the development of Neanderthals was becoming stronger.
The emergence of people of the modern physical type (Homo sapiens), who replaced the ancient people, occurred relatively recently, about 50 thousand years ago.
Fossil people of the modern type possessed all the complex of basic physical features that our contemporaries have.
9.EVOLUTION AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
An important and still unresolved issue in science is the coordination of evolution and the second law of thermodynamics. Is it possible to harmonize the theory of universal evolution from inanimate matter to the spontaneous generation of living matter and further through the gradual development of the simplest unicellular organisms into complex multicellular organisms and, ultimately, into a person in whom there is not only biological, but also spiritual life, consistent with the second law of thermodynamics, which is so universal that it is called the law of growth of entropy (disorder), which is valid in all closed systems, including the entire Universe?
So far, no one has been able to solve this fundamental problem. The existence of both universal evolution and the law of entropy growth as universal laws of the material Universe (as a closed system) is impossible, since they are incompatible.
At first glance, it is possible and natural to assume that macroevolution can take place locally and temporarily (on Earth). A number of current evolutionists believe that the conflict between evolution and entropy is removed by the fact that the Earth is an open system and the energy coming from the Sun is quite enough to stimulate universal evolution over a vast geological time. But such an assumption ignores the obvious circumstance that the influx of thermal energy into an open system directly leads to an increase in entropy (and, consequently, to a decrease in functional information) in this system. And in order to prevent a huge increase in entropy due to the influx of a large amount of thermal solar energy into the terrestrial biosphere, the excess of which can only destroy, and not build organized systems, it is necessary to introduce additional hypotheses, for example, about such a biochemical information code that predetermines the course of the hypothetical macroevolution of the terrestrial biosphere, and about such a global most complex conversion mechanism for converting incoming energy into work on the self-emergence of the simplest reproducing cells and further movement from such cells to complex organic organisms, which are still unknown to science.
10.BACKGROUND OF EVOLUTIONISM AND CREATIONISM
Among the initial premises of the doctrine of evolutionism are the following:
1) the hypothesis of universal evolution, or macroevolution (from inanimate matter to living matter). - Nothing confirmed;
2) spontaneous generation of the living in the inanimate. - Nothing confirmed;
3) such spontaneous generation occurred only once. - Nothing confirmed;
4) unicellular organisms gradually developed into multicellular organisms. - Nothing confirmed;
5) there must be many transitional forms in the macro-evolutionary scheme (from fish to amphibians, from amphibians to reptiles, from reptiles to birds, from reptiles to mammals);
6) the similarity of living beings is a consequence of the "general law of evolution";
7) evolutionary factors explainable from the point of view of biology are considered as sufficient to explain the development from the simplest forms to highly developed ones (macroevolution);
8) geological processes are interpreted within very long time periods (geological evolutionary uniformism). – Highly debatable;
9) the process of deposition of fossil remains of living organisms occurs as part of the gradual layering of fossil rows.
The corresponding counter-premises of the creationist doctrine are also based on faith, but have a self-consistent and factual explanation:
1) the entire Universe, the Earth, the living world and man were created by God in the order described in the Bible (Gen. 1). This position is included in the basic premises of biblical theism;
2) God created according to a reasonable plan both unicellular and multicellular organisms and in general all types of flora and fauna organisms, as well as the crown of creation - man;
3) the creation of living beings happened once, since they can then reproduce themselves;
4) evolutionary factors explainable from the point of view of biology (natural selection, spontaneous mutations) change only the existing basic types (microevolution), but cannot violate their boundaries;
5) the similarity of living beings is explained by the single plan of the Creator;
6) geological processes are interpreted in terms of short time periods (catastrophe theory);
7) the process of deposition of fossil remains of living organisms occurs within the catastrophic model of origin.
The fundamental difference between the doctrines of creationism and evolutionism lies in the difference in worldview premises: what underlies life - a reasonable plan or blind chance? These different premises of both doctrines are equally unobservable and cannot be tested in scientific laboratories.
11. CONSTITUTIONAL ANTHROPOLOGY: BASIC CONCEPTS
The general constitution is understood as an integral characteristic of the human body, its “total” property to react in a certain way to environmental influences, without violating the connection of individual features of the organism as a whole. This is a qualitative characteristic of all the individual characteristics of the subject, genetically fixed and capable of changing in the process of growth and development under the influence of environmental factors.
A private constitution is understood as separate morphological and (or) functional complexes of an organism that contribute to its prosperous existence. This concept includes habitus (appearance), somatic type, body type, features of the functioning of the humoral and endocrine systems, indicators of metabolic processes, etc.
Constitutional features are considered as a complex, i.e., they are characterized by functional unity. This set should include:
Morphological characteristics of the organism (physique);
Physiological indicators;
Mental properties of personality.
In anthropology, private morphological constitutions are most developed.
The work of a huge number of anthropologists, physicians and psychologists is devoted to the development of constitutional schemes. Among them are G. Viola, L. Manuvrier, K. Seago, I. Galant, V. Stefko and A. Ostrovsky, E. Kretschmer, V. Bunak, U Sheldon, B. Heath and L. Carter, V. Readers, M Utkina and N. Lutovinova, V. Deryabin and others.
Constitutional classifications can be further divided into two groups:
Morphological, or somatological, schemes in which constitutional types are determined on the basis of external signs of the soma (body);
Functional diagrams, in which special attention is paid to the functional state of the organism.
12. CONSTITUTIONAL SCHEMES OF E. KRETSCHMER AND V. BUNAKA
E. Kretschmer believed that heredity is the only source of morphological diversity.
It should be noted that his views were the basis for the creation of most of the later classifications. The types distinguished by him under other names can be recognized in many schemes, even if the principles of their construction are different. Obviously, this is a consequence of the reflection of the real diversity of people, noted by E. Kretschmer in the form of discrete types. However, this scheme is not without drawbacks: it has a specific practical purpose - a preliminary diagnosis of mental pathologies. E. Kretschmer identified three main constitutional types: leptosomal (or asthenic), pyknic and athletic.
Similar, but devoid of many of the shortcomings of the previous scheme, is the somatotypological classification developed by V. Bunak in 1941.
Its fundamental difference from the scheme of E. Kretschmer is a strict definition of the degree of importance of constitutional features. The scheme is built on two coordinates of physique - the degree of development of fat deposition and the degree of development of muscles. Additional features are the shape of the chest, abdominal region and back. V. Bunak's scheme is intended to determine the normal constitution only in adult men and is not applicable to women; body length, bone component, as well as anthropological features of the head are not taken into account in it.
The combination of two coordinates allows us to consider three main and four intermediate body types. Intermediate options combine the features of the main types. They were singled out by V. Bunak, since in practice very often the severity of the features underlying the scheme is not quite distinct and features of different types are often combined with each other. The author singled out two more body types as indefinite, although, in fact, they are also intermediate.
13. CONSTITUTIONAL SCHEME B. DERYABINA
Having analyzed the entire range of available constitutional schemes (and there are many more of them than was considered), the domestic anthropologist V. Deryabin identified two general approaches to solving the problem of continuity and discreteness in constitutional science:
With an a priori approach, the author of the scheme, even before its creation, has his own idea of \u200b\u200bwhat body types are. Proceeding from this, he constructs his typology, focusing on those features or their complexes that correspond to his a priori ideas about the patterns of morphological variability. This principle is used in the vast majority of the constitutional schemes we have considered;
The a posteriori approach involves not simply imposing the scheme of individual morphological diversity on objectively existing variability - the constitutional system itself is built on the basis of a fixed scale of variability, taking into account its laws. With this approach, theoretically, it will be better to take into account the objective patterns of morphological and functional relationships and the correlation of signs. The subjectivity of typology is also reduced to a minimum. In this case, the apparatus of multidimensional mathematical statistics is used.
Based on measurements of 6,000 men and women aged 18 to 60, V. Deryabin identified three main vectors of somatic variability, which together represent a three-dimensional coordinate space:
The first axis describes the variability of the overall dimensions of the body (overall dimensions of the skeleton) along the macro- and microsomia coordinates. One of its poles is people with small overall sizes (microsomia); the other is individuals with large body sizes (macrosomia);
The second axis divides people according to the ratio of muscle and bone components (determining the form of the locomotor apparatus) and varies from leptosomy (weakened development of the muscular component compared to the development of the skeleton) to brachysomy (reverse ratio of components);
The third axis describes the variability in the amount of subcutaneous fat deposition in different segments of the body and has two extreme manifestations - from hypoadiposity (weak fat deposition) to hyperadiposity (strong fat deposition). The "constitutional space" is open from all sides, so any person can be characterized with its help - all existing constitutional variability fits into it. Practical application is carried out by calculating 6–7 typological indicators using regression equations for 12–13 anthropological dimensions. Regression equations are presented for women and men. According to these indicators, the exact place of the individual in the three-dimensional space of the constitutional scheme is found.
14.ONTOGENESIS
Ontogeny (from the Greek ontos - being and genesis - origin), or the life cycle, is one of the key biological concepts. This is life before birth and after it, it is a continuous process of individual growth and development of the body, its age-related changes. The development of an organism should by no means be presented as a simple increase in size. The biological development of a person is a complex morphogenetic event, it is the result of numerous metabolic processes, cell division, an increase in their size, the process of differentiation, shaping of tissues, organs and their systems.
The growth of any multicellular organism, starting with just one cell (zygote), can be divided into four major stages:
1) hyperplasia (cell division) - an increase in the number of cells as a result of successive mitoses;
2) hypertrophy (cell growth) - an increase in cell size as a result of water absorption, protoplasm synthesis, etc.;
3) determination and differentiation of cells; determined cells are those that "choose" a program for further development. In the process of this development, cells are specialized to perform certain functions, i.e., they are differentiated into cell types;
4) morphogenesis - the end result of the above processes is the formation of cell systems - tissues, as well as organs and organ systems.
Without exception, all stages of development are associated with biochemical activity. Changes occurring at the cellular level lead to a change in the shape, structure and function of cells, tissues, organs and, finally, in the whole organism. Even if there are no obvious quantitative changes (actual growth), qualitative changes are constantly taking place in the body at all levels of organization - from genetic (DNA activity) to phenotypic (the shape, structure and functions of organs, their systems and the body as a whole). Thus, it is during the growth and development of the organism that a unique hereditary program is realized under the influence and control of various and always unique environmental factors. With the transformations that occur in the process of ontogenesis, the "emergence" of all types of variability of human biological characteristics, including those that were discussed earlier, is associated.
The study of ontogenesis is a kind of key to understanding the phenomenon of human biological variability. Various aspects of this phenomenon are studied by embryology and developmental biology, physiology and biochemistry, molecular biology and genetics, medicine, pediatrics, developmental psychology and other disciplines.
15.FEATURES OF HUMAN ONTOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT
The ontogenetic development of a person can be characterized by a number of common features:
Continuity - the growth of individual organs and systems of the human body is not endless, it goes according to the so-called limited type. The final values of each trait are genetically determined, i.e., there is a reaction rate;
Graduality and irreversibility; the continuous process of development can be divided into conditional stages - periods, or stages, of growth. It is impossible to skip any of these stages, just as it is impossible to return exactly to those features of the structure that have already manifested themselves in the previous stages;
Cyclicity; although ontogeny is a continuous process, the rate of development (the rate of change in traits) can vary significantly over time. In humans, there are periods of activation and inhibition of growth. There is a cycle associated with the seasons of the year (for example, an increase in body length occurs mainly in the summer months, and weight - in the fall), as well as daily and a number of others;
Heterochrony, or diversity of time (the basis of allometricity) is the unequal rate of maturation of different systems of the body and different signs within the same system. Naturally, the most important, vital systems mature at the first stages of ontogenesis;
Sensitivity to endogenous and exogenous factors; growth rates are limited or activated under the influence of a wide range of exogenous environmental factors. But their influence does not take development processes beyond the boundaries of a broad norm of reaction determined hereditarily. Within these limits, the development process is kept by endogenous regulatory mechanisms. In this regulation, a significant share belongs to the actual genetic control, implemented at the level of the body due to the interaction of the nervous and endocrine systems (neuroendocrine regulation);
Sexual dimorphism is the brightest characteristic of human development, manifesting itself at all stages of its ontogenesis. Once again, we recall that the differences due to the "sex factor" are so significant that ignoring them in research practice levels out the significance of even the most interesting and promising works. Another fundamental characteristic of ontogeny is the individuality of this process. The dynamics of the ontogenetic development of an individual is unique.
16.STAGES OF ONTOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT
The process of ontogenetic development can be logically divided into two stages:
The period of prenatal development is the intrauterine stage, lasting from the moment the zygote is formed as a result of fertilization until the moment of birth;
Postnatal development is the earthly life of a person from birth to death.
The maximum activation of body length growth in the postnatal period is observed in the first months of life (approximately 21–25 cm per year). In the period from 1 year to 4–5 years, the increase in body length gradually decreases (from 10 to 5.5 cm per year). From 5–8 years, a weak half-height jump is sometimes noted. At the age of 10-13 years in girls and 13-15 years old in boys, there is a distinct acceleration of growth - a growth spurt: the growth rate of body length is about 8-10 cm per year for boys and 7-9 cm per year for girls. Between these periods, a decrease in growth rates is recorded.
The maximum growth rate of the fetus is typical for the first four months of intrauterine development; body weight changes in the same way, with the difference that the maximum speed is noted more often at the 34th week.
The first two months of intrauterine development is the stage of embryogenesis, characterized by the processes of "regionalization" and histogenesis (differentiation of cells with the formation of specialized tissues). At the same time, due to the differential growth of cells and cellular migrations, parts of the body acquire a certain outline, structure and shape. This process - morphogenesis - actively goes up to adulthood and continues until old age. But its main results are already visible at the 8th week of intrauterine development. By this time, the embryo acquires the main characteristic features of a person.
By the time of birth (between 36 and 40 weeks), the growth rate of the fetus slows down, since by this time the uterine cavity is already completely filled. It is noteworthy that the growth of twins slows down even earlier - during the period when their total weight becomes equal to the weight of a single 36-week-old fetus. It is believed that if a genetically large child develops in the uterus of a woman of small stature, growth retardation mechanisms contribute to successful childbirth, but this does not always happen. The weight and dimensions of the body of a newborn are largely determined by the external environment, which in this case is the mother's body.
Body length at birth averages about 50.0-53.3 cm in boys and 49.7-52.2 in girls. Immediately after birth, the growth rate of body length increases again, especially in a genetically large child.
Currently, body length growth slows down significantly in girls aged 16–17 years and in boys aged 18–19 years, and up to 60 years, body length remains relatively stable. After about 60 years, there is a decrease in body length.
17.PERIODIZATION OF ONTOGENESIS
The oldest periodizations of ontogeny date back to antiquity:
Pythagoras (VI century BC) distinguished four periods of human life: spring (from birth to 20 years), summer (20–40 years), autumn (40–60 years) and winter (60–80 years). These periods correspond to the formation, youth, the prime of life and their extinction. Hippocrates (V-IV centuries BC) divided the entire life path of a person from the moment of birth into 10 equal seven-year cycles-stages.
Russian statistician and demographer of the first half of the 19th century. A. Roslavsky-Petrovsky singled out the following categories:
The younger generation - minors (from birth to 5 years) and children (6-15 years);
The flowering generation is young (16–30 years old), mature (30–45 years old) and elderly (45–60 years old);
The fading generation is old (61-75 years old) and long-lived (75-100 years old and older).
A similar scheme was proposed by the German physiologist M. Rubner (1854–1932), who divided postnatal ontogenesis into seven stages:
Infancy (from birth to 9 months);
Early childhood (from 10 months to 7 years);
Late childhood (ages 8 to 13–14);
Adolescence (from 14-15 to 19-21 years);
Maturity (41–50 years);
Old age (50–70 years);
Honorable old age (over 70 years).
Pedagogy often uses the division of childhood and adolescence into infancy (up to 1 year), pre-preschool age (1–3 years), preschool age (3–7 years), primary school age (from 7 to 11–12 years), secondary school age (up to 15 years old) and senior school age (up to 17–18 years old). In the systems of A. Nagorny, I. Arshavsky, V. Bunak, A. Tour, D. Gayer and other scientists, from 3 to 15 stages and periods are distinguished.
The pace of development can vary among representatives of different generations of the same population of people, and epoch-making changes in the pace of development have repeatedly occurred in the history of mankind.
For at least the last one and a half centuries, up to the last 2–4 decades, a process of epoch-making acceleration of development has been observed. Simply put, the children of each successive generation grew larger, matured earlier, and the changes achieved were maintained at all ages. This amazing trend reached significant proportions and spread to many populations of modern man (although not all), and the dynamics of the resulting changes was surprisingly similar for completely different population groups.
Approximately from the second half of the XX century. At first, a slowdown in the rate of epochal growth was noted, and in the last one and a half to two decades, we are increasingly talking about stabilizing the pace of development, that is, stopping the process at the achieved level and even about a new wave of retardation (deseleration).
18.DIVING
The term "race" refers to a system of human populations characterized by similarity in a set of certain hereditary biological traits (racial traits). It is important to emphasize that in the process of their emergence, these populations are associated with a certain geographical area and natural environment.
Race is a purely biological concept, as are the signs themselves, according to which racial classification is carried out.
Classical racial features include physical features - the color and shape of the eyes, lips, nose, hair, skin color, the structure of the face as a whole, the shape of the head. People recognize each other mainly by facial features, which are also the most important racial features. As auxiliary signs of body structure are used - height, weight, physique, proportions. However, the signs of the structure of the body are much more variable within any group than the signs of the structure of the head and, moreover, often strongly depend on environmental conditions - both natural and artificial, and therefore cannot be used in racial science as an independent source.
The most important properties of racial traits:
Signs of physical structure;
Traits that are inherited;
Characters, the severity of which during ontogenesis depends little on environmental factors;
Features associated with a certain area - distribution zone;
Signs that distinguish one territorial group of a person from another.
The association of people on the basis of a common self-consciousness, self-determination is called an ethnos (ethnic group). It is also produced on the basis of language, culture, traditions, religion, economic and cultural type.
Determining their belonging to a particular group, people talk about nationality. One of the simplest forms of social ethnic organization of people is a tribe. A higher level of social organization is called nationalities (or people), which unite into nations. Representatives of one tribe or other small ethnic group usually belong to the same anthropological type, since they are relatives to one degree or another. Representatives of one people can already differ markedly anthropologically, at the level of different small races, although, as a rule, within the same large race.
A nation unites people already absolutely regardless of their race, since it includes different peoples.
19.RACIAL CLASSIFICATIONS
There are a large number of racial classifications. They differ in the principles of construction and the data used, the groups included and the features underlying them. A variety of racial schemes can be divided into two large groups:
Created on the basis of a limited set of features;
Open, the number of features in which can vary arbitrarily.
Many of the early systems belong to the first version of the classifications. These are the schemes: J. Cuvier (1800), who divided people into three races according to skin color;
P. Topinara (1885), who also distinguished three races, but determined the width of the nose in addition to pigmentation;
A. Retzius (1844), whose four races differed in the combination of chronological features. One of the most developed schemes of this type is the classification of races, created by the Polish anthropologist J. Czekanowski. However, a small number of features used and their composition inevitably lead to the conventionality of such schemes. At best, they can reliably reflect only the most general racial divisions of mankind. At the same time, very distant groups that differ sharply in many other characteristics can randomly approach each other.
Most of the racial schemes belong to the second version of the classifications. The most important principle of their creation is the geographical position of the races. First, the main ones (the so-called large races, or races of the first order) are singled out, occupying vast territories of the planet. Then, within these large races, differentiation is carried out according to various morphological characters, small races (or races of the second order) are distinguished. Sometimes races of lower levels are also distinguished (they are very unfortunately called the anthropological type).
Existing open type racial classifications can be divided into two groups:
1) schemes that distinguish a small number of basic types (large races);
2) schemes that distinguish a large number of basic types.
In the schemes of the 1st group, the number of main types ranges from two to five; in the schemes of the 2nd group, their number is 6–8 or more. It should be noted that in all these systems, several options are always repeated, and an increase in the number of options depends on giving individual groups a higher or lower rank.
In almost all schemes, at least three general groups (three large races) are necessarily distinguished: Mongoloids, Negroids and Caucasians, although the names of these groups may change.
20.EQUATORIAL BIG RACE
The Equatorial (or Australo-Negroid) large race is characterized by dark skin coloration, wavy or curly hair, a wide nose, a low average nose, a slightly protruding nose, a transverse nostril, a large oral fissure, and thick lips. Prior to the era of European colonization, the habitat of the representatives of the equatorial great race was located mainly south of the Tropic of Cancer in the Old World. The large equatorial race is divided into a number of small races:
1) Australian: dark skin, wavy hair, abundant development of tertiary hair on the face and body, very wide nose, relatively high bridge of the nose, average cheekbone diameter, height above average and tall;
2) vedoid: weak development of hairline, less wide nose, smaller head and face, smaller stature;
3) Melanesian (including Negritos types), in contrast to the two previous ones, is characterized by the presence of curly hair; in the abundant development of the tertiary hairline, strongly protruding superciliary ridges, some of its variants are very similar to the Australian race; in composition the Melanesian race is much more motley than the Negroid;
4) the Negroid race differs from the Australian and Vedoid (and to a much lesser extent from the Melanesian) race by a very pronounced curly hair; it differs from the Melanesian in greater thickness of the lips, lower nose bridge and flatter bridge of the nose, somewhat higher orbits of the eyes, little protruding brow ridges, and, in general, higher stature;
5) the Negril (Central African) race differs from the Negroid not only in very short stature, but also in the more abundant development of the tertiary hairline, thinner lips, and a more sharply protruding nose;
6) the Bushman (South African) race differs from the Negroid not only in very short stature, but also in lighter skin, narrower nose, flatter face, very flattened nose bridge, small face size and steatopygia (fat deposition in the gluteal region).
21.EURASIAN BIG RACE
The Eurasian (or Caucasoid) large race is characterized by a light or swarthy skin color, straight or wavy soft hair, abundant beard and mustache growth, a narrow, sharply protruding nose, high nose bridge, sagittal nostrils, a small oral fissure, thin lips.
Distribution area - Europe, North Africa, Western Asia, North India. The Caucasoid race is subdivided into a number of minor races:
1) Atlanto-Baltic: light skin, light hair and eyes, long nose, tall;
2) Central European: less light pigmentation of hair and eyes, somewhat smaller growth;
3) Indo-Mediterranean: dark coloration of hair and eyes, swarthy skin, wavy hair, even more elongated nose than in previous races, somewhat more convex bridge of the nose, very narrow face;
4) Balkan-Caucasian: dark hair, dark eyes, bulging nose, very abundant development of tertiary hairline, relatively short and very wide face, tall;
5) White Sea-Baltic: very light, but somewhat more pigmented than the Atlanto-Baltic, medium hair length, relatively short nose with a straight or concave back, small face and medium height.
22.ASIAN-AMERICAN RACE
The Asian-American (or Mongoloid) major race is distinguished by swarthy or light skin tones, straight, often coarse hair, little or very little beard and mustache growth, average nose width, low or medium nose bridge, slightly protruding nose in Asian races and strongly protruding in the American, average thickness of the lips, flattening of the face, strong protrusion of the cheekbones, large face size, the presence of epicanthus.
The range of the Asian-American race covers East Asia, Indonesia, Central Asia, Siberia, and America. The Asian-American race is subdivided into several minor races:
1) North Asian: lighter skin color, less dark hair and eyes, very weak beard growth and thin lips, large size and strong flattening of the face. As part of the North Asian race, two very characteristic variants can be distinguished - Baikal and Central Asian, which differ significantly from each other.
The Baikal type is characterized by less coarse hair, light skin pigmentation, poor beard growth, low nose, and thin lips. The Central Asian type is presented in various variants, some of which are close to the Baikal type, others to variants of the Arctic and Far Eastern races;
2) the Arctic (Eskimo) race differs from the North Asian in coarser hair, darker pigmentation of the skin and eyes, less frequency of the epicanthus, a slightly smaller zygomatic width, a narrow pear-shaped nasal opening, a high nose bridge and a more protruding nose, thick lips;
3) the Far Eastern race, compared to the North Asian, is characterized by coarser hair, dark skin pigmentation, thicker lips, and a narrower face. She is characterized by a high skull height, but a small face;
4) the South Asian race is characterized by an even sharper expression of those features that distinguish the Far Eastern race from the North Asian - greater swarthyness, thicker lips. It differs from the Far Eastern race in having a less flattened face and smaller stature;
5) the American race, varying greatly in many ways, is on the whole closest to the Arctic, but possesses some of its features in an even more pronounced form. So, the epicanthus is almost absent, the nose protrudes very strongly, the skin is very dark. The American race is characterized by the large size of the face and its noticeably less flattening.
23.INTERMEDIATE RACES
Races intermediate between the three major races:
The Ethiopian (East African) race occupies a middle position between the Equatorial and Eurasian large races in skin and hair color. Skin color varies from light brown to dark chocolate, hair is more often curly, but less spirally curled than in Negroes. The growth of the beard is weak or medium, the lips are moderately thick. However, in terms of facial features, this race is closer to the Eurasian. So, the width of the nose in most cases varies from 35 to 37 mm, a flattened shape of the nose is rare, the face is narrow, growth is above average, an elongated type of body proportions is characteristic;
The South Indian (Dravidian) race is in general very similar to the Ethiopian, but differs in a straighter form of hair and a somewhat shorter stature; the face is slightly smaller and slightly wider; the South Indian race occupies an intermediate position between the Veddoid and the Indo-Mediterranean races;
The Ural race, in many ways, occupies a middle position between the White Sea-Baltic and North Asian races; a concave bridge of the nose is very characteristic of this race;
The South Siberian (Turanian) race is also intermediate between the Eurasian and Asian-American big races. A significant percentage of mixed races. However, with a general unsharp expression of Mongolian features, this race has very large face sizes, but smaller than in some variants of the North Asian race; in addition, a convex or straight bridge of the nose, lips of medium thickness are characteristic;
The Polynesian race, according to many systematic features, occupies a neutral position; she is characterized by wavy hair, light brown, yellowish skin, moderately developed tertiary hairline, moderately protruding nose, lips somewhat thicker than those of Europeans; rather strongly protruding cheekbones; very tall, large face, large absolute width of the nose, rather high nasal index, much smaller than that of Negroes, and larger than that of Europeans; the Kuril (Ainu) race, in its neutral position among the races of the globe, resembles the Polynesian; however, some features of the large races are more pronounced in it. In terms of a very strong development of the hairline, it occupies one of the first places in the world. On the other hand, it is characterized by a flattened face, a shallow canine fossa, and a rather large percentage of epicanthus; hair is coarse and significantly wavy; low growth.
24.HEREDITY AND SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT
The diversity of people is explained by human biology - we are born with different genes. At the same time, human biology is a source of human diversity, because it is precisely this biology that determined both the possibility of human society and its necessity.
The external variability of a person is a product of society: gender and geographical, racial and ethnic differences take on social forms in society due to the development of the social division of labor and the distribution of types of labor among people according to "bornness", "property" or "ability".
The successes of human genetics have led not only to unconditional achievements in understanding its nature, but also to errors caused by the absolutization of the role of genes in the development of the individual. The main difference between people from the point of view of genetics is the difference between the genotype (the "program" of the evolution of the organism) and the phenotype (all manifestations of the organism, including its morphology, physiology and behavior, at specific moments of its life). Several mistakes lead to negative consequences in pedagogical practice. They boil down to statements like: a) genes determine the phenotype; b) genes determine marginal capabilities; and c) genes determine predispositions.
The assertion that genes determine the phenotype is erroneous, that is, that the phenotype of an organism can be accurately determined from the genotype. It is upbringing, place and nature of work, social experience that determine the differences in phenotypes. The assertion that genes determine the limiting capabilities of a person (organism) is also erroneous. Metaphorically, this situation can be illustrated by the theory of "empty cells": the genotype determines the number and size of cells, and experience fills them with content. With this understanding, the environment can act only as “depleted” or “enriched” from the point of view of the possibility of filling the cells specified in advance at birth.
The position that genotypes determine the predispositions of an organism (personality) is also quite erroneous. The idea of predisposition (for example, to be overweight or thin) suggests that the tendency is manifested under normal conditions. In relation to a person, "normal environmental conditions" look extremely vague, and even the average values for the population, taken as standards, do not help here.
25.THE THEORY OF DIVISION OF LABOR
There are several types of division of labor: physiological, technological, division of human labor, social and most importantly.
Under the physiological division is understood the natural distribution of types of labor among the population by sex and age. The expressions "women's work", "men's work" speak for themselves. There are also areas of application of "child labor" (the list of the latter is usually regulated by state law).
The technological division of labor is inherently infinite. Today in our country there are about 40 thousand specialties, the number of which is growing every year. In a general sense, the technological division of labor is the division of the general labor process aimed at the production of material, spiritual or social benefits into separate components due to the requirements of the product manufacturing technology.
The division of human labor means the division of the labor of many people into physical and mental - society can support people engaged in mental labor (doctors, scientists, teachers, clergy, etc.) only on the basis of increasing labor productivity in material production. Knowledge work (development of technologies, education, training of workers and their upbringing) is an ever-expanding sphere.
The social division of labor is the distribution of types of labor (the results of the technological division of labor and the division of human labor) between the social groups of society. To which group and how this or that “share” of life falls in the form of this or that set of types of labor, and, consequently, living conditions - this question is answered by an analysis of the work of the mechanism of distribution of labor in society at a given time. Moreover, the very mechanism of such distribution continuously reproduces classes and social strata, functioning against the background of the objective movement of the technological division of labor.
The term "main division of labor" was first introduced into scientific circulation by A. Kurella. This concept denotes the process of acquiring a value characteristic by labor, divided into past and living. All past labor, concentrating the forces, knowledge, abilities, skills of workers in itself, enters the sphere of possession, disposal and use of individuals or organizations (cooperatives, joint-stock companies, the state) and acquires the status of property protected by the legal laws of the state. In this case, private property acts as a measure of the possession of the past labor of the whole society; its form, which brings surplus value, is called capital (financial, entrepreneurial). Living labor in the form of the capacity for it also appears as property, but in the form of labor power as a commodity.
26.THE SYSTEM OF BASIC HUMAN NEEDS
The initial basic human need, according to A. Maslow, is the need for life itself, that is, the totality of physiological and sexual needs - food, clothing, housing, procreation, etc. Satisfying these needs, or this basic need, strengthens and continues life, ensures the existence of the individual as a living organism, a biological being.
Security and safety is the next most important basic human need. Here and concern for guaranteed employment, interest in the stability of existing institutions, norms and ideals of society, and the desire to have a bank account, an insurance policy, there is no concern for personal security, and much more. One of the manifestations of this need is also the desire to have a religion or philosophy that would “bring into order” the world and determine our place in it.
The need for belonging (to a particular community), belonging and affection is the third basic human need, according to A. Maslow. This is love, and sympathy, and friendship, and other forms of proper human communication, personal intimacy; it is the need for simple human participation, the hope that suffering, grief, misfortune will be shared, and also, of course, the hope for success, joy, victory. The need for attachment and belonging is the other side of a person's openness or trust in being - both social and natural. An unmistakable indicator of the dissatisfaction of this need is a feeling of rejection, loneliness, abandonment, uselessness. Satisfying the need for communication-community (belonging, belonging, attachment) is very important for a fulfilling life.
The need for respect and self-respect is another basic human need. A person needs to be appreciated for his skill, competence, independence, responsibility, etc., so that his achievements, successes, and merits can be seen and recognized. Here considerations of prestige, reputation and status come to the fore. But recognition from others is still not enough - it is important to respect oneself, to have a sense of one's own dignity, to believe in one's uniqueness, indispensability, to feel that one is doing a necessary and useful thing. Feelings of weakness, disappointment, helplessness are the surest evidence of the dissatisfaction of this need.
Self-expression, self-affirmation, self-realization is the last, final, according to A. Maslow, the basic human need. However, it is final only in terms of classification criteria. In reality, as the American psychologist believes, a truly human, humanistically self-sufficient development of a person begins with it. A person at this level asserts himself through creativity, the realization of all his abilities and talents. He strives to become all that he can and (according to his internal, free, but responsible motivation) should become. The work of a person on himself is the main mechanism for satisfying the considered need.
27.SOCIO-CULTUROLOGICAL ASPECTS OF ANTHROPOGENESIS
In the broadest context, the word "culture" is synonymous with "civilization". In the narrow sense of the word, this term refers to artistic, spiritual culture. In a sociological context, it is a way of life, thoughts, actions, a system of values and norms that is characteristic of a given society, a person. Culture unites people in integrity, society.
It is culture that regulates the behavior of people in society. Cultural norms regulate the conditions for satisfying human inclinations and motives that are harmful to society - aggressive inclinations, for example, are used in sports.
Some cultural norms that affect the vital interests of a social group, society, become moral norms. The entire social experience of mankind convinces us that moral norms are not invented, not established, but arise gradually from the daily life and social practice of people.
Culture as a phenomenon of consciousness is also a way, a method of value-based development of reality. The vigorous activity of a person, society to meet their needs requires a certain position. We must take into account the interests of other people and other communities, without this there is no conscious social action. This is a certain position of a person, a community, which is monitored in relation to the world, in the assessment of real phenomena, and is expressed in the mental mentality.
The fundamental basis of culture is language. People, mastering the world around them, fix it in certain concepts and come to an agreement that a certain combination of sounds is given a certain meaning. Only a person is able to use symbols with which he communicates, exchanges not only simple feelings, but also complex ideas and thoughts.
The functioning of culture as a social phenomenon has two main trends: development (modernization) and preservation (sustainability, continuity). The integrity of culture is ensured by social selection, social selection. Any culture retains only what corresponds to its logic, mentality. New cultural acquisitions - both their own and those of others - national culture always strives to give a national flavor. Culture actively resists alien elements. Relatively painlessly updating the peripheral, secondary elements, the culture shows a strong reaction of rejection when it comes to its core.
Any culture is capable of self-development. This explains the diversity of national cultures, national identity.
28.CULTURE OF MODERN SOCIETY
The culture of modern society is a combination of different layers of culture, i.e. the dominant culture, subcultures and even countercultures. In any society, high culture (elitist) and folk culture (folklore) can be distinguished. The development of mass media has led to the formation of the so-called mass culture, simplified in terms of meaning and art, technologically accessible to everyone. Mass culture, especially with its strong commercialization, is capable of crowding out both high and folk culture.
The presence of subcultures is an indicator of the diversity of the culture of society, its ability to adapt and develop. There are military, medical, student, peasant, Cossack subcultures. We can talk about the presence of an urban subculture, its national specificity with its own system of values.
According to R. Williams, American and Russian cultures are characterized by:
Personal success, activity and hard work, efficiency and usefulness at work, possession of things as a sign of well-being in life, a strong family, etc. (American culture);
Friendly relations, respect for neighbors and comrades, detente, avoidance of real life, tolerant attitude towards people of other nationalities, the personality of a leader, leader (Russian culture). Modern Russian culture is also characterized by such a phenomenon, which sociologists called the Westernization of cultural needs and interests, primarily of youth groups. The values of the national culture are being supplanted or replaced by samples of mass culture, oriented towards achieving the standards of the American way of life in its most primitive and light perception.
Many Russians, and especially young ones, are characterized by the absence of ethno-cultural or national self-identification, they cease to perceive themselves as Russians, lose their Russianness. The socialization of young people takes place either on the traditional Soviet or on the Western model of education, in any case, non-national. Most young people perceive Russian culture as an anachronism. The lack of national self-identification among Russian youth leads to an easier penetration of westernized values into the youth environment.
29.SOCIAL PROBLEMS OF ANTHROPOLOGY
Social work includes a set of means, techniques, methods and methods of human activity aimed at social protection of the population, at work with various social, gender and age, religious, ethnic groups, with individuals in need of social assistance and protection.
A social worker needs knowledge of an integration socio-anthropological, socio-medical, psychological and pedagogical direction, which allows him to provide practical assistance to needy, socially vulnerable segments of the population.
Social education forms the professional and moral qualities of a specialist on the basis of a body of scientific knowledge in such sections of the social sciences and humanities as social anthropology, psychology, pedagogy, social ecology, and social work. This series includes social medicine, social gerontology, rehabilitation and other sciences.
The most important part of social knowledge is the study of man himself and his relationship with nature and society. The human community as a complex system of relationships, subject, like all complex systems, to the probabilistic laws of development, needs an integrated approach in the study and analysis of all spheres of human life.
30.BIOCHEMICAL INDIVIDUALITY
Each person has a unique genotype, which in the process of growth and development is realized in the phenotype under the influence and in interaction with a unique combination of environmental factors. The result of this interaction is manifested not only in the variety of features of physique and other features that we have considered. Each person has a composition of biologically active substances and compounds peculiar only to him - proteins, hormones, the percentage of which and their activity change throughout life and demonstrate various kinds of cyclicity. In terms of the scale of variability, it is the biochemical individuality that is primary, while external manifestations are only a weak reflection of it.
The concept of biochemical individuality is based on similar data on the exceptional diversity of the biochemical status of a person and the role of this special side of variability in the processes of the body's vital activity in normal conditions and in the development of various pathologies. The development of the problem is largely due to the activities of the school of the American biochemist R. Williams, and in our country - to the activities of E. Khrisanfova and her students. Biologically active substances determine many aspects of human life - the rhythm of cardiac activity, the intensity of digestion, resistance to certain environmental influences, and even mood.
Based on the data of numerous studies, the possibility of using a biotypological (constitutional) approach to the study of human hormonal status has been established:
The reality of the existence of individual endocrine types of a person is substantiated (relatively a small number of endocrine formula models encountered in comparison with their possible number);
Types of the endocrine constitution have a fairly clear genetic basis;
The most pronounced correlations between different systems of endocrine signs characterize the extreme variants of hormonal secretion;
These variants are quite clearly associated with extreme manifestations of morphological constitutional types (according to different schemes);
Finally, the hormonal basis of different types of constitution was established.
31. MENTAL PECULIARITIES ACCORDING TO E. KRETSCHMER
According to the statements of the German psychiatrist E. Kretschmer, people suffering from manic-depressive psychosis have a picnic constitutional type: they often have increased fat deposition, a round figure, a wide face, etc. It was even noticed that they develop baldness early.
A directly opposite set of external signs is usually present in patients with schizophrenia. To the greatest extent, it corresponds to the asthenic constitutional type: a narrow thin body, a thin neck, long limbs and a narrow face. Sometimes people with schizophrenia have pronounced hormonal disturbances: men are eunuchoid, and women are muscular. Athletes are less common among such patients. E. Kretschmer, in addition, argued that the athletic body type corresponds to epileptic disorders.
The author identified similar relationships in healthy people. However, in healthy people they are much less pronounced, since they represent, as it were, the middle of the variability of the psyche (the norm), while patients occupy an extreme position in this series. In healthy people, tendencies towards one or another “edge” are expressed in the stable manifestation of schizothymic or cyclothymic traits of character or temperament (now we would rather call this phenomenon accentuations).
According to E. Kretschmer, mentally healthy picnics are cyclothymics. They, as it were, in a latent and smoothed form, show the features inherent in patients with manic-depressive psychosis.
These people are sociable, psychologically open, cheerful. Asthenics, on the other hand, show the opposite set of mental traits and are called schizotimics - accordingly, they have a tendency to character traits that resemble manifestations of schizophrenia. Schizothymics are unsociable, closed, self-absorbed. They are characterized by secrecy and a tendency to inner experiences. People of an athletic constitution are iksotimics, they are unhurried, calm, not very eager to communicate, but they do not avoid it either. In the understanding of E. Kretschmer, they are closest to the average health.
Various studies either confirmed or refuted the main conclusions of E. Kretschmer. The main disadvantages of his work are methodological oversights: the use of clinic orderlies as a “norm” does not at all reflect the morphological and mental realities existing in society, and the number of people examined by E. Kretschmer is too small, so the conclusions are statistically unreliable. In more carefully conducted studies, such obvious (unambiguous) links between mental characteristics and physique signs were not found.
32. CHARACTERISTICS OF TEMPERAMENT ACCORDING TO W. SHELDON
Sufficiently rigid connections between morphology and temperament were described by W. Sheldon (1942). The work was done on a different methodological level and deserves more confidence. When describing temperament, the author used not a discrete type, but components, similar to how it was done in his constitutional system: 50 signs were divided by W. Sheldon into three categories, on the basis of which he singled out three components of temperament, each of which was characterized by 12 signs . Each attribute was evaluated on a seven-point scale, and the average score for 12 attributes determined the entire component (an analogy with the constitutional system is evident here). Sheldon identified three components of temperament: viscerotonia, somatotonia, and cerebrotonia. After examining 200 subjects, Sheldon compared them with data on somatotypes. While individual somatic and "mental" traits showed little correlation, constitutional types showed a high association with certain types of temperament. The author obtained a correlation coefficient of about 0.8 between viscerotonia and endomorphia, somatotonia and cerebrotonia, cerebrotonia and ectomorphia.
People with a viscerotonic temperament are characterized by relaxed movements, sociability, and in many ways - psychological dependence on public opinion. They are open to others in their thoughts, feelings and actions and most often, according to W. Sheldon, they have an endomorphic constitutional type.
Somatotonic temperament is characterized primarily by energy, some coldness in communication, and a penchant for adventure. With sufficient sociability, people of this type are secretive in their feelings and emotions. Sheldon obtained a significant association of somatotonic temperament with mesomorphic constitutional type.
Continuing the trend towards a decrease in sociability, the cerebrotonic temperament is distinguished by secrecy in actions and emotions, a craving for loneliness, and stiffness in communicating with other people. According to Sheldon, such people most often have an ectomorphic constitutional type.
33.CONSTITUTIONAL FEATURES
Constitutional signs are divided into three main groups: morphological, physiological and psychological signs.
Morphological features are used to determine body types. Their inheritance has been studied perhaps the most. As it turns out, they are most closely associated with the hereditary factor compared to the other two groups. However, the type of inheritance of most of these traits is not exactly known, since these traits depend not on one, but on many genes.
Of all the constitutional features, the least genetically determined are the parameters associated with the development of the fat component. Of course, the accumulation of subcutaneous fat occurs not only in conditions of excess high-calorie foods, but the trend of this relationship between nutritional level and fat deposition is so obvious that it is rather a regularity. Food availability and genetics are two different things.
Physiological signs, apparently, are somewhat weaker genetically determined than morphological ones. Due to the huge qualitative diversity of signs that are combined as physiological, it is difficult to talk about them as a whole. Obviously, some of them are inherited with the help of one gene, others are characterized by polygenic heredity. Some are little dependent on the environment and heredity will play a significant role in their manifestation. Others, such as heart rate, depend strongly on environmental conditions, and the factor of heredity will represent the role of a rather determining probabilistic force. On the example of the heartbeat, this would mean that with a certain heredity, a person will be predisposed to a frequent heartbeat, say, in a tense situation. The other person under these conditions will be less prone to palpitations. And in what conditions a person lives and in what situations he finds himself, of course, does not depend on heredity.
The dependence of the psyche on the genetic factor is assessed at three different levels:
The basic neurodynamic level - nerve stimulation at the cellular level - is a direct derivative of the morphology and physiology of the nervous system. It certainly depends on genetics to the greatest extent;
The psychodynamic level - the properties of temperament - is a reflection of the activity of the forces of excitation and inhibition in the nervous system. It already depends more on environmental factors (in the broadest sense of the word);
Actually the psychological level - features of perception, intelligence, motivation, nature of relationships, and so on. - to the greatest extent depends on the upbringing, living conditions, attitude towards the person of the people around him.
34.PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Physical development is understood as "a complex of properties of an organism that determines the reserve of its physical strength."
P. Bashkirov quite convincingly proved that the reserve of physical strength is an extremely conditional concept, although applicable in practice. As a result of research, it was found that the physical development of a person is well described by the ratio of three body parameters - weight, body length and chest girth - that is, signs that determine the "structural and mechanical properties" of the body. To assess this level, indices constructed from these parameters (Brock index and Pignet index), as well as weight and height indicators (Rohrer index and Quetelet index) and the “ideal” weight formula, which is the ratio of weight and body length, corresponding to a certain idea of ideal balance of these parameters. For example, a common formula is that body weight should be equal to body length minus 100 cm. In reality, such formulas work only for a part of people of average height, since both parameters grow disproportionately to each other. A universal formula cannot exist even theoretically. The method of standard deviations and the method of constructing regression scales have been applied. The standards of physical development in children and adolescents have been developed and are regularly updated.
The assessment of physical development, of course, is not limited to the three listed indicators. Of great importance are estimates of the level of metabolism, the ratio of active and inactive components of the body, features of the neuroendocrine, cardiovascular, respiratory systems, skeletal muscle tone, taking into account the indicator of biological age, etc.
Assessing the complex of constitutional features, we can make assumptions about the potential (predisposition) to a particular disease. But there is no direct “fatal” relationship between body type and a certain disease and cannot be.
35.ASTHENIC AND PICNIC TYPE
To date, a large amount of information has been accumulated on the incidence of morbidity in people with different morphological, functional and psychological constitutions.
So, people of asthenic constitution are prone to diseases of the respiratory system - asthma, tuberculosis, acute respiratory diseases. This is usually explained by a “low supply of physical strength”, but most likely this is simply due to the lower thermal insulation of the body due to the lack of a fat component. In addition, asthenics are more prone to disorders of the digestive system - gastritis, stomach and duodenal ulcers. This, in turn, is due to the greater nervousness of asthenics, the greater risk of neurosis and, according to E. Kretschmer, a tendency to schizophrenia. Asthenics are characterized by hypotension and vegetative dystonia.
The picnic type, being in many ways the opposite of the asthenic type, has its own risks of disease. First of all, these are diseases associated with high blood pressure - hypertension, as well as the risk of coronary artery disease, strokes, myocardial infarction. Associated diseases are diabetes mellitus and atherosclerosis. Picnics are more likely to suffer from gout, inflammatory skin diseases and allergic diseases. They may have a greater risk of getting cancer.
The association of muscular type with pathologies has been much less explored. It is possible that people of a muscular type are more prone to stress and related diseases.
An essential conclusion from the studies of the constitution is that it is incorrect to talk about “bad” or “good” versions of it. In practice, the global scale of variability is practically inapplicable here. Positive or negative qualities (risks) of certain constitutional types appear only in certain environmental conditions. So, the probability of getting pneumonia in an athletic person in Russia is much greater than that of an asthenic in New Guinea. And an asthenic working in a flower shop or archive is much more likely to get an allergy than a picnic working as a school teacher. Asthenic will feel at the hearth of a steel plant or in a greenhouse much better than a picnic or an athlete; a picnic will feel better than an asthenic and an athlete - in some office, at a sedentary job, in a building with an elevator. The athlete will show the best results in sports or working as a loader.
36.THE THEORY OF SOCIALIZATION OF TARD
The origins of the theory of socialization are outlined in the works of Tarde, who described the process of internalization (acquisition by a person) of values and norms through social interaction. Imitation, according to Tarde, is the principle that forms the basis of the process of socialization, and it relies both on physiological needs and the desires of people arising from them, and on social factors (prestige, obedience and practical benefit).
Tarde recognized the “teacher-student” relationship as a typical social relation. In modern views on socialization, such a narrow approach has already been overcome. Socialization is recognized as part of the process of personality formation, during which the most common personality traits are formed, manifested in socially organized activities, regulated by the role structure of society. Learning social roles proceeds in the form of imitation. General values and norms are mastered by the individual in the process of communicating with "significant others", as a result of which normative standards are included in the structure of the individual's needs. This is how culture penetrates into the motivational structure of the individual within the framework of the social system. The socializer needs to know that the mechanism of cognition and assimilation of values and norms is the principle of pleasure-suffering formulated by Z. Freud, put into action with the help of reward and punishment; the mechanism also includes the processes of inhibition (displacement) and transfer. Imitation and identification of the learner are based on feelings of love and respect (to the teacher, father, mother, family as a whole, etc.).
Socialization is accompanied by education, i.e., the targeted influence of the educator on the educated, focused on the formation of the desired traits in him.
37.LEVELS OF SOCIALIZATION
There are three levels of socialization (their reality has been empirically verified, as evidenced by I. Kohn, in 32 countries): pre-moral, conventional and moral. The premoral level is typical for the relationship between children and parents, based on the external dyad "suffering - pleasure", the conventional level is based on the principle of mutual retribution; the moral level is characterized by the fact that the actions of the individual begin to be regulated by conscience. Kohlberg proposes to distinguish seven gradations at this level, up to the formation of a person's system of morality. Many people in their development do not reach the moral level. In this regard, the term "moral pragmatism" appeared in a number of Russian party programs, meaning that it is necessary to fight for the triumph of the moral law in people's business relations. Society is gradually sliding down to the level of "situational morality", the motto of which is: "Moral is what is useful in a given situation."
In childhood, the child wants to be like everyone else, so imitation, identification, authorities (“significant others”) play an important role.
The teenager already feels his individuality, as a result of which he strives "to be like everyone else, but better than everyone else." The energy of self-affirmation results in the formation of courage, strength, the desire to stand out in a group, not differing in principle from everyone else. A teenager is very normative, but in his environment.
Youth is already characterized by the desire to "be different from everyone else." There is a clear scale of values that is not demonstrated verbally. The desire to stand out at all costs often leads to nonconformity, the desire to shock, to act contrary to public opinion. Parents at this age are no longer authorities for their children, unconditionally dictating their behavior. Youth expands its horizons of vision and understanding of life and the world, often due to the denial of the usual parental existence, forms its own subculture, language, tastes, fashions.
The stage of true adulthood, social maturity is characterized by the fact that a person asserts himself through society, through the role structure and value system, verified by culture. Significant for him is the desire to continue himself through others - relatives, a group, society and even humanity. But a person may not enter this stage at all. People who have stopped in their development and have not acquired the qualities of a socially mature personality are called infantile.
38.THE THEORY OF VIOLENCE
The focus of the theories of violence is the phenomenon of human aggressiveness. We note at least four areas of research and explanation of human aggressiveness:
Ethological theories of violence (social Darwinism) explain aggressiveness by the fact that man is a social animal, and society is the bearer and reproducer of the instincts of the animal world. The boundless expansion of the freedom of the individual without the necessary level of development of his culture increases the aggressiveness of some and the defenselessness of others. This situation was called "lawlessness" - absolute lawlessness in the relations of people and in the actions of the authorities;
Freudianism, Neo-Freudianism and Existentialism assert that a person's aggressiveness is the result of the frustration of an alienated personality. Aggressiveness is caused by social causes (Freudianism takes it out of the Oedipus complex). Consequently, the main attention in the fight against crime should be paid to the structure of society;
Interactionism sees the cause of people's aggressiveness in a "conflict of interest", incompatibility of goals;
Representatives of cognitivism believe that a person's aggressiveness is the result of "cognitive dissonance", that is, inconsistencies in the cognitive sphere of the subject. Inadequate perception of the world, conflicting consciousness as a source of aggression, lack of mutual understanding are associated with the structure of the brain.
Researchers distinguish two types of aggression: emotional violence and antisocial violence, i.e. violence against the freedoms, interests, health and life of someone. Human aggressiveness, more precisely, crime as a result of the weakening of self-regulation of behavior, in its own way, is trying to explain human genetics.
39.DEVIANT AND DELICENT BEHAVIOR
There is hardly a society in which all its members behave in accordance with general regulatory requirements. When a person violates norms, rules of conduct, laws, then his behavior, depending on the nature of the violation, is called deviant (deviating) or (at the next stage of development) delinquent (criminal, criminal, etc.). Such deviations are very diverse: from missing school classes (deviant behavior), to theft, robbery, murder (delinquent behavior). The reaction of people around you to deviant behavior shows how serious it is. If the offender is taken into custody or referred to a psychiatrist, then he committed a serious violation. Some actions are considered as offenses only in certain societies, others - in all without exception; for example, no society condones the killing of its members or the expropriation of other people's property against their will. Drinking alcohol is a serious offense in many Islamic countries, and refusal to drink alcohol under certain circumstances in Russia or France is considered a violation of the accepted norm of behavior.
The seriousness of the offense depends not only on the significance of the violated norm, but also on the frequency of such violation. If a student walks out of the classroom backwards, it will only cause a smile. But if he does this every day, then the intervention of a psychiatrist will be required. A person who has not previously been brought to the police can be forgiven even for a serious violation of the law, while a person who has already had a criminal record faces severe punishment for a small offense.
In modern society, the most significant norms of behavior that affect the interests of other people are written into laws, and their violation is considered a crime. Sociologists usually deal with the category of offenders who break the law, as they are a threat to society. The more burglaries, the more people are afraid for their property; the more murders, the more we fear for our lives.
40. THE THEORY OF ANOMIE E. DURKHEIM
Most often, offenses are impulsive acts. Biological theories are of little help when it comes to crimes involving conscious choice.
An important place in explaining the causes of deviant behavior is occupied by the theory of anomie (disregulation). E. Durkheim, investigating the causes of suicide, considered the main cause of the phenomenon, which he called anomie. He emphasized that social rules play a major role in regulating people's lives. Norms govern their behavior, people know what to expect from others and what is expected of them. During crises, wars, radical social changes, life experience is of little help. People are in a state of confusion and disorganization. Social norms are being destroyed, people are losing their bearings - all this contributes to deviant behavior. Although E. Durkheim's theory has been criticized, his main idea that social disorganization is the cause of deviant behavior is generally accepted.
The growth of social disorganization is not necessarily associated with an economic crisis, inflation. It can also be observed with a high level of migration, which leads to the destruction of social ties. Please note: the crime rate is always higher where there is a high migration of the population. The theory of anomie was developed in the works of other sociologists. In particular, ideas were formulated about “social hoops”, i.e., the level of social (settledness) and moral (degree of religiosity) integration, the theory of structural tension, social investment, etc.
41.THEORIES OF DEVIANT BEHAVIOR
Structural tension theory explains many delinquency as personality frustration. Declining living standards, racial discrimination and many other phenomena can lead to deviant behavior. If a person does not occupy a strong position in society or cannot achieve his goals by legal means, then sooner or later he will experience disappointment, tension, he begins to feel his inferiority and can use deviant, illegal methods to achieve his goals.
The idea of social investment is simple and to a certain extent connected with the theory of tension. The more effort a person expended to achieve a certain position in society (education, qualifications, place of work, and much more), the more he risks losing in case of violation of laws. An unemployed person has little to lose if he gets caught robbing a store. There are certain categories of degraded people who specifically try to get into prison on the eve of winter (warmth, food). If a successful person decides to commit a crime, then he steals, as a rule, huge sums, which, as it seems to him, justify the risk.
Attachment theory, differentiated communication. We all have a tendency to show sympathy, to feel affection for someone. In this case, we strive to ensure that these people form a good opinion about us. This conformity helps to maintain appreciation and respect for us, protects our reputation.
The theory of stigma, or labeling, -
this is the ability of influential groups of society to brand deviants to some social or national groups: representatives of certain nationalities, the homeless, etc. If a person is labeled a deviant, then he begins to behave accordingly.
Supporters of this theory distinguish between primary (personal behavior that allows you to label a person as a criminal) and secondary deviant behavior (behavior that is a reaction to the label).
The theory of integration was proposed by E. Durkheim, who compared the conditions of a traditional rural community and large cities. If people move around a lot, then social ties are weakened, many competing religions develop, which mutually weaken each other, etc.
42.CONTROL IN SOCIETY
Any society for the purpose of self-preservation establishes certain norms, rules of conduct and appropriate control over their implementation.
There are three main forms of control:
Isolation - excommunication from society of hardened criminals, up to the death penalty;
Separation - restriction of contacts, incomplete isolation, for example, a colony, a psychiatric hospital;
Rehabilitation - preparation for the return to normal life; rehabilitation of alcoholics, drug addicts, juvenile delinquents. Control can be formal or informal.
Formal control system - organizations created to protect order. We call them law enforcement. They have varying degrees of rigidity: the tax inspectorate and the tax police, the police and OMON, courts, prisons, correctional labor colonies. Any society creates norms, rules, laws. For example, biblical commandments, traffic rules, criminal law, etc.
Informal control is the informal social pressure of others, the press. Possible punishment through criticism, ostracism; threat of physical violence.
Any society cannot function normally without a developed system of norms and rules that prescribe the fulfillment by each person of the requirements and duties necessary for society. People in almost any society are controlled mainly through socialization in such a way that they perform most of their social roles unconsciously, naturally, due to habits, customs, traditions and preferences.
In modern society, of course, the rules and norms established at the level of primary social groups are not enough for social control. On the scale of the whole society, a system of laws and punishments for violation of established requirements and rules of conduct is formed, group control is applied by state authorities on behalf of the whole society. When an individual is unwilling to follow the requirements of the laws, society resorts to coercion.
The rules vary in severity, and any violation of them entails different penalties. There are norms-rules and norms-expectations. Norms-expectations are regulated by public opinion, morality, norms-rules - by laws, law enforcement agencies. Hence the corresponding punishments. The norm-expectation can turn into the norm-rule, and vice versa.
Anthropology as a science
There is nothing more interesting and important for a person than himself. “Know thyself,” taught the ancient Greek thinker Socrates. The problem of human knowledge permeates the entire history of philosophy and natural science. Socrates and Epicurus, Hippocrates and Spinoza, Linnaeus and Darwin, Kant and Engels - these are just a few in the galaxy of outstanding scientists for whom the knowledge of man was a necessary, paramount task.
Among all the sciences, there is one about which not much is known, although it is about a person, his appearance in the past and present and, of course, in the future, about the diversity of human individualities, about those amazing changes that many generations of people have undergone in the process of a long development. This is anthropology - the science of the origin and evolution of the physical organization of man and his races; science of the past, present and, to some extent, the future. Studying the present, trying to penetrate into the past, looking into the future, anthropology stands at the center of human knowledge, and this is the essence of its necessity and power.
So in a broad sense anthropology - the science of man (from the Greek. anthr?pos - man).
The prehistory of the development of the science of man is quite large. Anthropological knowledge accumulated gradually, simultaneously with general biological and medical knowledge, and anthropological views and theories developed in close connection with social and philosophical thought. For the first time the term "anthropology" was used by Aristotle, the ancient Greek philosopher and scientist, studying the spiritual principle of man. Scientific information about man is found in the works of ancient philosophers: Anaximander, Democritus, Empedocles, Socrates. Questions of human morphology and anatomy, its place in the system of nature, bodily differences in the physical type of individual peoples, the customs and life of numerous tribes and peoples that travelers encountered during their wanderings were the subject of research by many scientists of ancient Greece and Rome.
In the works of Western European scientists, the term "anthropology" had a double meaning: as an anatomical science (about the human body) and a science about the spiritual essence of man. At the beginning of the 18th century, when the word "anthropology" was just beginning to enter into everyday scientific use, it meant "a treatise on the soul and body of man." Subsequently, this term was deciphered in the same way, combining a comprehensive study of man: his biological, social and spiritual qualities. In the first decades of the XIX century. anthropology was not yet an independent science, even the definition of the term "anthropology" was not clearly formulated. However, many purely anthropological issues, such as the origin of man, race and their differences, have been the focus of attention of society, scientists and philosophers. Interest in natural science, in particular in anthropology, arose among natural scientists, doctors, progressive students and other groups of people with progressive views.
The formation of anthropology as a science in its modern sense dates back to the middle of the 19th century. During the 19th century and to this day in many countries (England, France, USA) the interpretation of anthropology in the broad sense is widespread - as a general science of man. Anthropology in this sense is divided into physical, or somatic, and social, or cultural, i.e., ethnography.
In the twentieth century the position of the anthropological sciences in the general system of biological knowledge has changed significantly. First of all, as a major anthropological science formed theoretical medicine, having accumulated the most important achievements of the biological sciences in relation to the norm and pathology of the human body. Accumulated data on individual classes of natural properties of a person - this age physiology, which includes the doctrine of growth, maturity and aging. An in-depth biochemical, biophysical, morphological, experimental genetic study of age characteristics allows us to consider them as the primary properties of an individual.
The special discipline is sexology, which studies the patterns of sexual dimorphism in phylogeny and ontogenesis, including the most complex psychophysiological characteristics of this dimorphism in humans, associated with the history of the natural division of labor, marriage and family, as well as with education.
Somatology considers the constitutional structure of a human physique as a combination of humoral-endocrine and metabolic characteristics with a more accurate complex definition of the parameters of the morphological structure of the human body.
Typology of higher nervous activity forms the general basis of such sciences as psychology, medicine and pedagogy. Physiological and psychological studies of the neurodynamic properties of the human body contributed to the knowledge of the natural characteristics of the individual. To reveal the relationship between the primary properties of a person is the main task of modern applied anthropology. The promotion of the problem of man to the center of all modern science is associated with fundamentally new relationships between the sciences of nature and society, since it is in man that nature and history are united by an innumerable number of connections and dependencies.
Of the new humanitarian disciplines, it should be noted axiology- the science of the values of life and culture, exploring the important aspects of the spiritual development of society and man, the content of the inner world of the individual and its value orientations.
On the basis of psychology, logic and epistemology, on the one hand, neurophysiology and biophysics, on the other hand, heuristic- a general theory of mental search and creative thinking of a person. The border disciplines are psycholinguistics, uniting the psychology of speech and communication with the general theory of language, characterology, which unites personality psychology with sociology and ethics, as well as all areas of applied psychology.
Compared with the 19th century, when the whole complex of scientific knowledge about man was associated with anthropology, the subject of modern anthropology is significantly limited by the problems of anthropogenesis, racegenesis and human morphology.
Chapter morphology studies individual and sex and age variability of morphophysiological features of a person. It includes the doctrine of physical development and constitution, variations of bodily features, is in contact with human anatomy, but unlike the latter, it does not give a generalized idea of the typical, average structure of human organs and tissues, but a characteristic of the sex and age variability of individual structures depending on ethnoterritorial and climatic influences. .
In human morphology, somatology, which studies the variability of the body as a whole, and merology, the study of the variability of individual organs, are distinguished. The main tasks of morphology centered around two issues: the theoretical substantiation of the doctrine of physical development and the development of standardization methods (somatology is described above).
Chapter anthropogenesis highlights the problems of the origin and evolution of man, considers in a comparative plan the morphology of modern man and his ancestors, the history of the formation of human society. This section includes the study of modern and fossil apes, human evolutionary anatomy, and paleoanthropology, the science of human fossil forms.
Chapter racial science studies the formation of races, racial composition and the origin of peoples, their settlement and degree of kinship. Ethnic anthropology is part of racial science, but it has a narrower content. We are talking about solving historical problems on the basis of studying the racial composition of ethnic communities and determining the nature of genetic processes in ancient and modern populations. In this regard, ethnic anthropology uses the methods and data of the natural and human sciences.
Thus, modern anthropology is a branch of general biology, including the natural history of mankind, racial science, the genetics of modern human populations, the diversity of morphological types, the age characteristics of a person and the evolution of his behavior.
Anthropology is a branch of natural science that occupies a special place among the biological sciences. It studies the origin and evolution of the physical organization of man and his races. This is the science of the variability of the human body in space and time, the laws of this variability and the factors that govern it. Anthropology, as it were, crowns natural science. But since human life is inextricably linked with the social environment, then anthropology, studying a person, enters the area where socio-historical patterns exist. This is the specificity of anthropology, the complexity of its research, this is its difference from other biological sciences, its direct connection with the historical sciences: archeology, ethnography, history.
Modern anthropology is characterized by an exceptional variety of topics, and in this respect it shares the general trend of modern natural science. In a relatively short period of time, anthropology has achieved significant success, many questions that in the recent past seemed intractable have found their explanation, have become much closer to the final solution.
The sphere of anthropological research gradually includes such issues as determining the patterns of growth and development of a person in accordance with the formation of his constitutional type, character, temperament, elucidating the mechanisms of inheritance of many physical and mental characteristics depending on gender, age, social status, zonal and climatic conditions. . The task of anthropologists is to study human populations, to give a biological and physiological characteristic to those groups that live in extreme conditions, to examine and compare different ethnic, age, social groups in regions similar in biological conditions.
Anthropology integrates the experience accumulated by various human sciences.
The study of anthropology is an important component for the formation of a modern person's understanding of the problems of human studies in the unity of the historical and logical aspects, as well as understanding the complexity and multidimensionality of human nature, the inconsistency of the path of "humanization" of the individual. Anthropology acts as a kind of base for mastering the experience accumulated by the human sciences.
Any section of anthropology is somehow aimed at revealing a certain cut of the integrity of a person, and it is only in this that it can find its specificity within the framework of the general anthropological direction of humanitarian knowledge. In other words, to define the subject matter of anthropological discipline means to define that cut of a person's holistic vision, to the disclosure and study of which this discipline is aimed.
At present, a number of anthropologically oriented disciplines, "regional anthropologies" have taken shape that study individual "sides" of a person:
philosophical anthropology- the science of the essence of man, his metaphysical nature, the forces and abilities that move him, the main directions and laws of his biological, mental, spiritual and social development;
pedagogical anthropology- the doctrine of a person who is being formed in the field of education;
biological anthropology explores man in his connections and relationships with the natural world;
social anthropology studies social structures and the interaction of people in them;
cultural anthropology considers the features of the relationship between man and culture (organization of culture, cultural institutions, customs, traditions, way of life, languages, features of human socialization in different cultures);
psychological anthropology studies human psychology in its specificity, focused on understanding its essential psychological characteristics;
anthropology of technology is a philosophical disclosure of human being in the world of technology, a manifestation of human nature through it.
A specific set of problems stands out in legal, medical, historical anthropology. There are also such forms of non-scientific knowledge of man as religious and artistic anthropology.
Thus, modern science covers a variety of relationships and connections between man and the world. Man is studied both as a product of biological evolution - a species of homo sapiens, and as a natural individual with his inherent genetic program, and as a subject, and as an object of the historical process - a personality. Of great importance is the study of man as the main productive force of society, the subject of knowledge and control, the subject of education, etc.
The diversity of aspects of human knowledge is a specific phenomenon of our time, associated with the progress of scientific knowledge and its application to various areas of social practice. The system of theoretical and practical human knowledge for the future of mankind is no less important than the fundamental sciences of nature. The problem of man becomes the general problem of science as a whole, including the exact and technical sciences. New frontier disciplines arise and thus the fields of natural science and history, the humanities and technology, medicine and pedagogy are united.
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