On August 24, 79, the strongest eruption of Mount Vesuvius destroyed the city of Pompeii and several other settlements nearby. The unexpected death of the ancient Roman city, which never recovered from the destruction, later became a popular story in European culture. Buried under the ashes of Vesuvius, the city has become a kind of symbol of the cruel power of nature. But Pompeii was not the only lost city in history. Life found out what other cities, for one reason or another, shared the fate of the ancient Roman.

Although Pompeii became the most famous dead city in European culture, two more Roman cities, Stabiae and Herculaneum, were buried with it under a layer of volcanic ash and hot lava flows.

Pompeii at the time of the disaster was a fairly large city, its population was about 20 thousand people. It was a fairly prosperous city due to the fact that it was at the crossroads of the trade route that connected the southern regions of Italy with Rome. In this regard, the city had many magnificent houses, decorated with frescoes and statues. In addition, there were several villas of noble and wealthy inhabitants of Rome in the city.

In 62, an earthquake occurred in the city, but then the destroyed buildings were quickly restored. Vesuvius erupted on August 24, 79. Of course, the city did not die in one second. First, the volcano threw out a huge cloud of ash. It became a kind of warning to the townspeople. Most of them, fearing a continuation, left the city. Only those remained who underestimated the danger or for some other reason could not escape from the city, or lingered too long and tried to escape in the last minutes, when it was already too late (later, during excavations, the corpses of the dead were found outside the city gates, probably they were those who decided to run at the last second).

The eruption lasted about a day before the city was covered with pyroclastic flows, completely destroying it. But even before that, many managed to die due to gas poisoning or suffocating from the ashes. Nevertheless, most of the inhabitants escaped, it is assumed that about two thousand inhabitants of the city died as a result of the eruption.

The small town of Stabia, destroyed along with Pompeii, was not so much a city as an elite settlement of rich patricians, where they had their villas. This town was something like a modern resort for wealthy Romans, its population was insignificant.

The third dead city - Herculaneum - was much smaller than Pompeii in size, there were about 4 thousand inhabitants, most of whom also managed to escape.

Excavations of the lost cities began only in the 18th century and were initially carried out by wealthy enthusiastic aristocrats or hunters for ancient treasures. Despite the fact that the cities were destroyed, lava and ash preserved the city in its original form, and as a result of excavations, archaeologists obtained the richest material on Roman culture. In fact, these lost cities are the most fully preserved cities of the Roman Empire. Not only the buildings remained intact, but also the frescoes and decorations inside them. The discovery of Pompeii led to a general fascination with Roman history in Europe. Currently, about 80% of the Pompeii area and most of Herculaneum have been excavated.

As for the inhabitants of these cities, most of whom survived, they did not return to their former place, preferring to settle in other cities.

One of the largest cities of the Golden Horde. He was mentioned in his works by the famous traveler Marco Polo. He was also mentioned in other medieval chronicles, as well as in essays by Arab travelers. The city existed approximately from the middle of the XIII century, when the Mongol invasion of Russia took place. After some time, Uvek lost its importance to other larger cities of the Horde, although it continued to be an important center for some time.

According to the most popular hypothesis, during the invasion of Tamerlane, who destroyed many cities of the Golden Horde (XIV century), Uvek was destroyed and the few surviving residents left it. Later, not far from the city, a Russian settlement arose, which eventually turned into the city of Saratov. It is known that even in the 18th century the ruins of Uvek were preserved, however, with the expansion of Saratov, local residents plundered the surviving buildings for the sake of building materials, and already in the 19th century, nothing remained of the large Golden Horde settlement that once existed there.

Currently, the settlement is built up with residential buildings and is geographically part of Saratov.

The most famous city of the deceased Aztec Empire. It was founded in the XIV century and existed for about 200 years. According to the assumptions of some researchers, at the time of its death it was one of the largest cities on the entire planet. In part, it resembled modern Venice, since many buildings were on the water, and inside the city there were many reservoirs, canals and dams. In addition, the locals mastered the art of creating floating islands on which maize was grown.

The Aztec Empire was at its peak when the Spanish landed in a new light. In 1519, the Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes reached the Aztec capital. Initially, he and his people were received very well, but after Cortes went on, leaving part of the detachment in the city, the Aztecs rebelled against them and the Spaniards had to flee the city with battles. After that, Cortes decided to proceed with his conquest.

Of course, he could never conquer a well-fortified and huge city with his small detachment, but the Aztecs themselves were a very warlike tribe that enslaved many less fortunate tribes and had strong enough enemies, it was among them that he found his allies.

The participation of the Indian allies of Cortes in the storming of Tenochtitlan in 1521 was much more significant than the Spaniards themselves. The siege of the city lasted several months, and after repeated attempts to storm them, they managed to capture the city, which was then destroyed to the ground, and most of the population was exterminated.

On the site of the fallen city, Cortes proclaimed the creation of a new city, called Mexico City. But it was already a colonial city, built according to the European model and had nothing to do with Tenochtitlan and its complex system of canals, drains and dams. In gratitude for the help in the conquest of the Aztecs, the Tlaxcaltec tribe, which gave Cortes more than 100 thousand soldiers, was not only allowed to share the booty, but actually retained its independence and even had many privileges in America colonized by the Spaniards.

One of the oldest cities on the territory of modern Croatia died twice. It was known in antiquity, during the Roman Empire Dvigrad flourished due to its favorable location right on the trade route to Istria. However, with the collapse of the empire, the city fell into decay, and the population either left or died from numerous malaria epidemics. Later, the city was repopulated by the now Croats.

Starting from the 14th century, it was almost continuously at the epicenter of confrontation with the Venetian Republic and was constantly subjected to sieges and attacks. After the subjugation of the city to the merchant republic, it began to flourish again thanks to the same trade routes. The wealth of the city began to attract pirates of the Adriatic to it, in addition, other European powers began to look at the city. In addition to everything, several epidemics of plague and malaria swept through it, almost completely wiping out the local population.

By the middle of the 17th century, most of the population either died in wars, or died of epidemics, or fled away from the "golden curse" of the city. By this time, only a few dozen of the poorest residents remained there. By the beginning of the 18th century, the city had become completely uninhabited.

Currently, tourists are being taken to the once prosperous city to show them the overgrown ruins left over from the former grandeur and wealth of the city.

Once the center of British influence in the Caribbean and its main outpost. The city was originally built by the Spaniards, but in the middle of the 17th century it was conquered by the British and became the capital of the Jamaican colony. The city was important due to a number of strategic advantages that it provided to its owners, over time it became the main base of the British fleet in the Caribbean, as well as one of the main Caribbean centers of trade.

In addition, the city was unofficially considered a pirate capital, since it was the base for many British pirates who plundered Spanish possessions and ships with the permission of the crown.

However, the flourishing of the city was soon interrupted by the elements. In 1692, it was completely destroyed by a strong earthquake and the tsunami that followed. Almost all the inhabitants of the city were killed. The British were forced to move the capital to the small settlement of Kingston.

Port Royal began to be rebuilt, but in 1703 there was a strong fire in the city and it almost completely burned to the ground. The surviving residents again undertook to rebuild the city, but after a while a typhoon hit it, and then another fire. Probably, the British considered such a number of misfortunes a manifestation of the wrath of higher powers and abandoned attempts to restore the city. The surviving population left the city and dispersed to other colonial settlements.

A modern city destroyed as a result of the Syrian-Israeli war. After the Six-Day War of 1967, the city was ceded to Israel, but during the Yom Kippur War, 6 years later, it was captured by Syrian troops. The city was directly in the path of the Syrian advance and was occupied by them. During the conflict, both sides inflicted artillery strikes on the city, and also subjected them to massive bombardments from the air.

Under the terms of the peace treaty, Quneitra was transferred by Israel to Syria and is still Syrian territory to this day. However, since then the city, whose population before the war was just under 20 thousand people, has not been rebuilt and populated. Both sides blame each other for the destruction of the city: Israel claims that the city was destroyed during the Syrian offensive and is now not being specifically restored for propaganda reasons. Syria claims the city was destroyed in an Israeli offensive.

Before the start of the civil war in Syria, tourist tours to the city were quite common, however, this required special permission from the Ministry of Internal Affairs. There are still a large number of mines in the city and its environs.

A city from the unrecognized republic of Nagorno-Karabakh. Before the collapse of the USSR and the beginning of the events in Nagorno-Karabakh, there were almost 30 thousand people in the city. In late Soviet times, the city was known throughout the country thanks to the bread museum there, as well as the cheap Agdam port produced there, which, in its popularity among drinkers, seriously competed with the legendary "777".

After the start of the Karabakh war, the front line ran through the city. Almost the entire population managed to leave the city, which became the scene of fierce battles, even before they began. The battles for the city lasted a month and a half and finally ended with the victory of the Armenian side. But during the hostilities, the city was practically wiped off the face of the earth, only the famous Aghdam mosque built in the 19th century more or less survived.

After the war, Agdam was controlled by the Karabakh armed forces. The old population did not return to the city, and for the new one they did not find money to restore the whole city, especially since many other cities also needed restoration. As a result, Aghdam has been a ghost town for more than 20 years, in which no one lives. The population from the surrounding settlements sometimes comes there, dismantling the destroyed buildings for building materials.

Another British city destroyed by the elements. The small island of Montserrat in the Caribbean has become world famous for its commercial lime cultivation (which first began there) and the production of lime juice. Plymouth became the capital of Montserrat. This continued until the very end of the century, when the Soufrière Hills volcano, located in the southern part of the island, which had been dormant since the 17th century, suddenly woke up. Since the summer of 1995, a series of volcanic eruptions have occurred on the island. The entire population of the island was evacuated in advance, but soon returned.

Two years later, another series of eruptions occurred, this time with several deaths despite evacuations. Pyroclastic flows and volcanic ash almost wiped the city off the face of the earth, 3/4 of the buildings in Plymouth were destroyed.

Due to the too expensive and troublesome clearing of the city, it was decided not to return the inhabitants here, and the administration of the island moved to another settlement. Part of the island was closed to the public, and most of the island's population left it.

A Russian city on Sakhalin, completely destroyed by an earthquake in 1995. The town originally appeared as a settlement for shift workers-oil workers. Due to this temporary status, the construction rules in the earthquake-prone region were not observed during the construction of five-story panel buildings there, in which the oil workers settled.

On May 28, 1995, an earthquake occurred, which, in terms of its power, became the strongest in Russia over the past hundred years. It was reported that at the epicenter the force of the shocks reached 8 points. The main blow was taken by Neftegorsk, which turned out to be the closest of all other settlements to the epicenter of the earthquake.

The five-story buildings built in the city were designed for shocks of no more than 6 points and, of course, could not withstand the pressure of the elements. The situation was significantly aggravated by the fact that the earthquake occurred at night, which led to great casualties. Mostly those who did not sleep or woke up at the very beginning of the aftershocks were able to survive, they managed to run out of the apartments onto the street before the collapse of the houses. Also, the inhabitants of the upper floors were more likely to survive: after the collapse of the houses, they turned out to be higher and the rescuers managed to remove them from the rubble and provide assistance in time.

Of the three thousand inhabitants of the city, 2 thousand died. The city was completely wiped off the face of the earth. As a result, it was decided not to restore it in its original place. At present, on the site of the city of Neftegorsk, there is a memorial complex in memory of the terrible tragedy.

Mysterious Pompeii, an ancient settlement that keeps the breath of Ancient Rome, is today an open-air museum. An extinct city, today it comes back to life thanks to the efforts of archaeologists, however, already as a museum exhibit.

History pages

Until the moment when the eruption of Vesuvius swept the city from the face of the earth, Pompeii was very highly developed and high-tech for its time settlement.

Pompeii (Pompeii) - not exactly a Roman city, as is commonly believed. It was founded in the 8th century BC. Osci tribe - one of the ancient peoples of Italy. The name "Pompeii" from the ancient Oscan language can be translated as "five", the reason for this name lies in the fact that Pompei were founded on the site of five ancient Oscan settlements.

True, there is another version, more related to mythology: supposedly in these parts Hercules defeated a powerful adversary and arranged a solemn procession in the city on this occasion (Pompe - this is how “Pompeii” is translated from the ancient Greek language).

In Italy it was at that time many Greek colonies, therefore, a little time later, Osci adopt Greek culture and architecture. The latter is especially clearly seen: the first buildings were chaotic, the order of buildings was not respected, and later, under the Hellenic influence, urban architecture acquires a clearer outline - strict rows of streets and rows of houses. Moreover, the Osks did not even suspect that they were building their houses right on the frozen lava ...

After many battles Romans took control of the city.

Pompeii has a very convenient location in economic terms: at the foot of Vesuvius, on the Sarno River. This location allowed the inhabitants of the city to use the river for navigation and trade. The inhabitants were engaged in the production of oils, wool and wines, which also contributed to the trade and prosperity of the city. And the Appian Way, which passed through the city, was important for the economy and trade.

Gradually, Pompei come under the rule of Rome and become a recreation center for noble Roman patricians. The city grew and developed...

Are you dreaming of visiting Florence, one of the most romantic cities in Italy? Then you should look at the main architectural structure of the city - Palazzo Vecchio. Detailed information .

The tragedy of the city

The first "wake-up call" rang in 62 AD, when a strongest earthquake. Many houses and temples were destroyed. But the inhabitants of the city managed to restore everything in a short time and again life flowed along the usual course.

The peak fell on August 24, 79. On this day, there was a strong eruption of the Vesuvius volcano, after which the city was buried for centuries under a multi-meter layer of ash.

The day before, ash flakes began to fall on the city, and there was so much of it that they had to constantly shake it off their clothes. The volcano was thought to be dormant for a long time., so at first none of the inhabitants paid attention to the cloud of smoke and fire escaping from the vent.

Stones began to fall from the sky, and the ashes settled on the houses in such a thick layer that the roofs began to collapse., burying people remaining in the premises.

The more astute citizens left Pompeii immediately after the first rains, and fled to the nearby villages. The eruption continued for about a day. The city was completely destroyed.

It was discovered by chance, in the 17th century, during the construction of a water supply system. The honor of discovery belongs to the Italian architect Domenico Fontana, who, while excavating, came across the remains of a wall and well-preserved frescoes by the river. And for a long time they could not imagine that these pitiful remains are the ruins of the mighty Pompeii.

And only when sign was found(border pillar), it became clear that here the once majestic ancient Roman city was buried under the layers of earth.

Full-fledged excavations began a century later, in the 17th century, and continue to this day, as well as scientific research.

For more on the tragedy of Pompeii and excavations, see the video:

Attractions and interesting places

Today, on the site of the legendary city, you can see only the remains of its former greatness. You can find the Pompei excavation site near Naples. open-air museum city attracts many tourists every year.

Pompeii is not only a mass of the most interesting sights of Italy, but also a unique witness to history. Due to the fact that the city was almost instantly covered with ashes, all the surviving buildings, frescoes, mosaics, sculptures and objects are very well preserved. So, what can be seen today at the place where Pompeii is located?

  • Forum.

    This building can be called the heart of the ancient Roman city, its social and economic center. At first, there was only a trading square on the site of the Forum, then the market was significantly expanded, and residents began to gather at the market not only for shopping, but also for discussing city events.

  • Lupanar.

    "A wicked place" in the city, where the townspeople came in search of carnal pleasures. The name itself is translated from Italian as "she-wolf" - it was with the help of a wolf-like howl that women of easy virtue attracted their customers. It was quite easy to recognize the priestesses of love of that time - hair gathered and raised at the back of the head, and a wide red belt on clothes.

    All rooms for love dates were painted with erotic frescoes. Today, some of these frescoes can be seen in the Archaeological Museum of Naples. By the way, this was not the only brothel in the city (there were about 30 of them in total), but Lupanar was the most famous.

  • Amphitheater.

    A large-scale structure on two levels was intended for gladiator fights and various spectacles. Only the outer walls and seats survived, but the steps were completely destroyed - they were made of wood and simply did not survive after the eruption.

  • Residential houses.

    All buildings and residential buildings are very well preserved, almost in their original form (if, of course, an amendment is made to the past tense). The interior decoration of the houses did not differ in aesthetics, but outwardly they were very richly decorated, painted with frescoes or decorated with mosaic ornaments.

    There were almost no windows in the houses (unlike the palaces and houses of rich nobles), they were replaced by narrow openings. There were no street signs either, each house was simply written with the name of its owner (some of these signs are kept in the Archaeological Museum). On the territory of each house there was a stone pool for collecting rainwater (such water was considered sacred).

  • Frescoes found during excavations.

    They contain historical scenes and scenes of Roman amusements. Almost all of them have been transferred to the Naples Museum, and in the restored city one can observe only skillfully made copies.

  • In addition, you can also see Temple of Jupiter, Maly Theatre, Bolshoi Theatre, Stabian Baths, triumphal arches and other preserved buildings of Pompeii.

During the excavations it was found a lot of gold jewelry, ceramic products. Pottery is generally well preserved, however, drawings and patterns on pots and jugs suffered from fire and time.

Found several bakeries - huge stoves, kitchen utensils and other equipment, as well as the so-called thermopolies - taverns. Rarely in any house in Pompeii there were kitchens with stoves, so food was delivered from such thermopolies.

Opening hours, ticket prices

  • During high season(from the beginning of April to the end of October) you can get into Pompei from 8.30 in the morning, and the closing time is at 19.00 (the box office closes at 17.30, an hour and a half before closing).
  • In the low season(this time is from November to March) You can see Pompeii from 8.30 (9.00) in the morning until 17.00 (the box office closes at 15.30).
  • Ticket price - 13 euros. They can be purchased at the box office.

There, at the box office, you can take a guide card, otherwise it is not surprising to get lost in all the intricacies of the ancient streets.

  • An excursion to Pompeii can be combined with a visit to other ancient cities - Herculaneum, Boscoreale, Villa Stadia and others. In this case, the ticket will cost at 22 euros (with a discount).
  • Groups of schoolchildren and students can visit Pompeii by appointment. None there is no limit on the number of groups.

You can check ticket prices, find out about the schedule of excursions, as well as get other background information about Pompeii. on the official website of the attraction - www.pompeiisites.org

August 24, 79 AD E. The inhabitants of Pompeii lived their daily lives, not suspecting that these were their last hours.
Earthquakes happened within a few days, but people got used to them and went about their usual business. When the volcano Vesuvius woke up (there were eruptions six times in two days), real hell ensued. Each eruption was accompanied by the release of gases, ash and red-hot lava, moving at great speed and sweeping away everything in its path.

When it was all over, about 6 meters of volcanic debris and ash buried Pompeii and its inhabitants.
Victims buried in 1900 were examined using modern technology.

The Pompeians did not die of suffocation

Until recently, the victims were thought to have died from asphyxiation caused by deadly volcanic gases and ash.
A recent study by volcanologist Giuseppe Mastrorenzo and colleagues showed that people died instantly due to the very high temperature of the stream (at least 300 degrees Celsius).

The inhabitants of Pompeii were covered with ashes where they were caught by instant death


The poses of people show how they died. Children and adults were sprinkled with ashes, because of the high temperature, the ashes melted and turned into plaster statues. Over the years, the soft tissues have disintegrated, but the skeletons have survived inside.

Of the approximately 2,000 dead, only 86 of these "statues" have survived. Excavations are still going on in Pompeii today. But all the remains are so fragile that they require great care.
Not only are the victims in the position in which death overtook, the expression on their faces, preserved thanks to the ashes, is grimaces of agony.
One victim raised his arms above his head in a defensive gesture, a feeble, reflexive attempt to avert impending doom. The other had a face frozen in an endless scream, reflecting perfectly preserved teeth.
Outstretched hands, a mother holding a child. One man sits, covering his face with his hands, as if resigned to inevitable death.
Some people hug each other, apparently their loved ones.

Most of the victims in the so-called Garden of Runaways


Of the approximately 2,000 inhabitants of Pompeii believed to have perished in the disaster, archaeologists have recovered only about 1,150 bodies. This means that part of the city's inhabitants fled when the volcanic activity began.
Most of the victims were found in the Garden of the Runaways in one place. Thirteen people died there, the remains of nine people were found in the House of Mysteries, the roof probably collapsed there and covered all these people.

Animal remains found


Several animals have been found in Pompeii. Because it was a prosperous city, many residents had pets, namely dogs. However, most wealthy residents also owned horses and other farm animals.
In addition, wild animals roamed the area. They did not run away and were doomed.
In the Olithorium (in the marketplace) a pig, also a small dog, presumably someone's pet, was found lying on its back, as if contorted in pain.
Recently, archaeologists have discovered several horses in the stables of Pompeii's villa. It appears that at least three horses died, two of which were harnessed and possibly prepared for evacuation. Unfortunately, they never did.
Various skeletons of donkeys and mules have also been found.

Food found in Pompeii


In layers of dust and ash, archaeologists have found preserved bread. It was round, untouched and with a seal, the bakers marked their products in this way, the bread had lain for centuries under a 9-meter layer of ash and earth.
Archaeologists analyzed the fossilized remains in the kitchens and trash cans, made a rough idea of ​​what the Pompeians ate. These are grains, lentils, olives, poultry eggs, nuts, fish and meat.
Exotic spices, shellfish, sea urchins, flamingos (yes, the pink variety) and even giraffes have also been found.

The Pompeians were fond of garum, a fermented fish sauce obtained from fish intestines. The salted fish was left to ferment (or rot) for two months in the sun. Some compare garum to Thai fish sauce. But for ancient Pompeii, it was considered the ketchup of the time, even though the best garum was expensive.

The inhabitants of Pompeii had good teeth


Recent studies show that the people of Pompeii had remarkably large, pearly white teeth, indicating good health. Researchers point out that the teeth of the Pompeians were in many respects better than ours. This is due to the fact that the diet of local residents had a lot of fruits and vegetables with a low sugar content. In addition, the city had sources of fluorine in the air and water near the volcano.

4 The "Two Maidens" Are Actually Men


This recognizable image was previously believed to be two women who embraced in anticipation of death. Archaeologists have named them "Two Maidens". However, in early 2017, researchers found that the hugging individuals were male, suggesting that they were gay lovers. Scans and DNA results from the bones and teeth confirmed they were definitely male.
The researchers further confirmed that the two are definitely not related. DNA results identified one as a young man aged 18-20 and the other as an adult male aged 20 or older.

Erotic items from Pompeii


Pompeian sexual habits would make even the bravest of us blush, as ancient Rome and Pompeii were notorious for debauchery.
Pompeii was first discovered at the end of the 16th century by workers. They called the Italian architect Domenico Fontana. He was so amazed by the candid frescoes and other items that were unearthed. The items were considered too scandalous and offensive to the sensitive public of the time. Artifacts remained buried until the 18th century. Even after the excavations of that time, the "treasures of Pompeii" were still carefully processed. In 1819, Francis I, the future king of the two Sicilies, was so shocked by the apparent erotic nature of the objects found that he ordered them to be locked in a secret office. For the most part, these artifacts were not made available to the public until 2000.

Bound Slave


The chained slave was unable to escape from prison when the eruption began. He was found lying face down, with shackles around his ankles.

The guy with the worst luck in Pompeii


Imagine the chaos of falling fire, ash, thick smoke. The man tries to run away, but a stone falls on his head and blows it off his shoulders. The skeletal remains of this man were discovered 2000 years later, sticking out from under a huge boulder. Skull not found.

Presumably, the founders of Pompeii were Osci, one of the peoples of ancient Italy. Already the ancients expressed different opinions about the origin of the name Pompeii. Some erected it to the triumphal procession (pomp) of Hercules after the victory over Gerion. Others refer to the Oscan word for "five" (pum-pe). According to this version, Pompeii was formed as an association of five communities.

According to a writer in the 1st century A.D. e. Geographer Strabo founded the city Oska. Later, the Etruscans seized control of it, and then, after victories over the Etruscans, the Greeks. Later, the city was taken from the Greeks by the Samnites, a people related to the Oscans. This happened in the 5th century BC. e. Archeology records the decline of urban life in this century. Perhaps Pompeii was abandoned for some time.

In the IV century BC. e. Pompeii became part of the Samnite federation. The city served as a port for the Samnite cities located up the Sarno River. In the IV century BC. e. A series of wars took place between the Roman Republic and the Samnites. During them, in 310 BC. e. Roman troops landed near Pompeii. The Romans devastated the lands of Nuceria, neighboring Pompeii. Later, the inhabitants of the rural district of Pompeii attacked the legionnaires returning with the loot, took away the loot and drove them onto the ships.

Source: wikipedia.com

The Romans defeated and subjugated the Samnites and their allies to their power. From now on, Pompeii, along with other Campanian cities, became part of the Roman-Italian confederation. The city maintained self-government. Pompeii were to be Rome's allies and also provide auxiliaries.

During the Samnite era, Pompeii was ruled by a city council. Among the issues of his conduct was, in particular, construction. The direct supervision of the construction work and their payment was carried out by the quaistur (Latin version - quaestor), an official in charge of the city treasury. The supreme power in the city belonged to an official with the name "meddissa tuvtiksa", which translates as "city governor".

Accession to Rome gave impetus to the development of the city in the III century BC. e. At the end of the century, the population of Pompeii grew. In the II century BC. e. new public buildings appeared - temples, theaters, baths. Luxurious mansions appear. Among them is the famous "House of the Faun", on the wall of which there is a fresco depicting the battle of the Macedonians and Persians at Issus.

Paradoxically, the war between Rome and Hannibal gave impetus to the development of Pompeii. After crossing the Alps and victories over the Roman troops, the Carthaginian commander invaded Campania. Capua, the strongest city in the region, went over to his side. Nuceria remained faithful to Rome and was destroyed by Hannibal for this. During the war, the Romans took Capua and punished an unfaithful ally.

Pompeii itself was not taken by the Carthaginians and became a refuge for refugees from other Campanian cities. This explains the growth of urban construction at the end of the 3rd century BC. e.

The elite of the Campanian city received their share of the wealth from the expansion of Rome into the Mediterranean in the 2nd century BC. e. Evidence of contacts between Pompeian merchants and eastern markets has been preserved. In particular, with the island of Delos. Oriental spices fall into Pompeii themselves. The frescoes in the House of the Faun speak of the artistic taste and interest of its owner in history.

Allied War: Pompeii vs. Sulla

In 91 BC. e. a number of Italian communities (including Pompeii) revolted against Rome. This conflict went down in history as the Allied War. The allies who rebelled against Rome sought equal status with the Romans in the state. After three years of war, the Romans defeated the rebellious allies. But after that they gave them the rights of Roman citizenship.

In 89 BC. e. During the war, Pompeii was besieged by the Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla. In a series of battles near the city, Sulla defeated the Campanian commander Cluentius, who was trying to lift the siege of Pompeii. The city surrendered shortly after the defeat and death of Cluentius.

Pompeii was not destroyed and received Roman citizenship. After 10 years, Sulla, who defeated his opponents and became a dictator, founded a colony of his veterans in the city. From now on, Pompeii received the status of a Roman colony, and the former Oscan magistrates were replaced by new Roman ones. Office work in the city is transferred to Latin. And in the last century of the city, the number of records in Oska is declining.

Roman time city: Pompeii under the empire

In the era of the empire, Pompeii was a modest provincial town. The famous garum sauce and wine were produced here. In part, the inhabitants of the colony tried to copy the buildings of Rome itself. There was a forum in the city, on which stood the temples of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. In the wall niches of one of the buildings stood statues of the founders of Rome - Aeneas and Romulus. Below them were carved inscriptions describing their deeds. The same inscriptions, telling about Aeneas and Romulus, were on the Roman forum.

The Italian cities were connected with Rome and the imperial house. In particular, the nephew and one of the possible heirs of Augustus, Marcellus, held the semi-official position of patron (patron) of Pompey.


Source: wikipedia.com

In 59 a.d. e. Pompeii was infamous for the carnage within the walls of the city. It was during the gladiator fights, but the battle began between the townspeople of Pompeii and Nuceria. The inhabitants of the cities began to bully each other, then took up the stones, and then - and swords with daggers. The Pompeians won the fight.

Information about the massacre reached the emperor Nero, who instructed the Senate to investigate. As a result, the Senate banned Pompeii from holding gladiatorial games for 10 years, and their organizer, Livinei Regulus, went into exile.

Interestingly, Livinei Regulus had been stripped of the title of senator a few years earlier. That is, a disgraced representative of the ruling class could take refuge in Pompeii and become a benefactor of the townspeople.

Pompeii was located 240 kilometers from Rome. Residents of the capital could reach the Campanian city within a week. Therefore, many noble and wealthy Romans built their villas in the vicinity of Pompeii. In particular, even in the era of the Republic, Cicero acquired such a villa.


Source: wikipedia.com

The highest officials in Pompeii were its two elected rulers - the duumvirs. They convened the city council and presided over it. To become a duumvir, a careerist from Pompeii had to go through the post of aedile, which opened the way for her performer to the city council. Members of the city council bore this title for life. The aediles were responsible for urban improvement - the supply of bread, the maintenance of streets and baths, and organized spectacles.

In civil cases with a small claim amount, duumvirs were chairmen. Criminal cases and more complex civil cases were heard in Rome. The duumvirs also answered the city treasury.


Source: wikipedia.com

Once every five years, the chosen duumvirs were called quinquennals (five-year-olds). They updated the city council lists - adding new people, deleting the dead and those who had lost their right to membership in the council for crimes. They also compiled lists of citizens of the city.

Members of the council accepted the reports of officials, exercised supreme supervision over city affairs. A wealthy freedman was not entitled to take office and get into the council, but he could achieve this for his son. The inscription preserved the curious case of a certain Celsin, who became a decurion (member of the council) at the age of 6 for restoring the temple of Isis, which had been damaged by an earthquake.

In Pompeii and other Roman cities, the positions of duumvir and quinquennal opened doors to the urban elite, but demanded wealth from the applicant. Duumvir Pompey contributed 10,000 sesterces upon taking office.

During the exercise of his office, the citizen Pompey held festivities at his own expense. For example, Aul Clodius Flaccus was duumvir three times. During his first magistracy, he organized games in the forum in honor of Apollo, which included bullfighting, musical competitions, and a performance by the artist Pylades (probably a local celebrity). The second time, in addition to games at the forum, he organized the persecution of animals and gladiator fights in the amphitheater. The third time was the most modest - the performance of artists and musicians. Another quinquennal in his inscription emphasized that he had conducted gladiator fights without spending public funds.

Passions boiled over the election of officials, comparable to the election of consuls in republican Rome. The walls of the city preserved records calling for voting for one or another of the citizens of Pompeii who wanted to become a duumvir or aedile. Interestingly, most of the campaigning concerned the post of aedile.

About 12 thousand people lived in Pompeii, and about 24 thousand - in the rural district. Half of them were slaves. Most of the rest were women and children. Thus, the electorate during the elections was about 2,500 residents of the city and 5,000 in the rural district.

The inscriptions were painted over and new ones were written on top of them. The campaign inscription could have been addressed to a specific citizen of Pompeii. A city dweller could carve an inscription on the wall of his house to show his position.

Sample caricature on a wall in Pompeii. (wikipedia.com)

Campaigned for candidates and professional associations. For example, carpenters, cab drivers, bakers or jewelers. Members of the Youth union, which included young people from noble families, offered their candidates to the townspeople.

Sometimes poems were composed in favor of the candidates or their professional and moral qualities were emphasized in prose. And sometimes they called on a respected citizen to vote for a candidate, because "choose Sabin as an aedile, and he will choose you."

There were original entries in support of the candidates, which were supposed to discredit them. These are words of encouragement written on behalf of pickpockets, runaway slaves, drunkards or loafers.

Elections in Pompeii resembled elections in other cities of the Roman world. The civil community was divided into curia, each of which chose its own candidate.

Elections were held in March, and in July the magistrates took office. Pompeians could become duumvirs again, but not two years in a row.

The eruption of Mount Vesuvius: the death of the city

Approximately 80 years before the eruption, Vesuvius was visited by the geographer Strabo. The scientist wrote that almost to the very top, the volcano is covered with flowering fields. Only the ashen peak itself reminded that this place had once spewed fire.

Vulcan announced his awakening in 63 CE. e. earthquake. It destroyed several cities in Pompeii, Herculaneum and Naples. Some of them have not been restored for 16 years.

Evidence of the catastrophe was left by her contemporary Pliny the Younger, who then lived in the seaside Mizenum (about 30 kilometers from Pompeii). Mizena was the base of the Roman fleet, and one of the ships was commanded by Pliny's uncle, Pliny the Elder.

On August 24, people saw a cloud rise above the volcano. Pliny the Elder took his ship towards Pompeii. His nephew wrote that the scientists were driven by a desire to save people from the city and scientific curiosity. Pliny the Elder ordered to record all the changes that occur in the cloud.

At night, an earthquake began, and the next day people did not see the sun. At first there was twilight, then darkness fell, and ashes began to fall from the sky. When it dissipated, it turned out that there were no neighboring cities, and the Sarno valley was covered with ash. First, the city was covered with pieces of pumice, then with ashes.

Most of the inhabitants fled the city on the first day. Those who decided to stay and sit out the catastrophe in their homes died, and those who decided to escape too late. Their feet got stuck in the pumice, and then they were finished off by a rain of ash and water. Some Pompeians fled to the harbor, but the ships were either not there or had already been put out of action by the ash and stones.


Each of us at least once in our lives has heard of a city buried under a layer of volcanic dust - Pompeii. This famous ancient Roman city is located near Naples, at the very foot of its formidable "killer" - the volcano Vesuvius.

The most powerful eruption of the volcano, which occurred on August 24, 79, became fatal for Pompeii and the two nearby cities of Herculaneum and Stabia. All of them were buried under hot lava and volcanic dust, but the knowledge and skills of modern archaeologists have made it possible to recreate the way of life, architecture, technology and, most importantly, the dead inhabitants of the city in great detail. The latter became possible thanks to the unique technology of gypsum casting. Thus, it was gypsum that made it possible to “breathe life” into the unfortunate victims of the elements, who froze in their dying poses.

Today, after numerous excavations of the city, Pompeii is recognized as an open-air museum and is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Vesuvius is a hot killer

Unlike the city of Herculaneum, which was burned in the fire of red-hot lava, Pompeii died in a slightly different way. The eruption was accompanied by the release of a mixture of combustible gases and ash, which buried the inhabitants of the city. According to reliable historical data, the total population of the city numbered more than 20 thousand inhabitants, of which about 2 thousand died as a result of the eruption. In total, archaeologists discovered 1150 bodies within the city.

When the excavations were started, archaeologists were first of all able to free architectural structures from pumice and volcanic rock, which were preserved in incredible accuracy and detail. Being conserved with a thick layer of durable rock, buildings and interiors turned out to be as close as possible to their original appearance. Houses and baths, sports arenas and libraries - all this still adorns the completely recreated streets of Pompeii.

However, the main find awaited the researchers of antiquity ahead. The fact is that voids were found in an exceptionally dense solid rock, the origin of which was not immediately clear. Only by subjecting the discovered air chambers to a thorough analysis, archaeologists were able to understand where they came from. The fact is that bones and some remains of once living organisms - people, domestic animals, etc. were found in each such cavity. Numerous studies have unequivocally confirmed that the age of the discovered remains corresponds to the approximate dates of the death of the city.

Plaster casts of the life and death of Pompeii residents

Biologists have helped explain the origin of voids in dense volcanic rock. The fact is that the organic substances that form the basis of the body of any living organism, after its death, undergo slow decomposition. By the time the victim's body had completely decomposed, the rock had acquired a dense structure and was able to retain its original shape. Thus, after the complete disappearance of organic matter, only a few bones of the dead were preserved, which are located in the resulting rock cavity. This cavity completely repeats the shape of the body.

At this stage, scientists faced an important and difficult question as to how to study the finds without damaging the discovered remains and obtaining the maximum information from seemingly uninformative air chambers. The researchers who excavated the city could not solve this question for almost a century.

The first such find dates back to 1777. Then the remains of a young woman were found at Diomede's villa. Just like her skeleton, the outline of her chest and body shape were clearly visible in the material packed underneath. However, due to the lack of appropriate technology for accurate excavation, this void, like many others, was destroyed. And only in 1864, the director of the excavations, the Italian politician, archaeologist and numismatist Giuseppe Fiorelli, discovered a technique that made it possible not only to preserve the forms of a body buried under the ashes, but also to demonstrate them in great detail. This technique was called plaster casting and gave the opportunity to obtain unique and impressive results.


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Members of Fiorelli's team discovered hollow pockets of ash in an alley called Skeleton Alley. Human bones could be disassembled inside. But instead of digging into the ashes to remove and extract them, Fiorelli instructed the diggers to pour liquid gypsum mortar into the cavity. Next, the solution was left for several days to cool and solidify, and then the outer layers of hardened ash were chipped off. What was discovered amazed even the most experienced archaeologists. The hardened gypsum exactly, with the smallest details of clothes and accessories, repeated the outlines of the body of the deceased person. The resulting cast depicted the posture of a Pompeii resident at the time of his tragic death.

The realism of the resulting plaster statue was amazing! Gypsum, being a plastic and pliable material, penetrated into the smallest relief structures of the cavity and repeated them exactly. As a result, thanks to the unique properties of the gypsum mortar, an impressive spectacle opened up to the eyes of archaeologists - a statue that displays the smallest details of posture, clothing, accessories, and, most importantly, the dying facial expressions of a Pompeian resident.


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Gypsum against time

The technology of gypsum casting, which was invented back in 1864, has retained its relevance to this day. Numerous attempts to replace it with more modern methods, or at least to find a material more suitable for these purposes, have not been successful. So, in 1984, the skeleton was cast using resin instead of plaster. But this experiment remains unique - for, despite the many advantages of casting resin, this method is complex and expensive. To date, the casting of gypsum bodies using gypsum mortar continues.

"Technique remains the best to get a perfect replica of the victim's body," explained anthropologist Pier Paolo Petrone in an interview with a renowned science magazine.

In a 2010 interview with the BBC, Stefania Giudice, a conservator at the National Archaeological Museum of Naples, described modern methods for casting new finds. This process is by no means simple. The gypsum composition must be thoroughly mixed with exact consistency, having a sufficiently dense consistency to support the bone frame, but not so thick as to obliterate fine details of the specimen. Then you need to carefully drain the excess. ‘The bones are very fragile,’ Giudice explained, ‘so when we pour the plaster, we have to be very careful, otherwise there is a risk of damage to the remains and they will be lost to us forever.’


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In addition, visual inspection today is far from the only way to study the resulting plaster cast. Computer and X-ray technologies have made it possible to examine the smallest details of the model.

The fate of Pompeii in plaster

To date, about 100 human casts have been preserved in the form of a plaster cast. For the experts studying these remains, there is no doubt that they are dealing with the remains of real people, even if most of what remains of them can only be seen in plaster. Interestingly, in addition to people, Pompeii gave archaeologists several plaster models of animals, among which there are dogs and pigs living in the city.

Preserving the smallest features and facial expressions of the dead, the plaster reveals to us many touching personal stories of the unfortunate Pompeians. So, one of the most famous is the statue of a little dead boy, about four years old, found in the House of the Golden Bracelet. He was found next to the remains of an adult man and woman who apparently were his parents. It is noteworthy that there was a baby on the woman's lap. Thanks to the plaster cast, through the centuries we can catch all the horror and despair that froze on the face of the unfortunate child before death. Thus, it was gypsum that opened the door to this amazing and at the same time sad story.