M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin

The form: analysis of a literary episode

Goals: repeat the techniques of the comic; improve the skill of analyzing the source and techniques of the comic in a literary text.

Exercise 1.

Review the main types and techniques of the comic.

Types of comic (funny)

Humor - a kind of comic: soft, sympathetic laughter, not denying the phenomenon in general, but recognizing its imperfections.

Irony- a kind of comic: a subtle, hidden mockery. The comic effect is achieved by saying exactly the opposite of what is implied.

Satire- a kind of comic: a way of manifestation of the comic in art, which consists in destructive ridicule of phenomena that appear to the author to be vicious.

Sarcasm- a kind of comic: an evil, stinging mockery, a mockery containing a destructive assessment of a person, object or phenomenon. Sarcasm is characterized by an extreme degree of emotional openness, denial, turning into indignation.

Comic techniques

Absurd- a way of depicting reality, which is characterized by an emphasized violation of cause-and-effect relationships, the desire to demonstrate the absurdity and meaninglessness of human existence.

Hyperbola- excessive exaggeration of feelings, meaning, size, beauty, etc. of the described phenomenon. It can be both idealizing and derogatory.

Speaking name- a technique based on the use of the meaning of the name or associated associations to characterize the internal appearance of the hero.

Grotesque- a technique based on combining contrasting principles: real and unreal, terrible and funny, tragic and comic, ugly and beautiful.

Litotes- a trope opposite to hyperbole: an artistic understatement of the magnitude, strength, meaning of a phenomenon or object.

Parody- humorous or satirical imitation of a literary work in order to make fun of it, ridicule.

Implementation of the metaphor- the literal embodiment of a metaphorical expression, as a result of which a new understanding of this expression arises, which sometimes has a humorous and even grotesque connotation.

Self-exposure- a technique based on the disclosure by the hero of his own vices, unseemly deeds. At the same time, the hero does not realize his own shortcomings, does not repent of them.

Fantastic- a special type of imagery, which is characterized by: a high degree of convention, violation of the laws of reality, orientation to fiction

Task 2. Read the above episode. Answer the question in 5-10 sentences (the answer must contain an analysis of the episode).

Option 1. Surnames on A-I

Can Vasiliska Wartkin be called an ideal mayor? What satirical techniques are used to describe his reign?

Vasilisk Semenovich Borodavkin, who replaced Brigadier Ferdyshchenka, represented the complete opposite of his predecessor. As far as the latter was loose and loose, just as the former amazed with quickness and some unheard-of administrative causticity, which manifested itself with particular energy in matters concerning the eaten egg. Constantly buttoned up and with a cap and gloves at the ready, he was a type of mayor, whose legs are ready to run at any time to who knows where. In the daytime he, like a fly, flashed through the city, watching that the inhabitants had a cheerful and cheerful appearance; at night - he put out fires, made false alarms and generally caught by surprise.

He shouted at all times, and shouted extraordinarily. "He contained so much of a cry," says the chronicler about this, "that many of the Foolovites were afraid of it for themselves and for their children forever." This is a remarkable testimony, and it finds confirmation in the fact that later the authorities were forced to give the Foolovites various privileges, precisely "to frighten them for their sake."

Option 2. Surnames on K-R

What features of the Foolovites manifested themselves in the strange “riot on their knees”? What satirical techniques are used in this episode?

By the way, he happened to hear that the Foolovites, by omission, had completely lagged behind the use of mustard, and therefore, for the first time, confined himself to declaring this use compulsory; as a punishment for disobedience, he added olive oil. And at the same time, he put in his heart: until then, do not put down weapons until at least one perplexed person remains in the city.

But the Foolovites were also on their own. With great ingenuity, they opposed the energy of action with the energy of inaction.

- What you want to do with us! - said some, - he likes - cut into pieces; if you like - eat with porridge, but we do not agree!

- From us, brother, there is nothing to take! - said others, - we are not like the others who have overgrown with the body! us, brother, and nowhere to prick!

And stubbornly stood on their knees.

Obviously, when these two energies meet, something very curious always comes out of it. There is no rebellion, but there is no real submission either.

- I will break this energy! - said Wartkin, and slowly, without haste, pondered his plan.

And the Foolovites were on their knees and waited. They knew that they were rebelling, but they could not help but kneel. God! what did they not change their minds at this time! They think: now they will eat mustard, as if for the future they will not force any other abomination to eat; will not - no matter how Shelepov did not have to taste. It seemed that the knees in this case represent the middle path, which can pacify both sides.

Option 3. Surnames in C-Z

What explains Benevolensky's legislative activity? What satirical techniques are used to describe his reign?

As soon as Benevolensky began to issue the first law, it turned out that, as a simple mayor, he did not even have the right to issue his own laws.<…>Finally he broke down. One dark night, when not only the security workers, but also the dogs were asleep, he stealthily went out into the street and scattered a multitude of leaflets on which the first law he had written for Foolov was written. And although he understood that this way of promulgating laws was very reprehensible, the long-held passion for legislation cried out so loudly about satisfaction that even the arguments of prudence were silenced in her voice.

The law was apparently written in a hurry, and therefore was distinguished by its extraordinary brevity. The next day, on their way to the market, the Foolovites picked up pieces of paper from the floor and read the following:

1st law

“Every man walks dangerously; But let the tax farmer bring gifts. "

But only. But the meaning of the law was clear, and the tax farmer came to the town governor the very next day. An explanation has occurred; the tax farmer argued that he had been ready before, as far as possible; Benevolensky objected that he could not remain in the same uncertain position; that such an expression as "a measure of possibility" says nothing to either the mind or the heart, and that only the law is clear. They stopped at three thousand rubles a year and decided to consider this figure legal, until, however, "the circumstances do not change the laws."


Independent work No. 9

The type of "little man" in the works of F.M. Dostoevsky.

The form: note-taking

Target: to consolidate information about the cross-cutting types of heroes in Russian literature; to reveal the specifics of the image of the "little man" in the work of Dostoevsky

Exercise. Outline the article.

The literary type of the "little man" took shape in Russian prose in the 1830s - 1840s. For its time, this type of hero was a kind of revolution in understanding and portraying a person in a literary work. Indeed, the "little man" was not like exceptional romantic heroes with their complex spiritual world. A “little man” is, as a rule, a poor Petersburg official, a “cog” of a huge bureaucratic machine, an inconspicuous creature standing on one of the lower rungs of the social ladder. The character of such a person was unremarkable, he did not have any strong emotional movements, "ambitions".

The spiritual world of the "little man" is meager and of little interest. However, the authors of works about "little people" portrayed them from a humanistic standpoint, emphasizing that even such a pitiful, defenseless and powerless creature is worthy of respect and compassion. Many works about "little people" are characterized by sentimental pathos. The appearance of the "little man" was the beginning of the democratization of literature. The classic images of “little people” were created by A.S. Pushkin (Samson Vyrin in The Station Keeper, Eugene in The Bronze Horseman) and N.V. Gogol (Bashmachkin in The Overcoat).

The development of the type of "little man" was the literary type of "humiliated and insulted" man, which is most vividly represented in the works of Fyodor Dostoevsky ("The Humiliated and Insulted" is the title of Dostoevsky's novel). For the first time, the image of a "humiliated and insulted" person - Makar Devushkin - was created by Dostoevsky in the novel Poor People (1846). This hero, a poor St. Petersburg bureaucrat, outwardly resembled the numerous "little people" portrayed by the writers of the "natural school" of the 1840s. But, unlike his contemporaries, Dostoevsky did not confine himself to the social characteristics of Devushkin. He showed that his hero understands and acutely experiences his humiliating situation, cannot come to terms with him, although he is not capable of protest.

In the novel Crime and Punishment, members of the Marmeladov family became victims of real life: the meek Sonya, who had to go to the panel to help the family; the hunted Katerina Ivanovna, who has "nowhere else to go"; weak-willed Marmeladov, who brought his wife to consumption, doomed his daughter to live "on the yellow ticket." But there was kindness and nobility in him: he offered his hand to the unfortunate woman with three children, because he could not look at such suffering, wishing to help her. And he lost his place in the service "through no fault of his own, but due to redundancy in the states." And he began to drink out of despair, tormented by his powerlessness and from the consciousness of guilt before his loved ones. Semyon Zakharych Marmeladov firmly stands on one point, which can be called the "idea of ​​self-abasement": he gets beatings "not only not in pain, but also in pleasure", he teaches himself not to pay attention to anything, and he is already used to spending the night, wherever he has to ... He himself denied himself the right to be a person. If the “idea of ​​self-abasement” is associated with him, then with Katerina Ivanovna it is not even an idea, but a painful mania for self-assertion (Razumikhin defined it as “consolation”), but this does not help them: from the destruction of their personality they gradually come to physical death.

When F.M. Dostoevsky began work on Crime and Punishment, he planned to write a novel one day about rushing people whom the writer called “drunken”, but such a novel was not written, and in the novel about Raskolnikov, one of those characters took a special place, which in literary criticism are referred to as the type of "little man" - Marmeladov, radically different from the hero of "Poor People" Makar Devushkin, although both of them, like Samson Vyrin, are at times also susceptible to the ailment of drunkenness. Researcher G.S. Pomerants thinks about the special hypostasis of the “little man”: “All the“ drunken ones ”do mean things and immediately repent of them; by impulses are noble, but without any steadfastness in good. They knock their heads against God, like a drunken Marmeladov on the steps of a staircase. Their great virtue is humility (Marmeladov delivers a sermon about this, which amazed Raskolnikov). But the humility of the "drunken" is inseparable from sin, from habit, to their own weakness, from lack of faith in themselves. The tragedy of moral weakness can be no less destructive than Raskolnikov's experiments.<...>

In the "drunken", more than in anyone else, the "fluidity" of Dostoevsky's hero, the blurring of moral boundaries - the breadth that Arkady Dolgoruky speaks of ... is striking: “I wondered a thousand times at this human ability ( and, it seems, the Russian person par excellence) cherish in his soul the highest ideal alongside the greatest meanness, and everything is completely sincere. Is this widespread in a Russian person, which will lead him far, or just meanness - that is the question! ""

And nevertheless, examining the reasons for the "tragedy of weakness" of his heroes, F.M. Dostoevsky is filled with great compassion for them. The writer condemned many of them for immorality and deafness to the suffering of others, but the main thing in F.M. Dostoevsky was his conviction that a person is not a powerless "brace" and not a "piano key", activated by an outside hand, he himself is responsible for his life. The writer never transferred the guilt from the person himself to the external "circumstances" of his life. As an artist, he saw his task to contribute to the "restoration of a lost person" crushed by "the oppression of circumstances, stagnation of centuries and social prejudices."


Similar information.


THEORY OF LITERATURE

Types of comic

HUMOR (from the English humor - whim, temper; Latin humor - moisture) is a kind of comic, depicting life in a good-natured, humorous tone. Unlike satire, which is marked by negative pathos, humor does not deny what is portrayed, but ridicules only certain aspects of it. Humor is inherent in many genres of Ukrainian folklore (anecdotes, sayings, ditties, songs, etc.). The masters of humor are I. Kotlyarevsky, M. Gogol, L. Glebov, S. Rudansky, Ostap Vishnya, S. Oleinik, P. Glazovoy and others.

IRONY (from Gr. Egopeia - mockery, pretense) is one of the varieties of the comic, hidden mockery or stylistic device, when a person or phenomenon is pretending to be approved or condemned in order to achieve the opposite effect. A sign of irony is a double meaning, and the opposite is not true, but the opposite.

You speak the truth, sir! All barefoot and hungry - Drunkards, idlers, thieves And people who are good for nothing ...

(A. Bobenko)

SATIRE (from lat. Satura - mixture) - 1) A type of lyric poetry in ancient literature and the literature of classicism, a verse that ridicules certain negative phenomena. 2) Works of different genres, in which negative social phenomena are exposed in an acute form. Satire condemns the old, historically doomed, shows its inner worthlessness and expresses the new needs of social development. Therefore, it has always been a powerful weapon of political struggle. Outstanding satirical writers of different times F. Rabelais, M. Cervantes, J. Swift, Voltaire, G. Heine, G. Saltykov-Shchedrin, M. Gogol, V. Mayakovsky and others. In Ukrainian literature - T. Shevchenko, I. Kotlyarevsky, I. Franko, Ostap Vishnya, S. Oleinik and others.

INVEKTIVA (from lat. Invehi - to rush, attack) is a type of satire, widespread in literature and oratory in the era of antiquity, a sharp accusatory ridicule of a particular person or group of persons. Outstanding masters of invective in ancient times were Archilochus, Catullus, Martial, and others. As an original genre, invective entered the latest literature. It occupies a significant place in the works of T. Shevchenko, I. Frank and other Ukrainian writers.

SARKAZM (from the gr. Sarkasmos - torment) - evil and caustic irony, a frank manifestation of hatred and contempt for the depicted phenomena or persons. A striking example of sarcasm is T. Shevchenko's poem "The Caucasus", in which the powers that be are branded.

By the law of the apostle, you love your brother! Su words, hypocrites, cursed by the Lord!

GROTESQUE (from the French grotesque - funny, unusual; it. Grotta - grotto, cave) is a type of artistic imagery based on an extreme measure of conventionality in reproducing life, when the depicted reality appears incredible, anomalous, strange. The grotesque is characterized by a deliberate caricature distortion of the forms and essence of objects, a combination of the real and the fantastic, the tragic and the comic, the normal and the absurd. As a means of artistic generalization, grotesque reveals the illogism of life phenomena, and therefore is widely used in satirical works. The term comes from the bizarre drawings found by Raphael (XVI century) in the underground Roman grottoes. Examples of grotesque in literature - "Gargantua and Pantagruel" by F. Rabelais, "The Nose" by M. Gogol, "The History of a City" by M. Saltykov-Shchedrin, the poem "Dream" by T. Shevchenko, "Doctor Besservisser" by I. Frank, etc.

BURLESK (from it. Burla - joke) - a humorous reworking of a certain work, which is characterized by the inconsistency of the content with the form: "high", the heroic-patriotic content is conveyed in a low, sometimes vulgarized style, and vice versa - ordinary, "low" - high, sublime heroic ... A striking example is the poem by I. Kotlyarevsky "Aeneid", which was a reworking of the epic poem of the same name by the Roman poet Virgil. The main plot of the original is preserved, but typical Ukrainian characters are recreated in the images of gods, Greeks and Trojans. Such works have been known since ancient times. Burlesque elements are present in Ukrainian ritual games and songs. Burlesque became widespread in the 17th-18th centuries. in the works of seminarians and itinerant clerks, in the school drama and nativity scene. They are dominated by church themes, * humor is often combined with satire. A lot of anonymous and author's works have come down from those times. Means of burlesque were used in their work by T. Shevchenko (the poem "Dream"), S. Rudansky, P. Kulish, L. Glebov and others.

BUFFONADA (from Italian buffonáta - buffoonery, comic trick) is a kind of humor in theatrical performances based on grotesque tricks of crude comic. It originates from the folk theater (the Italian comedy of masks, the Russian theater of buffoons, Ukrainian interludes, etc.). Elements of buffoonery are found in the plays of W. Shakespeare, P. Calderon, Same. B. Moliere, M. Gogol, G. Kvitka-Osnovyanenko, M. Kropivnitsky. It exists as an independent genre in circus performances, sometimes used by playwrights ("Pharaohs" by A. Kolomiets).

Artistic technique is a term used in modern literary studies as a synonym for the phrase "pictorial (expressive, artistic) means": compositional, rhythmic, stylistic or sound means that serves to concretize, emphasize one or another element of the narrative (character state, description, author's speech etc.). A technique is also understood as the principles of organizing the artistic structure of a work in the whole of a work as a whole: genre, plot, etc.

Visual means are methods and techniques for recreating reality in an artistic work, allowing one to present a visible, audible, tangible picture of it: tropes, stylistic figures, various forms of sound instrumentation of the text, rhythm, etc., that is, those elements of the work that help to create "sensory-object images (V. Kozhinov).

B. Dzemidok, in his work devoted to the theory of the comic, although he does not consider the means of the comic, devotes a special place to the study of its forms and methods. He notes five methods of creating a comic: modification and deformation of phenomena; unexpected effects; disparity in relationships and between phenomena; an imaginary unification of absolutely different phenomena: the creation of phenomena that, in essence or in appearance, deviate from the logical or praxeological norm. These techniques are explained on the basis of the facts of world art. The generalized statements of the author about the techniques of comic in a somewhat refined form can be applied to the work of masters of comic of various peoples. Another advantage of Jzemidoka's book is that, speaking of purely comic devices, he excludes comic means, considering them a topic for a separate study.

Perhaps a narrow and broad understanding of the term "means of the comic". Anything that contributes to the creation of a comic effect in a broad sense can be considered a means of comic. The means of the comic in a broad sense include a variety of objects and their details. However, speaking about the means of the comic, we mean, first of all, its linguistic means: epithet, metaphor, hyperbole, lithote, metonymy, comparison, etc.

The range of means of the comic is known: does this include all the significant units of the language? words, expressions, phrases, sentences and texts. The possibilities of each of these units in creating the comic are endless. For example, as a means of comic, we have noted a linguistic unit, collectively referred to as "word". The role of the word in comic art is increasing significantly. Speaking about the poles of words as "means of the comic", we mean the functionally - stylistic poles of common words, archaisms and dialectisms, neologisms, terms and terminological words, professionalisms, borrowings and vulgarisms, jargon, the proper names of persons, objects and space, titles and titles. It is known that metaphors, metonymy, comparisons, artistic definitions (epithets) significantly expand the semantic possibilities of a word. In satirical art, polysemantic words, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy and comic play on words are widely used. Pronunciation of words with an ironic intonation creates an immense field for their semantic and comic variation. The comic effect is also produced by the linguistic playing of figurative expressions and aphorisms, paremias, phraseological units, etc.

It should be noted that in the language of prosaic works, the comic nature of homonyms, paraonyms, most often arises on the basis of puns, which have a serious impact on the comic expression of thought in dialogue. It should also be noted that puns in the language are not limited to the use of lexical homonyms, homoforms, homographs and paraonyms; puns have wide possibilities of expression, variety of forms. And yet, in the dialogues of humorous and satirical works, especially the poetic ones, these forms are more often than others used to create comic puns.

Known to be a pun? it's not just a play on words. The use of puns in artistic production is often associated with the advancement and development of an autopsy idea. Among outstanding artists, puns are rare, but they have great meaning. Too much puns can turn a work of art into a field for meaningless puns. VG Belinsky, speaking about Chatsky "... and therefore his wit so sharply, strongly and is expressed not in puns, but in sarcasms." .., I meant just this feature. This thought is also connected with the fact that pun is not a means of expressing evil, harsh, angry satire; sarcasm can be the main means of such satire.

The pun is based on the meaning of the word, it is often associated with different interpretations, unexpected rethinking of the word. Sometimes the word is used in a completely different, occasional, meaning. This also includes a playful etymological analysis in accordance with the mindset of the hero.

In the language of poses, the comic with the use of antonyms is not limited to criticism of the negative qualities inherent in individual individuals: it also serves to expose social contradictions. Antonyms express the opposites of objective reality in the language of pose. However, in comic works, the general humorous or satirical background gives the comic tone and antonymic contradictions. At the same time, the groans that make up the contrast differ sharply, which enhances the comic effect. Sometimes comic contrasting contributes to the disclosure of the secret intentions of the hero, serves to expose his spiritual content.

Interesting examples of comic contrasts through the joint use of words that do not correlate in any way, not in any way related to each other. In general, the description in one row of completely incompatible, completely different and opposite objects and concepts is one of the main means of expressing the manner of surprise. These funds have long been used in world literature. For example, G. Heine wrote: "In general, the inhabitants of Göttingen are divided into students, professors, philistines and cattle, which four classes, however, do not differ strictly from each other." The satirical attitude is expressed here in the comparison of professors, students and philistines with cattle.

The techniques are also varied in nature. Of course, in artistic production, all the techniques of the comic are associated with language, since artistic production is created on the basis of linguistic material. However, not all techniques of the comic are in an equally active relationship with the lexical and grammatical means of the language. For example, situationally conditioned irony, contrast, comic exaggeration (hyperbole), belittling (litota), manners of misunderstanding, surprises are less dependent on the constituent elements of the language.

The remedy is specific, trick? general. One and the same tool can serve as an element of several techniques. For example, the comic effect of words can be used both in irony and in forms of deformation and other techniques. The means is material, concrete; the method is materially "elusive", it is abstract. The means of the comic are at hand: we see them, read them, pronounce them. But techniques are not derived from these means: they are of an indirect nature.

The power of comic production, the significance of humor and satire depend on the choice of means, their appropriate use, and their skillful introduction into the text. In cases where the work does not meet these requirements, the comic is faintly expressed, the satirical spirit? weak. This circumstance once again confirms the indissoluble unity of the means and techniques of the comic. Formation of comic character and conflict is impossible without comic means. The plot of a comic work is gradually loaded with comic means, which, along the general course of the plot, determine the development of comic techniques.

The language of satirical works does not differ materially from the language of non-satirical works: the linguistic means of the comic also consist of phonetic, lexical, phraseological and grammatical means. The linguistic means of the comic embrace all the expressive means of the language, they are identical with the means used in lyric, epic and dramatic works, and do not differ from them in their material form. Phonetic, lexical, phraseological and grammatical means of the language are the material for any production. These tools are used by all writers. However, the main task of the master of the comic is the use of linguistic means in the comic plane; the master of satire, the creator of humor must be able to give the means used a satirical or humorous coloring, choose those units that have a comic quality in the language itself, color his work with comic intonation and comic speech means.

Praise and approval in combination with other words and in the presence of an ironic intonation can acquire directly opposite meanings and turn into a means of satire.

Vulgar words and expressions constitute a special and significant category of words in the common language. Words expressing vulgar and crude meanings have ancient history in the language; for a long time they exist in a limited everyday environment and are passed on from generation to generation. Vulgarisms have a pronounced national colopitis, therefore, as a rule, they consist of words originally inherent in the language (in rare cases, they are borrowed from other languages). A certain part of vulgarisms (the so-called swear words) in everyday life express harsh and irreconcilable relations between different individuals. They often have a playful and kind-hearted connotation.

Vulgarisms also penetrate into works of art. And this is natural. Writers turn to vulgarisms for a comprehensive depiction of the character of an image, its position in public life and in everyday life, for a natural and real display of its relations with others, and reactions to various phenomena. Writers differ in the culture of using vulgar words and expressions in relation to vulgarisms in the language of fiction. Some give a wide place to vulgarisms, while others adhere to the principle of the limited use of such words and expressions.

In the language of satire, vulgarisms are used mainly as a means of comic. But this does not apply equally to all vulgarisms found in satirical works. A whole series of abusive expressions, swear words in the language of satire, without comic shades, is associated with the general development of the plot and images. These words express the necessary concepts. However, in most cases, comic masters use vulgarisms in artistic production as comic means, paying special attention to their possibilities in creating a comic effect.

In the language of satirical poses, vulgarisms are mainly a constituent element of the characters' speech. Sometimes abusive and rude expressions are found in the author's speech. In the author's speech, vulgarisms are associated, as a rule, with a negative, satirical attitude towards the image.

Fictitious names, nicknames, titles of titles as a means of satirical typing provide invaluable assistance to writers who use them as the most significant means of typing. Satire masters, trying to stigmatize negative images, choose names that from the very beginning expose the base essence, low public "rating" of these characters. All this plays a significant role in creating a generalized image of the satirical type.

In artistic production, proper names perform not only a nominative-identification function: being associated with the theme of the work, genre, general composition and the nature of images, they carry a certain stylistic load, have a stylistic connotation. The names and nicknames in the writer's stories play a significant role as a source of comic influence, they make the reader follow the development of events with a smile.

Thus, despite the frequent confusion of forms, techniques and means of the comic, two main forms of the comic are still distinguished: humor and satire. Among the techniques for creating comic content, there are: situationally conditioned irony, contrast, comic exaggeration (hyperbole), belittling (litota), the manner of misunderstanding, unexpectedness. And among the means of creating a comic, epithets, metaphors, comparisons, assimilations, oxymopon, synonymy, antonymy, curses, curses, approval, praise, vulgarisms, professionalisms, "speaking" names and surnames, titles, etc. are identified.

Basic forms of the comic

One of the greatest difficulties facing the theorist of the comic is the need to streamline and clarify all the concepts associated with this or that manifestation of the comic and to classify its various forms Dzemidok B. About the comic. - M., 1974, p. 63.

Researchers working on the problem of the forms of the comic can find several fundamentally different methods.

Let us turn to some of them, having analyzed the methods following B. Dzemidok.

The first is that the researcher uses a large number of terms to describe various forms of the comic. Collins-Suobi, for example, writes that the types of the comic in the broad sense of the word should be considered: the comic as such, wit, humor, satire, irony, etc. E. Sourai. Les categories estetique. - Paris, 1956 (without notes, one can understand that along with other forms, grotesque falls in "and so on"). The researcher places phenomena of a different order on the same line. At the same time, he forgets that satire resorts to irony as a means of expression, and sharpness can be both humorous and satirical.

Another method is to highlight the main types of comic, depending on the area in which we are faced with it. For example, Bergson considers comic situations, comic speeches and comic characters to be the main forms of comic. The weakness of this concept lies in the fact that Bergson abandoned attempts to streamline the entire complex of concepts associated with the comic.

Representatives of the third direction see the classification criterion in the very structure of the comic or in the way it is created.

So A. Natev, who in the monograph "Art and Society" Natev A. Art and Society. - M., "Progress", 1966, p.279-281 as the main manifestations of the comic indicates

1. The automaticity of the living, the schematic nature of the complex,

2. A sudden turn of action,

3. Non-logical in logical form,

4. The image of the unimportant important, frivolous serious,

5. The unexpected weakness of the strong and the strength of the weak,

6. Violation of historicity,

7. The comic of the obsolete,

8. The comedy of the new.

The fourth way is to classify the various forms of the comic, depending on the intensity of the criticism they contain. Kagan in "Lectures .." expresses the idea that in life all forms of the comic are distributed between two poles - sarcasm and joke. Humor and satire should be considered artistic equivalents of joke and sarcasm. The Kagan refuses, however, from an attempt to arrange in the necessary sequence all the intermediate forms of the comic.

According to the fifth method, the forms of the comic are arranged depending on their homogeneity or heterogeneity. This point of view is characteristic of theorists who see the difference between elementary forms on the one hand and complex forms of the comic on the other.

In the concept of the comic, developed by Yuri Borev, humor and satire appear as forms of the comic.

B. Dzemidok believes that “the division of the comic into humor, satire, irony, grotesque, caricature, wit, parody, etc. is a violation of the elementary laws of logic. Such a division does not take into account either the principle of the unity of the classification criterion at each of its stages ”Dzemidok B. On the comic. - M., 1974, p. 103.

The classification of the forms of the comic should apparently meet the following requirements Ibid, p. 65-66:

1. It should streamline the entire complex of the comic, determine the environment of action, a step in the hierarchical classification of each form.

2. It should isolate the main forms of the comic, in which the author's point of view on the world is revealed, separate from those forms that are only expressive means, devices that testify to the structure of this comic phenomenon.

3. It should take into account both the degree of complexity of the forms of the comic and the degree of criticism contained in it.

The question of how to distinguish the satirical comedy from the humorous comedy is the key problem in the classification of the forms of the comic. To do this, two problems must be solved:

1. Is the division of the comedy into “simple”, “elementary”, “pure” on the one hand and “heterogeneous”, “complex” on the other hand sufficiently motivated? Ibid, p.89

2. Whether the comic is connected with an expression of disapproval, a kind of criticism.

Among the works of art that are considered comic, one can single out those that touch on simple, superficial phenomena. To cause laughter and to entertain - this is the main purpose of such works.

Complex comic is characteristic of works that touch on complex internal phenomena; they cause not only laughter, but also pain, sadness, sympathy, anger, indignation, etc.

In general, the comic is subdivided into simple comic (farcical-vaudeville) - homogeneous in emotion, not containing evaluative elements, and complex comic, which, in turn, can be humorous and non-humorous (satirical and non-satirical comic). Comedy humorous - moments of approval are balanced with moments of denial, and non-humorous - disapproving, socially active, aggressive.

"Pure" comic is contrasted in one form or another with satirical comic.

A humorous position - “this is the position of an entertaining tolerance for evil, even a joyful emphasis” Kirpotin V. Theory of satire. - M., 1957, p. 27. The satirist is not limited to contemplation, he tries to instill a certain attitude towards what he portrays. "The art of satirist is the art of persuading."

In the monograph by E. Evnina, dedicated to the work of F. Rable, the author identifies four forms of laughter associated with the comic. The first of them is meaningless laughter, the second is humorous laughter, prone to "reasoning and generalization", the third kind of laughter is satirical laughter. Laughter is accusatory, more active and purposeful. The last form is triumphant laugh. This laughter is caused either by overcoming contradictions, or by the consciousness of the inevitable and imminent overcoming of them. In relation to the fourth form, the scientist takes an inconsistent position, since he considers it to be one of the forms of satire, then this form passes into the area of ​​pure comic Eunin E. François Rabelais. - M., Goslitizdat, 1948.

A consistent advocate of the thesis that laughter tries to humiliate is Bergson. He says about laughter: "Always somewhat offensive for the one against whom he is directed" Bergson R. Laughter in life and on stage. - SPb., 1900, p. 124-125. And therefore, by its very nature, Bergson believes, laughter cannot be combined with sympathy and kindness. This, in our opinion, is a one-sided approach that does not cover all forms of the comic.

In comic art, the concepts of "primitive-immediate" and "complex-mediated" are distinguished. The first type is represented by gaiety and satiricality. Complicatedly mediated concepts are humor (positive) and irony (negative).

Humor (from the English Humor - temper, mood) - 1. a kind of comic, suggesting good-natured ridicule of a person or phenomenon, often "approval under the guise of ridicule." Classical humorous characters - Don Quixote and Sancho Panza M. Servantes, heroes of "Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka" by Nikolai Gogol, etc.

The heyday of humor came at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, its representatives played a significant role in the literature of the Russian emigration.

In practice, it is often difficult to distinguish and separate humor and purely laughing elements. Modern dictionary-reference book on literature. Ed. S.I. Kormilova. - M., 2000.

Children's humor is represented by the works of M. Zoshchenko, Sotnik, N. Nosov, V. Golyavkin, etc.

The word "humor" is used in both narrow and broad meanings. In a broad sense, it is considered as a synonym for the word "comic". Many researchers use the word "humor" in a narrower sense - in the sense of one of the forms of the comic.

It should be noted that in order to avoid misunderstandings, the use of the word "humor" in the meaning of "comic" should be abandoned. The following arguments speak for this: firstly, such expressions as “sense of the comic”, “comic creativity” can serve as a more perfect replacement for the term “humor” in a broad sense; secondly, it is more convenient to call it just one form of the comic.

The term "satire" is used either in the sense of the opposite of humor form of the comic, or else means a form of creativity, characterized by a pronounced critical tendency in relation to its object.

B. Dzemidok in his monograph "On the Comic" makes an attempt to classify the forms of the comic. “Depending on the emotional intensity and the presence of rational-evaluative elements, two fundamentally different types of the comic can be distinguished. The first is an elementary comic, farcical-vaudeville, not evaluative and not rational, sparkling almost always with carefree fun, very often primitive. Another type is complex comic, humorous-satirical, rational and evaluative. Within the second complexity of the category of the comic, two forms are usually distinguished: humorous and satirical, as well as two types of creativity corresponding to them: humor and satire. The criterion for the classification is the artist's attitude to objects of the comic. ”Dzemidok B. On the comic. - M., 1974, p. 99.

The humorous stance is inactive and non-aggressive. Humor examines the imperfection of life and human weakness. The satirical position, in turn, means always a consistent and uncompromising struggle with evil, the condescension and tolerance of a humorist are not characteristic of satirist.

L. Stolovich speaks about "satirical comedy" and "comedy comic" as two main forms of comedy. L. Stolovich. Aesthetic in reality and art. - M., 1954, p. 96. Some authors do not consider satire as a kind of comic in general (Chernyshevsky, for example, identifies only three forms of the comic: farce, wit, and humor), and Bergson considers humor (as well as irony) to be one of the forms of satire.

In other classifications, irony is put forward as an independent form of the comic. Irony shows mostly ignorance and stupidity,

Irony (from the Greek. Eironeia, literally - pretense) is a kind of comic, a form of hidden evaluation, when the funny is hidden under the guise of seriousness, forming a negative attitude towards the object. The "secrecy" of ridicule is characterized by irony; as an aesthetic attitude, irony is realized mainly in the form of parody, grotesque, hyperbole, etc. Satirical irony turns into sarcasm. Modern dictionary-reference book on literature. Ed. S.I. Kormilova. - M., 2000.

A number of stable types of irony have developed in the history of culture. Socratic irony accompanies the situation when philosophical logic and argumentation collide with common sense, highlighting mutual inconsistency. Irony can be directed both at each object separately and at the situation as a whole. At the turn of the 18-19 centuries. in Germany, a special type of irony emerges - romantic irony. The main form of romantic irony is the play of opposites, since, according to romantics, only in the sphere of aesthetic consciousness is it possible to identify opposites - suffering and joy, despair and delight.

The role of irony in aesthetics and ethics of the late 19th and early 20th centuries is assessed differently.

Irony is not a sign of the aesthetic and intellectual superiority of a person, but a synonym for fear and despair, however, it is colder and more calm.

It should be noted that irony occupies an intermediate position between humor and satire. She is more active than humor, but less aggressive and socially colored than satire.

While the terms "satire" and "humor" denote a certain approach to phenomena (certain elements of the worldview) and find their expression in a certain type of creativity (satire and humor), irony remains a type of comic technique used by both satire and humor.

B. Dzemidok believes that “the division of the comic into humor, satire, irony, grotesque, caricature, wit, parody, etc. is a violation of the elementary laws of logic. This division takes into account neither the principle of complete division of the concept, nor the principle of the unity of the classification criterion at each of its stages. ”Dzemidok B. On the comic. - M., 1974, p. 103.

The classification proposed by Dzemidok is based on the dichotomous principle of separation. In a complex comic, the scientist distinguishes 3 different creative methods: humorous, satirical and intermediate (mockingly ironic).

One cannot but agree with the author that it is necessary to distinguish “elementary” forms of the comic, which are essentially no more than expressive means, from the basic forms of the comic, in which the author's principled position finds expression. This should include irony, wit, joke, caricature, grotesque, travesty, etc.

Satire (from Lat. Satura - a mixture, all sorts of things) is a kind of artistic understanding of reality, associated with exposure and ridicule of negative phenomena, vices of social life. Satire is focused on one or another ideal that exists in the author's mind, is distinguished by an irreconcilable attitude towards the denounced phenomenon.

Satire originated in the literature of Ancient Rome as a genre of lyricism (for example, the moralistic satires of Horace and the civilians of Juvenal). In the Middle Ages, satirical tendencies spread widely in various genres (anecdote, poetic story, animal epic), in folk-laughter culture, where denial was balanced by elements of the simultaneous affirmation of a full-fledged healthy human nature. Renaissance satire is associated with a large-scale reassessment of values; in the Age of Enlightenment, the development of accusatory tendencies continues. In Russian literature, the beginning of accusatory satire was laid by the classicists and educators (A.D. Kantemir, A.P. Sumarokov, N.I. Novikov). The flowering of satire in Russia is associated with the names of N.V. Gogol, N.A. Nekrasov, A.P. Chekhov.

Satire is associated with a number of artistic means (hyperbole, grotesque, paradox, illogism, allegory), is related to the concept of "comic", humor, irony, sarcasm.

Satirists often use various techniques: deformation, caricature, hyperbole, grotesque, etc. It seems to us that the main features of satire should be sought not in the field of expressive means, but in terms of the ideological and emotional attitude to the mocked phenomena. A satirical work should be considered a work where this principle dominates.

Depending on the emotional coloring, satire can be subdivided into angry, sarcastic and conquering, funny satire. About two main types of satire - one optimistic, the other pessimistic, gloomy - writes the author of the monograph "Anatomy of Satire" G. Hayet, who believes that both of these forms differ from each other in understanding the purpose of satire. Optimistic satire heals and convinces, pessimistic satire wounds, destroys, evil is rooted in human nature.

Depending on the formal features, depending on the frequency of use of certain expressive means, 2 forms of satire can be distinguished:

1. Satire of grotesque character.

2. Romantic satire.

The main point is that the satirist decisively fights against his chosen object with the weapon of laughter. What expressive means he uses in this case, what methods of censure prevail in his work, is a secondary matter.

"Satire is an ironic generalization of the life of society, showing the contradiction between the high position of people and their inner insignificance." Literature theory. - M., 1940 - S. 187.

Yu. Borev in his monograph "On the Comic" believes that "satire is a scourging exposure of everything that does not correspond to advanced political, aesthetic and moral ideals, an angry ridicule of everything that stands in the way of their full realization". Borev Yu. On the comic. - M., 1957 .-- S. 124.

In satire, most often there is a unity of laughter and anger, here criticism is especially emotional. It is more intense, being acutely modern and topical, in it the unexpectedness of comparison plays a certain role in it. Ibid., Pp. 126-127.

Thus, satire reveals an inhuman, base essence hidden behind a fine appearance. According to Yuri Borev, satire is based on a comedic-aesthetic attitude to reality and a special emotional criticism that denies it.

The objects of humorous comedy are phenomena that, although they deviate from social norms and concepts of the normal, do not seem at the same time either dangerous or harmful.

The subject of humor can be phenomena that at first glance are insignificant and funny, but have, in essence, a certain value.

Features of humorous creativity are determined by subjective factors.

Many researchers assign the humorous worldview an important place among other components of the worldview.

Gefding believes that a humorous approach to reality can be a component of a worldview. Schumann believes that "humor is a philosophy of good humor." Rubinstein is of the same opinion. He considers humor to be one of the most common worldview components that connect the emotional to the intellectual sphere. Prus has repeatedly characterized the nature of humor: “The humorist admires his heroes in moderation, he does not strive for any conquests, does not try to convert anyone to his faith, does not obey anyone ... He looks at the world from the height of a mountain ridge, from where sloping green slopes, to the other - rocky abysses ”. This extensive statement of Prus contains all the features that are characteristic of the humorous concept of life. They can be reduced to three main ones:

1. The position of the humorist - the position of contemplative-brooding and inactive;

2. Humor is a concept that combines objectivity with moderate relativism. She does not focus on either the vices or the virtues of the world and people;

3. The humorous concept - the concept - the concept of indulgence and tolerance, good nature and forgiveness Dzemidok B. About the comic. - M., 1974 .-- S. 112-113.

Yuri Borev writes: “A humorous comedy is a heterogeneous and complex comedy, knowledge born of a humorous work is rarely a pure comic experience. Humorous comic, as well as satirical, is often combined with dramatic, tragic, melancholy and reflection. In humorous works, contradictory feelings, views and moods are intertwined with each other in a bizarre way. Mockery is combined with sympathy, sharpness with a serious thought, a joke with sadness "Borev Yu. About the comic. - M., 1974 .-- S. 124-125.

Humor always sees in its object some aspects that correspond to the ideal: “Humor, as it were, calls not for the destruction of the phenomenon, but for its improvement. The object of humor, although it deserves criticism, still retains its attractiveness. Affirming the main thing, the main thing in the phenomenon, humor clears it of all superficial. Humor is a friendly, harmless laugh, although not toothless. ”Dzemidok B. On the comic. - M., 1974 .-- S. 98.

It should be noted that humor considers the imperfection of life and human weakness as something that you have to put up with, that deserves leniency.

Thus, as the analysis of the material shows, two main forms of the comic can be distinguished: humor and satire. Irony is a type of comic technique used in both satire and humor. Therefore, we can distinguish 3 creative methods, correlated with the concept of the comic: humorous, satirical and intermediate.

"Humor is when it's scary funny, satire is when it's funny it's scary." Jerzy Lec, Polish satirist of the 20th century.

According to A. Akhiezer, laughter and seriousness are two aspects of culture that exist only passing into each other. Seriousness turns into laughter, as the relativity of every fundamental principle is revealed. A person can exist only when he softens the seriousness of his ideals, idols, totems, ideologists, leaders, etc. joke, laughter, anecdote.

The author of a publicistic text, criticizing the actions of politicians, officials, highlighting the actions and vices of people, seeks to make the reader laugh by using comic techniques. "Laughter brings the ridiculed on public display, tries to shame. Hence, the consolidation of the main meaning of the event in the language:" To laugh at "means literally to separate, to lift the ridiculed one fell by all, to make him look, to shame."

The main types of comic are considered to be humor, irony, sarcasm and satire. Their difference from each other lies in the special, peculiar character of laughter. The variety of shades of laughter reflects the aesthetic richness of reality. The forms and measure of laughter are determined by both the objective characteristics of the object and the ideological and aesthetic principles of the author, his relationship to the object, as well as national characteristics and the nature of the development of the general aesthetic culture of a particular people.

Humor(English humor) - a type of comic, which is characterized by a soft, kind attitude to life's contradictions and is aimed at improving an object or phenomenon, cleansing from flaws. The phenomenon is viewed critically from the point of view of its universal human significance. This is a special kind of comic, good-natured laughter with a serious background, combining mockery and sympathy, an outwardly comical interpretation and an inner involvement in what seems funny. Humor can be expressed in different ways, depending on the goals pursued, the level of culture, education, and other factors.

Humor in journalism is a reflection of the comic in life. He reinforces this comic by generalizing it, and as a result the reader laughs at minor flaws that are harmless and harmless. Revealing the essence of the phenomenon, humor seeks to improve it, cleanse it of shortcomings, helping to fully reveal everything that is socially valuable. Humor sees in its object some aspects corresponding to the ideal. It is said that our weaknesses are often an extension of our strengths. It is these flaws that provide the basis for good-natured humor. The object of humor, while deserving criticism, still generally retains its attractiveness.

It is another matter when it is not a separate trait that is negative, but a phenomenon in its essence, when it is socially dangerous and capable of causing serious damage to society. Here, a friendly laugh is inappropriate. The line between humor and satire is very thin. If the shortcomings of the phenomenon no longer make it possible to sympathize with him and its assessment should acquire a more severe character, then here the negative beginning in the humorous image begins to intensify, as a result of which there is a transition from humor to satire.

Satire(lat. satira) - a manifestation of the comic, which is a poetic humiliating denunciation of phenomena, emphasized, destructive criticism of the vices, absurdities and contradictions of social reality. It is always relevant, topical, since its object is the shortcomings of the present. Satire is used when not individual traits are negative, but a phenomenon in its essence, when it is socially dangerous. We laugh at the rotten, harmful, false with a scourging, exposing laugh. Satire denies the world, executes its imperfection in the name of its transformation in accordance with some ideal program. The comic manifests itself in a completely different way. Those phenomena of life are ridiculed that appear to the author to be vicious. The whole work, and individual images, situations, episodes can be satirical. Satire - aggressive, offensive laughter; it is one of the most powerful weapons of destruction of what appears to be harmful and unnecessary. For satire, it is necessary to have that starting point from which a hostile attitude towards an event, phenomenon or person is developed. The reason for this may be certain ideals, worldview, moral and other guidelines, norms, ideas, stereotypes that exist in society, as well as the author's personal beliefs, principles, his ideas about what is desired and what is due. In works of satirical genres, impressions of events or phenomena are conveyed using specific artistic images.

The originality of satire as a special type of aesthetic understanding of reality is revealed already in the very selection of life material and its interpretation. In a satirical work, one thing always remains unchanged: the unconditional denial of the described phenomenon. Hence the certainty of the author's position, which does not allow for a double interpretation of what is depicted. The subjective author's principle appears especially clearly, more sharply than in a non-satirical work. "The image of the author" in a satirical text expresses the ideal that is opposed to a negative phenomenon. And it is from the standpoint of the author's ideal that characters, facts, and phenomena of reality are characterized.

Irony(from the Greek. eirоneia, literally - pretense) - a kind of comic, ideological and emotional assessment. An ironic attitude implies superiority or condescension, skepticism or ridicule, deliberately hidden, but defining the style of a fiction or journalistic work. Irony is close to such a comic phenomenon as humor. In a journalistic text, the author uses it to assert his point of view on certain phenomena, to refute the position of an "enemy", an opponent, in open or hidden polemics on important political, economic and other issues. The goal becomes the desire to cheer up the audience, to give them the opportunity to laugh. Irony is viewed as a manifestation of the author's latent subjective assessment. The creation of an ironic meaning is due to the author's desire to express his attitude to reality in an indirect way, to distance himself from the depicted situation, to look at it from the outside. Irony allows you to hint at the real desires, possibilities and actions of the parodied person.

Sarcasm- a kind of comic, ideological and emotional assessment, suggesting a caustic, caustic mockery of the person being portrayed. Sarcasm is not limited to a higher degree of ridicule, denunciation, but lies primarily in a special relationship between the two planes - the implied and the expressed. Sarcasm is based not only on the heightened contrast of the implied and the expressed, but also on the immediate intentional exposure of the implied. In contrast to irony, sarcasm finds expression in the highest degree of indignation, hatred. The comic element in sarcastic exposure can be quite negligible. In sarcasm, indignation is expressed quite openly. Due to its direct emphasis, sarcasm is a form of exposure that is equally inherent in journalism, polemics, oratory, as well as in fiction.

So, to summarize a little, it can be noted that in essence, humor, irony, sarcasm and satire are very similar, since they oppose human vices and weaknesses. However, they react differently to the situation. Unlike the "destructive laughter" of satire, humor under the guise of the funny conceals a serious attitude towards the subject of laughter, and even an excuse for the "eccentric". Sarcasm mercilessly destroys the object of the image, always ends with a frank laugh and sometimes even cruel. Irony, however, does not carry out all its attacks directly, but with the help of hints, which the reader is not difficult to guess. Which of the types of comic is chosen in this case depends on the specifics and concept of the publication, as well as the idea of ​​the author himself.

Journalists in their work widely use various techniques with the help of which a comic effect is achieved. The nature of the comic is determined by the theme of the work, and the author's intention, and the originality of his talent. The use of various comic techniques is often conditioned by the journalist's intention to create an unusual, surreal world in which the funny and the serious, the fantastic and the realistic are organically combined. Its specificity is manifested primarily in the breadth and diversity of the narrator's range of reincarnations, covering the entire expressive-semantic atmosphere of the work.

The comic can serve the purpose of ironic, satirical or humorous coverage of the depicted reality. But "the speech techniques of the comic acquire special depth and effective force in those cases when they are used for satirical exposure, contribute to a deep depiction of a phenomenon, to reveal its essential contradictions, and not just depict this or that phenomenon in a funny way."

There are various techniques for creating a comic in a text, which can be expressed using phonetic, lexical, phraseological, and grammatical means. The main techniques of the comic include the following.

Pun- stylistic turn of speech, based on the comic use of the same sound of words that have different meanings, or similar sounding words or groups of words, or different meanings of the same word and phrase. The essence of the pun lies in the collision, or, on the contrary, in the unexpected combination of two incompatible meanings in one phonetic (graphic) form. That is, the main elements of a pun are, on the one hand, the same or close to homonymy sound (including the sound form of a polysemantic word in its different meanings), and on the other hand, a discrepancy to antonymy between two meanings, components of phraseological units and "free words The stylistic purpose of the pun is to create a comic effect, focusing the reader's attention on a specific point in the text.

Irony- a trope in which the true meaning is hidden or contradicts (opposes) the explicit meaning. Irony creates the feeling that the subject of discussion is not what it seems. Irony, as a means of comic presentation of material, is a powerful tool for the formation of a literary style, built on the opposition of the literal meaning of words and utterances to their true meaning. The essence of irony lies in the fact that someone or something is attributed to a feature that is absent, and thus its absence is only emphasized.

Hyperbola- This is a figurative expression containing an exaggerated exaggeration of the size, strength, significance of any phenomenon. The reason for using hyperbole in a comic text is usually the exaggeration of some insignificant, but characteristic of the parodied personality traits that are easily recognizable by the reader. In contrast to hyperbole, comic works can also use litotes, which underestimates the magnitude, the strength of the meaning of the depicted object or phenomenon. The purpose of using litota is to understate the significance of the consequences of some ridiculed imaginary great deeds.

The extreme degree of exaggeration, which reaches such proportions that it completely goes beyond the realm and goes into the realm of fantasy, is grotesque... Grotesque is used in cases when it is necessary to show some negative features of the parodied phenomenon.

The plot of the work, as it were, "models" the relationship between characters, social groups, etc.

Another way of comic typing is grotesque and allegorical. The fabulous situation serves as a formative element of the grotesque work. Grotesque poetics is based on the principle of alogism, which allows you to create a feeling of abnormality, the strangeness of the situation. This illogism of different levels - social, political, psychological. The main features of grotesque typification are fantasy, exaggeration of the comic. The fantastic assumption underlying the grotesque is cause without effect. It is the main technique for the design of artistic material, it acts as a genre-forming factor, suggesting the image of a phenomenon or event through the combination of the incompatible. In the comic genre, the author's ideals, the author's idea of ​​reality are hidden behind a deliberate grotesque distortion, and the distance between the author's perception of the world and the image in the text is felt extremely clearly.

Metaphor- not in its own, but in a figurative sense, used pictorial or figurative expression; represents, as it were, a concentrated comparison, and instead of the object being compared, the name of the object with which one wants to compare is put directly. Metaphor promotes grace, power and brilliance of speech; even in everyday life, in common parlance, expressions of passion almost never do without it. Metaphor is the transfer of the meaning of a word to an object with which it does not correspond. They are one of the most common comic effect techniques. Words and phrases taken out of their usual context and environment begin to work in new, unusual speech situations. The metaphor is realized in conditions of lexical connections that are unusual for the main semantics of the word, reflecting the subjective aspect of reality; in this case, signs, properties, etc. are expressed that are attributed by the subject of speech to objects and phenomena of reality on the basis of their objectively inherent similarity. However, the comic effect is achieved only when the basis of metaphorical rethinking is based on insignificant, random signs of comparable dissimilar concepts.

Paradox- This is a saying or judgment, sharply at odds with generally accepted traditional opinion or (sometimes only outwardly) common sense. It is important to emphasize here that, despite the large discrepancies in the understanding of the phenomenon of paradox, the presence of one common feature that unites all definitions is noticeable - contradiction. Paradoxes are capable of convincing and impressing (and, of course, entertaining) regardless of the depth and truth of the statement, since they have features of originality and a certain audacity. Therefore, paradoxes are very successful as a comic device.

Oxymoron- this is a stylistic mistake, a combination of words with the opposite meaning (that is, a combination of incompatible). An oxymoron is characterized by the deliberate use of contradiction to create a stylistic effect. The use of this technique in a humorous journalistic work is due to the author's desire for contrast, forming an unexpected semantic unity, to emphasize the absurdity of the situation and laugh at the hero.

Parody- a work intentionally repeating the unique features of another, usually widely known, work or group of works, and in a form designed to create a comic effect. Based on literary works, theatrical performances, films, everyday situations, parody is designed to expose the mistakes and character traits of famous people.

Alogism - illogical reasoning, a train of thought that violates the laws and rules of logic, or a fact that does not fit into the framework of logical thinking, something that cannot be substantiated logically, contrary to logic. Alogism is twofold: people either say absurd things, or do stupid things.

Language errors- deliberate use of language errors, the shortest path to the character's speech characteristics and the achievement of a comic effect.

Burlesque- a comic effect, which is achieved by the contrast between the theme and the nature of its interpretation. Presenting something great or strong in a funny way and vice versa. Social or individual extravagances, abuses are criticized with the help of burlesque in order to cause an improvement in the situation, to change something.

Do not forget about one of the most popular comic techniques - caricature, which is also designed to ridicule and expose any social, socio-political, everyday phenomena.

Caricature- an image in which a comic effect is created by exaggeration and sharpening of characteristic features, unexpected comparisons and assimilations. In the broad sense of the word, a caricature is understood as any image where a comic effect is deliberately created, the real and the fantastic are combined, the characteristic features of the figure, face, costume, behavior of people are exaggerated and sharpened, their relationship with the environment changes, unexpected comparisons and assimilations are used. A caricature is basically a drawing, a graphic, or even a collage.

All of the above comic techniques can be used, as in satire, sarcasm, humor and irony. However, it is worth highlighting the most characteristic techniques for each comic type. So, for example, humor mainly uses caricature, metaphor, irony, oxymoron, parody. Practically the same is used in irony, in which, in addition to the above, the grotesque, illogism, and paradox are also used. As for the satire of sarcasm, the most characteristic comic devices for it are hyperbole, grotesque, burlesque, caricature and language errors. The comic in the text can be enhanced both through the use of only one kind of technique, and with the help of several comic techniques at once.