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1. The origin and development of economic science. Stages of economic development

The origins of economic thoughts leave their roots in deep antiquity. Already in primitive society, people owned the success of economic knowledge. The laws of the Babylonian king Hammurapi and economic commandments in the Bible are considered to be the beginning of it. The founder of the ancient Chinese economic thought was Confucius (6-5 century BC. E.). Scientists of the ancient world (ancient Greece) Xenophon, Plato and Aristotle (5-4th century BC) formulated the initial provisions of economic theory. The organization of household and farms of slave owners was reflected in their works. Thus, economic theory during the period of the slave-ownership arose as an applied science on the management of the economy. As an independent economic science, it was formed much later, namely during the period of the market economy, i.e. In the conditions of formation of capitalism in the XVII-XIX centuries. In the emergence of economic theory as science, three stages (directions) can be distinguished: a daughter stage; stage of solving economic theory as science in the form of classical political economy; The stage of development of economic theory as science in the form of "economics" and the development of modern theoretical directions.

At the first stageeconomic theory arose as "savings" (OoConomia). It consists of two Greek words: "Okos" - house, household; "NOMOS" - law. Consequently, "savings" is a science of home economics or a household.

Second phasethe development of economic theory is associated with the formation of capitalism, when economic theory develops as a classical political economy. For the first time, the term "political economy" appeared in the work of Antoine Monkeyen. This term consists of three Greek words: "Polyteya" - society, government device; "Okos" - house, household; "NOMOS" - law. It follows that political economy is a science of state-owned economy, about the laws of the development of economic relations in the state about the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of life products.

In the second half of the XIX in arises third stagedevelopment of economic thought referred to as "Economics". Economics "is the science of economic behavior of people in the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of vital goods in order to meet their needs for limited resources. The term appeared in the 70s. Hih in. In the work of A. Marshall "Principles of Economics"

2. Theoretical Schools of Economic Science

In the development of economic theory as science distinguishes the following theoretical schools and directions: mercantilism, physiocracy, English political economy, Marxist economic science, neoclassical, Keynesian, institutional, neoliberal directions, the theory of public selection.

First theoretical schoolthere was mercantilism (from the Italian "mercant" - a merchant, merchant). Its representatives in the XVI-XVII centuries. There were: A. Monkeren, W. Stafford, I. Posochkov V. Tatishchev, and others. Mercantilists believed that the richness of society arises in trade (money, gold). They argued that the export of money and gold from the country reduces its wealth, and imports - increases. However, during the trading transaction there is no wealth, and only the exchange of money for the goods is happening and vice versa.

In France appeared second Theoretical School- School of physiocrats (physiocraticism "translated from Greek - the power of nature). The founder of this school is Francois Kene. His followers were A.Turgo, Didro, Rousseau, and others. The only source of wealth they considered nature, namely labor in agriculture. Consequently, economic theory (political economy) should be engaged in the study of agriculture. Industry, in their opinion, is a "barren sphere", i.e. secondary industry, which only converts substances of nature. However, this approach is incorrect, since

by itself, nature (agriculture) without an application of capital and labor can not create wealth.

Representatives third theoretical schoolare the British V. Petti, A. Smith and D. Ricardo. According to their theory, the source of the richness of society is material production (agriculture, industry, construction, etc.), namely labor. They laid the foundations of the labor theory of value, proved that the cost of any product is determined by the cost of social labor, that the growth of wealth in society is carried out by profits

Economic science has passed a long way of development. She originated for a long time, several thousand years ago. Initially, economic knowledge existed in the form of customs, traditions, oral creativity. With the advent of writing, economic thought is manifested in a variety of written sources: laws, economic activities, special writings, such as ancient states.

From the point of view of the process of formation of the subject and the method of economic science, the following stages of its development can be distinguished.

Stage I: the emergence of economic science. The emergence of the economy.

This stage is associated with the emergence and development of a slave-ownership society. Covers the period of time from the IV Millennium to the new era for the countries of the Ancient East, where there was a patriarchal slavery, the I millennium BC. According to IV in AD. - Antique or classic slavery.

At this stage, thanks to the famous ancient Greek thinkers, Xenophon, Platon, Aristotle Economic science receives its name and subject. Economy derived from the word "savings". This is the word of ancient Greek origin, "Oyconomy" ("Okos" - a house, economy; "NOMOS" is a rule, law) .OTyuda "Savings" - the science of the household, about the housekeeping.

Xenophon (430-355 BC) characterized it as a science on the introduction and enrichment of the economy (slave-owned). For Aristotle (384-322 BC) Economics - this production (natural slave-ownership) to meet natural needs, in contrast to the hirology, which was considered as art to make money. Aristotle marked the beginning of economic analysis Exploring ways to strengthen the natural economy, the origin and functions of the money, the value of trade, etc.

Historically, the views of the ancient Greek thinkers form theoretical initial items of modern science.

Stage II. Formation of economic science as an independent area of \u200b\u200bknowledge. The emergence of the first economic schools, political economy.

The following first economic schools can be allocated:

1) mercantilism (from the Italian word "mercant" - a merchant, merchant), which was distributed in the XV-XVII centuries. The French Mercanticist Antoine de Monkelene in the composition of the 19615 "Treatise of Political Economy" introduced the term political economy in appeal, which became the name of the economic science that dominated until the second half of the XIX century. Mercantism expressed "in theoretical form" the economic policy of the state. Monkeren considered political economy as a concentration of rules of economic activity. The central problem in mercantistists was the problem of wealth. The source of national wealth, which was identified with money - gold and silver, they saw in trade. Therefore, at this stage, economic thought explores the patterns of the sphere of treatment: commercial and money. Typical representatives of this area in Europe were Englishman Thomas Men, Frenchman Jean Baptiste Colbert, in Russia I. Posochkov (merchant).

The first attempt to theoretical substantiation of the economic policy of the state was represented in the face of mercalists. The practical progressive role of this area was that he contributed to the transition to a market capitalist economy.

2) physiocrats (France, XVIII century). The name of the direction is formed from Greek words and literally means "the power of nature". The central problem remains - the problem of wealth, but the source of true wealth is seen in production (agriculture, because

Only the land has an amazing ability to increase the real society). Physocirates explore the patterns of production, as a continuous process (reproduction); pricing. The idea of \u200b\u200b"natural law and order" on which physiocirats relied, contributed to the recognition of economic laws, such as natural, i.e. eternal, independent of the will and desires of people coming from God.

3) Classical political economy (XVIII - n. XIX century, at this stage, economic science acts as a slim knowledge system that has found its embodiment in the works of A. Smith (1723-1790), D. Ricardo (1772-1823 GG.) - This is the peak of political economy. Exploring the "nature and causes of wealth of peoples", the classics focused their attention on material production as a source of value and income (agricultural, industrial) and tied it with the appeal. Smith considered society and as a big workshop, and As a great exchange union. Understanding the nature of a person, the essence of its relationship and interaction with the Company formed the basis of the category - "Homo Economicus" and natural order, as a procedure based on the natural action of objective economic laws. Classics have become the founders of economic liberalism or natural freedom policies (politics Laisser Faire). If A. Smita paid the most attention to the conditions for the production and accumulation of the wealth of peoples, t The distribution of wealth was in the center of research D.Rikarto, and the researchers were not limited to the problems of the national economy, but also considered international trade. The last classic was J.ST. Mill.

III stage. The split of the classic political economy. Formation of the main modern economic directions.

Critical attitude to the classical political economy contributed to a number of fundamental coups in science.

1) Marxism (Ser. XIX century) - the theoretical concept is associated with the names of K. Marks and F. Engels. Marxist political economy investigated production relations as people's relations in the production of distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods.

The basis of human society Marxist political economy has seen in material production. Production relations are reflected in economic categories. The historical process seems to be rigidly deterministic as the process of changing socio-economic formations.

Unlike later the directions that appeared, Marxist political savings had a clearly pronounced class character (proletarian science) and considered capitalism (and feudalism, and slavement) as a production method, which is based on human exploitation. The essence of the relation of operation on the basis of general commodity-money relations was expressed in the category "Supporting value".

The historical and critical approach to economic reality has made it possible to identify the controversial nature of the market relations of the middle of the XIX century, to anticipate the inevitability of social shocks (revolutions) with timely insolvency of contradictions. Marxist political savings is the starting point of the left-radical direction in modern economic science.

2) Marginalism (second half of the XIX century) is the first methodological revolution in economic science. The name is associated with the introduction of the limit (from English - marginal) analysis. Unlike preceding schools and directions, the starting point in the studies has shifted from the search for objective, general laws, natural order to the level of a separate person, the psychology of its behavior, expectations, preferences.

Marginalism is associated with the Austrian school (K.Mager, F. Viser, E. Bam-Baberk), Cambridge School (A. Marshal), American School (J. Klark), Lausan School (L. Valras). It is a subjective psychological approach that underlies the understanding of such economic categories as the price, demand, production costs.

The limit analysis, made it possible to finally use mathematical methods in the economy. Later, the priority of mathematical methods was expressed in the formation of econometrics, the origins of which were Kourno, Valras.

Switching the attention of economists to the behavior of individual economic entities, on research of economic choice, to find the optimal use of limited (rare) economic resources contributed to the formation of a new neoclassical direction, originally as microeconomics. At the origins of this area is A. Marshall. He tried in a new way to approach the problem of pricing, the relationship of supply and demand, to the study of the economy based on fundamental interdependencies. This direction was called "Economics'" or Economics, or Economy. Under this name, economic theory is known all over the world, but mainly in English-speaking countries.

Neoclassicism underlies the current directions of economic theory: monetarism, neoliberalism, economic economics, etc.

3) Keynesianism (30th. XX century) is the second methodological revolution in economic science. The insufficiency of microanalysis, the inability of a self-regulating market mechanism to solve all economic problems, in particular unemployment and, as a result, the need for state intervention in the economy, served as the basis for the development of a macroeconomic approach, the regulation of the economy on the basis of effective demand management, primarily consumer and investment.

John Meinard Keynes is a source of the direction of economic theory - Keynesianism, Neokeinsianism, post-Octaince.

4) institutionalism (first third xx) - a critical attitude towards a classical and neoclassical school, to the analysis of economic relations from the position of "economic person", nomination as a leading force of the economy is not rational actions of individual subjects, but the activities of organizations, social institutions are the most important idea of \u200b\u200binstitutionalists .

They expanded the subject of the economy believing that studies of purely economic relations too narrowly and leads to empty abstractions, which it is necessary to take into account the entire complex of legal, social, psychological, political conditions and factors affecting economic life.

Institutionalism speaks with criticism of the capitalist economy, paying attention to the fact that the market is not at all neutral and universal resource allocation mechanism. Moreover, the self-regulating market becomes a giant machine serving to maintain and enrich the largest, largest corporations, which also helps the state. Only joint coordinated actions can resist the dictatorship of corporations. The prominent representatives of this destinations are: T. Weblin - ancestor, J. Commons, W. Mitchell, J. Gelbreit, A. Tanberger.

Thus, modern economic science is heterogeneous and represented by various directions and schools. Of course, it would be useful to get acquainted with all of them, but it is not real. We will learn the "economy", in the West this course is called "Economics", in the content, it is a combination of neoclassical theories.

More on the topic 1. The main stages of the development of economic science and the formation of its subject:

1. A brief overview of the basic stages of financial science development
2. 1. The main stages of the development of economic science and the formation of its subject.
3. 2. The origin and main stages of the development of economic theory
4. 1.1. Economic theory: the emergence and main stages of development
5. 3.3. Development of factors of production in the conditions of the scientific and technical revolution
6. 2.1. Development of scientific ideas about forensic forensics
7. § 2. Stages of the formation and development of international cooperation

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Interest in economic problems arose in the ancient societies of Mesopotamia, India, China, Egypt, Greece, Rome. The representations of ancient societies about the economic structure were an integral part of various religious or philosophical systems. Already in the Bible, you can find the rules for the economic life of ancient society, the concepts of justice, property, the principles of the distribution of the product produced. About what is the cost and from what it depends, we can read in the works of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. At the same time, the economy as science was made relatively late, at the turn of the 17-18 centuries. This happened during the period when capitalism appeared in Europe and rapidly.

Initially, economic science developed under political economy (Political Economy). This term first introduced French Antoine de Monkeyen in 1615. The name "political economy" originated from the Greek words: "politician" - state, public; "Okos" - household, house; NOMOS is a rule, law. At the end of the 19th - early 20 century. This name is increasingly replaced by the term "economic theory" (Economics). For the first time, this name was introduced in 1890, the well-known English scientist-economist Alfred Marshall. For four centuries of its existence, economic science has developed rapidly. During this time, many schools and directions of economic theory appeared (Table 1).

Table 1

Major Economic Schools

Essential Schools	Development period	The largest representatives	Main works
Mercantilism		Thomas Man.	"The wealth of England in foreign trade" (1664)
PhysiCrats		Francois Kene (1694-1774)	"Environmental Table" (1758)
Classical political economy	to. 18 - Nach. 19WV.	Adam Smith	"Studies on the nature and causes of wealth of peoples" (1776)
Marxism	2nd floor. 19 - 20VV.	Karl Marx	Capital (1867)
Neoclassical economic theory	Con. 19 - 20VV.	Alfred Marshall (1842-1924)	"Principles of Economic Theory" (1890)
Keynesianism	20 - NCH. 21BV.	John Meinard Keynes (1883-1946)	"General theory of employment, percentage and money" (1936)
Institutionalism	20 - NCH. 21BV.	John Kenneth Gelbrreit (r. 1908)	"New Industrial Society" (1961)
Monetarism	20 - NCH. 21BV.	Milton Friedman (r. 1912)	"Capitalism and Freedom" (1962)

The first school of economic theory (political economy) was mercantilism. The word "mercantilism" occurred from the Italian "mercant" - a merchant, merchant. This direction of economic thought was distributed in Western and Eastern Europe in 16-18 centuries. The ideas of mercantilism were also known in Russia, the active mercantilistic economic policy was carried out by Peter I.

The formation of economic views of mercantilists took place in the era of the creation of the global market, the emergence and development of capitalism in Europe. The great geographical discoveries were completed, colonial wars were shilled, colonial empires flourished. World trade development led to an increase in the role of merchants. And the expressive of the interests of this layer of society became mercantilism.

One of the most famous representatives of mercantilism was English economist Thomas Man (1571-1641). Like all mercantlers, he was a practitioner, a person of the case, was a member of the Board of the East India Company, a member of the Government Committee. The main ideas Thomas Mans outlined in his main work "the richness of England in foreign trade, or the balance of our foreign trade as the principle of our wealth" (published in 1664).

The main object of observations of mercantlers was an external trade, movement of goods and money between countries. In their opinion, foreign trade was the most important source of wealth. The same wealth they have identified with gold and treasures. In order for wealth to go to the country, it is necessary to continuously exude an export over imports, in other words, an active trade balance is required. The state must regulate foreign trade in order to ensure the influx of gold and silver into the country, to pursue the policy of protecting its foreign trade interests, that is, the policy of protectionism. In particular, to establish high customs duties on imported goods, stimulate the export of local products.

In the mid-18th century, another famous economic school has developed in France - the school of physiocrats. "Fiction" literally means "Naturalness" (from Greek "Fisis" - Nature and "Short" - power, power). It was a group of scientists, the most famous of which was Francois Kene (1694-1774). A doctor by education and profession, he served as a court doctor under Louis XV. Only at the age of 60, he began to engage in the problems of the economy. The world fame of F. Kene brought his most important work "Economic Table" (1758).

The teachings of physiocrats arose as a reaction to mercantilism. Criticizing mercantlers, they believed that the government should pay attention not to trade and accumulation of money, but above all - on the development of agriculture. The source of wealth they saw in agriculture. Only labor in agriculture is a productive work. "Pure income", arising in agriculture, was considered as a gift of nature. At that time in France, agriculture was the main sphere of the national economy. At the same time, physiocirats considered the industry to the unproductive industry.

In its work, "Economic Table" Francois Kene laid the foundations of the theory of public reproduction. He tried to establish the proportions between different parts of the social product, considered the exchange between public grades. Essentially, it was the first macroeconomic model.

Industrial coup in late 18 - early 19th century led to the creation of the material and technical base of capitalism, the development of machine production. The dominant sector of the economy was the industry. The economic thought of this period, the main source of wealth sees in production in general, and not only in agriculture, as physiocrats were represented. A new direction in economic thought was subsequently called classical political economy. Classical political economy, formed at the end of the 18th century, was a dominant school in economic science for most of the 19th century.

The most famous and vivid representatives of this destination were Scottish scientist Adam Smith (1723-1790) and Englishman David Ricardo (1772-1823). A. Smith headed the department of moral philosophy at the University of Glasgow, then worked as the chief customs commissar of Scotland. He was the author of many works in economics and philosophy. But his main world famous work was "research on the nature and causes of wealth of peoples" (1776). In this work, A. Smita gives the comprehensive characteristics of the economic system of society, considers the theory of value, the theory of income distribution, the theory of capital and its accumulation, economic policy of the state, government finance, gives an expanded criticism of mercantilism. He managed to connect most of the existing directions of economic research in his book. The basis of all the economic phenomena under consideration by A. Smith is a labor theory of value. The cost of goods is created by labor regardless of the industry. The work enclosed in goods is the basis for exchanging. The price of goods is determined by the cost of working on its production, as well as the ratio of supply and supply of goods. A. Smith gave an expanded analysis of the basic incomes of the Company, - profits, wages and land rent, and determined the cost of social product as the amount of income of the Company. The social product embodies the wealth of the country. The growth of wealth depends on the growth of labor productivity and from the share of the population engaged in productive labor. In turn, labor productivity largely depends on the division of labor and its specialization. When considering the economic phenomena and the processes, the classics of political economy adhered to a certain system of general prerequisites. The main ones were the concept of "Economic Man" and Economic Liberalism (Economic Freedom). They considered a person only from the point of view of economic activity, where there is the only stimulus of behavior - the desire for its own benefit. Morality, culture, religion, customs, policies are not taken into account. The idea of \u200b\u200beconomic liberalism was based on the idea that economic laws act like the laws of nature. As a result of their action in society, "Natural Harmony" is installed. The state does not need to interfere with economic laws. The principle of economic liberalism and free trade is expressed by the famous slogan "Laissez Faire, Laissez Passer" (approximate translation into Russian: "Give people to do our own, give things to go our own way." ) In other words, this is the principle of non-interference of the state into economic activities. The expression has become a symbol of classical economic theory. In foreign trade, economic liberalism means free trade, without restrictions on exports and imports. Such foreign economic policy got the name of Frittime (from English Free Trade - Free Commercialist). In accordance with the classics, economic laws and competition act as an "invisible hand." As a result, resources are redistributed for effective (complete) use, the prices of goods and resources are changing rapidly, the balance between supply and demand is established. At the same time, the development of capitalism led to the emergence of periodic economic crises, overproduction of goods, to unemployment. Increases of rich, but the bulk of the population lived in poverty. All this did not fit into the framework of the classical economic theory, demanded explanations. And on the basis of classical theory, new schools arise, revising the conclusions of the classics. The most famous economic school arising in the mid-19th century and gained widespread in the second half of 19 and in the 20th century, was Marxism.

This direction of economic theory was named after its founder, Karl Marx (1818-1883). He was born in Germany, in a lawyer's family, studied at the Bonn and Berlin Universities, had a doctorate of Philosophy. Most of his life, K. Marx, lived in emigration, in Paris and London. Its main work was "Capital", which was published in 1867. II and III Tom "Capital" were prepared for publication F. Engels (1885, 1894), which was friend K. Marx and the famous theorist of Marxism.

In its economic teaching, K. Marks relied on the works of the classics of political economy. At the same time, he criticized the classical economic theory, largely supplemented and developed the theoretical provisions of A. Smita and D.Rikarto. K. Marx created a comprehensive system of categories and laws of the capitalist economic system. In contrast to the classics, he showed the transit character of this system, revealed the internal contradictions of capitalism, argued the inevitability of the change of capitalism by socialism and communism. Many positions of Marxism were exposed and criticized, but few denies the historical role of Marxism in the development of economic theory. In Marxist economic theory, the determining role of socio-economic relations in the economic system is underlined. The direct subject of the research is therefore performing production relations - the relations that are developing between people about the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of goods. The basis of production relations is the relationship of ownership of the means of production. The organization of production and the distribution, and the wealth of various public classes depends on the property relationship. K. Marks developed the labor theory of value. New in the theory of value was the discovery of the dual nature of labor embodied in the product. According to Marx, a specific work is created by the consumer value of the goods, and in abstract labor - the cost, and the latter underlies the price of goods. Abstract work is a work in a physiological sense, labor as the cost of physical and mental energy at all.

On the basis of the labor theory of the value of Marx, the theory of surplus value was created, which explains the main source of profit and showing the mechanism of exploitation of employees by capital owners. The source of profit is the surplus value, that is, the cost created by the unpaid labor of workers. They also addressed the laws of capitalist public reproduction, in particular, the origin of cyclic economic crises was explained. The ultimate cause of these crises is the spontaneous nature of the development due to the domination of private ownership of the means of production. But the authentic revolution was performed in the study method. K.Marks applied a dialectical method in the analysis of economic processes, thereby creating a method of materialistic dialectics.

In the second half of the 19th century, a neoclassical economic theory occurs along with Marxism and develops. Of all its numerous representatives, the greatest fame acquired the English scientist Alfred Marshall (1842-1924). He was a professor, the head of the Department of Political Saving Cambridge University. A. Marshall summarized the results of new economic research in the fundamental work "Principles of Economic Theory" (1890).

In his works, A. Marshall relied both on the ideas of classical theory and on the ideas of marginalism. Marginalism (from the English Marginal - the limit, extreme) is the flow of economic theory, which arose in the second half of the 19th century. Economists - Marginists in their studies used extreme values, such as the utmost utility (utility of the latter, additional unit), limiting performance (products produced by the last hired employee). These concepts were used by them in the theory of prices, theory of wages and with the explanation of many other economic processes and phenomena.

In its theory, the price of A. Marshall relies on the concept of supply and demand. The price of good is determined by the ratio of supply and demand. The basis of demand for the benefit of the subjective assessment of the utmost utility of good by consumers (by buyers). At the heart of the offer of the good is the cost of production. The manufacturer cannot sell at a price that does not cover its production costs. If the classical economic theory considered the formation of prices from the positions of the manufacturer, the neoclassical theory considers pricing and from the consumer's positions (demand), and from the position of the manufacturer (proposal). Neoclassical economic theory as well as classics, proceeds from the principle of economic liberalism, the principle of free competition. But in its studies, neoclassics are more emphasis on the study of applied practical problems, a quantitative analysis and mathematics are more used than high-quality (meaningful, causal). The greatest attention is paid to the problems of effective use of limited resources at the microeconomic level, at the level of the enterprise and the household. Neoclassical economic theory is one of the foundations of many directions of modern economic thought.

Modern economic theory is a combination of different economic schools and directions common in the world at the turn of the 20-212 centuries. It is possible to distinguish three leading directions in modern economic theory: Keynesianism, institutionalism, monetarism. Keynesianism as the direction of economic theory originated in the 30s of the 20th century, in the period of the Great Depression, the World Economic Crisis of 1929-1933. And the long depression followed him. The name of this direction is associated with the name of John Mainard Kane (1883-1946), the famous English economist, a statesman and publicist. He was a graduate of the University of Cambridge, a student A. Marshall and A. Pig. The main work of J. M. Keynes "The overall theory of employment, interest and money" was first published in 1936

Keynes and his followers focused on analyzing macroeconomic problems. They explore the most important macroeconomic indicators and the relationship between them, in particular, the relationship between investments and national income, between government expenses and the amount of national production, between inflation and unemployment.

Essentially, J.M.Kanes was the founder of modern macroeconomics. The new macroeconomic school criticizes the classical and neoclassical economic theory for ignoring problems of crises, unemployment and inflation. Moreover, Keynesians refuse such prerequisites for the former theory as a separate existence of goods, labor and money markets, mandatory equality of savings and investments, price flexibility, from the principle of Laissez Faire, that is, from the principle of non-interference of the state in the economy.

The market economy, proves Keynes, cannot be self-regulating, it cannot provide "effective demand", sufficient to fully use resources available in society. To stimulate cumulative demand, which means both production, it is necessary to state government regulation with the help of fiscal and monetary policy. For example, during the economic recession, the government should increase government spending and reduce taxes. Within a few decades of the 20th century, since the late 30s and to the mid-70s, Keynesianism was a dominant direction, both in theory and in the economic policy of developed countries of the West.

Along with Keynesianism, one of the most common schools of modern economic thought is institutionalism. As a direction, institutionalism arose at the turn of 19-20 centuries. In the United States, since then he has spread throughout the world. A more accurate name of institutionalism is an institutional and sociological school. The peculiarity of institutionalism as the flow of economic thought is to use for the analysis of economic phenomena and the processes of the concepts "Institution" (custom, initiated order) and "institution" (order, enshrined in the form of law, institution). Institutions that are part of the economy and affecting economic behavior is a family and state, moral norms, and law, trade unions, and corporations, and other social phenomena. Institutionalism is considering in the theory of not a "economic person", but a versatile person. Just like Keynesianism, institutionalists reject the prerequisite about the ability of the market economy to self-regulation. Within the framework of this direction, the concepts of the modern economic system as "post-industrial", "information" society are being developed.

One of the most famous modern institutionalists is American economist John Kenneth Galbreit (r. 1909). Professor Harvard, a statesman, Ambassador to India, Galbright also known for its economic work, each of whom was a bestseller not only in academic circles, but also among the part of the public. One of the most important works is the "New Industrial Society" (1961). In the modern market economy, the "New Industrial Society", on the terminology of Galbreyt, major corporations that produce complex techniques are dominated. And in corporations are not owners, but the "technostructure" possess. Technostructure - this layer of technology specialists, management, finance, scientists, designers. The technostructure plans to work as a corporation for years. And planning in turn requires stability. When planning, production and sales are carried out according to plan, and the role of entrepreneurship, competition, the market element is minimized, if it does not disappear at all. Business goals are changed. The technostructure is little interested in maximizing profits, it is interested in developing a stably developed, has a solid position in the market. Institutionalism is largely close to Keynesianism.

Monetarism, as one of the most important directions of modern economic thought, is an opponent and the main opponent and Keynesianism, and institutionalism. The name of the direction comes from the Latin "coin" - a monetary unit, money. Monetarism arose in the United States and began to spread in the 50-60s of the 20th century. His main ideologist is Milton Friedman (R. 1912), Professor of the University of Chicago, a former adviser to the American president on economic issues. He outlined his economic views in several works, the most famous of which is "capitalism and freedom" (1962).

The most important feature of monetarism as an economic school is that his supporters most attention paid to the cash factor, the amount of money in circulation. The slogan of monetarists: "Money is important" ("Money Matters"). In their opinion, the monetary mass has a decisive effect on economic development, the growth of national income depends on the growth rate of money. Monetarism continues the traditions of classical and neoclassical schools of the economy. In their theory, they rely on the provisions of the classics as economic liberalism, the minimum state intervention in the economy, the need for free competition, price flexibility with a change in supply and demand. The effect of monetarism in the world intensified in the 70s - 80s, when inflation and budget deficit became the main problems of the economy. The emergence of these problems monetarists associate with the theory and practice of Keynesianship, with state regulation of the economy.

Questions for self-control:

1. Why economic theory - developing science?

2. What are the historical backgrounds of the emergence of economic theory? 3. Who are mercantlers and physiocrats? What was the source of material wealth?

5. Name representatives of the classic school. What are their contributions to the development of economic science?

6. Name the most prominent representatives of marginalism and formulate the essence of their theory.

7. Word the main meaning of modern neoclassical, and Keynesian theory. What are their main differences?

The emergence of economic science.
Based on the analysis of numerous domestic and foreign work on economic theory, 3 stages of its development can be distinguished: savings, political economy, economics.

The first stage is saving. Economic science first emerged as a science about savings, skillful housekeeping. Her goal was to upbringing citizens rationally lead their farm (this term is still found in the writings of Aristotle in the era of the slave-owner). In the era of feudalism, economic science was interpreted from the standpoint of the Holy Scriptures. In biblical texts, the price ⌠ for the goods was considered, for example, from the point of view of the Christian rules of morality, and the usurization was condemned as unnatural enrichment and as a phenomenon that would ⌠ a human soul.

Economic theory as science (i.e. systematic knowledge about the essence of the economy) originated in 17-18 centuries. During the formation of capitalism.

Mercantilism.
In England, Italy, France, and other countries, the theoretical school was originally emerged - mercantilism (from Ital. ⌠Markant| - merchant, merchant). She believed that the wealth of people is gold, money for which everyone can buy. Such ideas were not accidental. They corresponded to the initial type of capitalist activity - international trade that brings large revenues. Here the increase in wealth was obvious. At that time, the goods in one country were bought at lower prices, and on another were sold at higher. Mercitalests advised the state to expand trade and accumulate gold in the country.

French Mercantitis Antoine de Montcastine (1575-1621) gave economic theory Name of ⌠ polytic economy| (where the definition of Polytica is formed from the Greek ⌠ Politics - the art of managing the state), which meant: the science of government economy. This emphasized the active participation of the state in economic activity.

Physiocrats.
Another direction of economic teaching arising as a reaction to mercantilism was presented in the works of physiocrats (from Greek. Physio - nature, and a brief), the founder of this direction - Kene. Notable for this teaching was that they were transferred to the study of the origin of the surplus product from the sphere of appeal to the sphere of production, but limited it only to the sphere of agriculture. Industry they considered the unproductive industry. Classical political economy.
Mercantism historically outdressed himself in a new era, when not trade, but industrial capital began to dominate in the economy. He replaced the classic political economy. This direction of economic theory recognized the actual source of wealth production of material goods. It began to consider economic activity in the form of production, distribution of exchange and consumption of useful things. Classical political economy has passed to the study of the essence of economic phenomena (for example, the exchange of goods for money) and the laws of economic development.

Adam Smith (1723-1790) is an outstanding founder of the British classical political economy. He first systematized scientific knowledge and outlined them in the book to the study of the nature and causes of the wealth of peoples. After that, economic theory began to be taught in higher educational institutions.

In the era, when the feudal oppression and arbitrariness reigned in Europe, A. Smita was boldly for the celebration of a new social device, in which the development of the economy goes in accordance with the objective laws of the economy. In terms of economic life, he considered the domination of private property, free competition and free trade, state non-interference in economic activities.

Classical political economy has created its teaching about the wealth of society. She found that nature, figuratively speaking, ignite for wealth. It supplies people with means of life (fish, fruits, ores, etc.) | Loader was proclaimed (English economist Petty). He was the impetus for the labor theory of value.

The ideas of A. Smita were subsequently developed by another English economist D.Rikardo (1772-1823) in the work of the Gold, he laid the foundations of the quantitative theory of money, where he from critical positions exposed his judgments on the theory of value, ZP, capital, Land rent, etc.

Close to representatives of classical political economy is English. Economist Mill (1806-1876). He believed that the laws of production did not depend on the socio-economic system, while the distribution can be adjusted. It only has reduced the cost of production costs, was a supporter of reforms that restrain the growth of population.

English political economy has created a labor theory of value. It argued that the work of workers producing goods creates their cost. The latter commetes the goods and money. Applying the labor concept of value to the study of the capitalist economy, A. Smita founded the theory of surplus value. He believed that the factory workers would create a new cost. The latter is only partially getting them - (sn), the rest is the surplus value - the capitalists are assigned.

French economist Z.B. This (1767-1832) is the main work - the policy of political economy. In it, he completely moved away from the labor theory of value, identifying the latter with the utility of things. In its creation, 3 factors are involved: labor, capital, nature that bring social income, sn, profit and land rental. It should be noted that this theory is widely used by modern economists in the West. In addition, this manufactured the production as a purely technical process, did not recognize the inevitability of economic crises, was a supporter of free trade.

Marxism.
The teaching of English classics in the new one continued K.Marks (1818-1883). In his main work, it was a larger over which he worked for 40 years, he deeply and comprehensively developed the theory of surplus value and the theory of value, based on the actual material on the development of capitalism in England. Marx sought to put political savings on the service of the interests of the working class. Such a class approach has adversely affected the scientific objectivity of a number of provisions expressed by him.

In the late 19th century, the economic life itself demonstrated a certain limitation of the classical direction of political economy.

First, it did not correspond to the historical features of England of the period 17-19VV. (domination of the sole form of capital, free competition and non-interference of the state in the economy.)

At the turn of the 19-20 centuries, the economy was very transformed (major joint-stock companies began to prevail, which sought to suppress competitors, the state began to actively interfere in economic life). Secondly, when developing the teachings about the market price, English Classics and K. Marks deeply revealed its dependence mainly from production, from the supply of goods on the market. However, such a look was one-sided. The impact of buyers' demand for the price was not properly studied.

The successor of the ideas of K. Maks and his companion F. Engels in the field of economic theory was V.I. Lenin (1870-1924). In numerous works, he specified the teachings of K. Maks as applied to a new historical situation, developed the theory of reproduction, proved that in a capitalist developing country there is a stratification of small owners on the rich and poor and others. Questions.

Neoclassical direction.
In the last third of 19V. In Austria, the USA, England there was a genuine coup in economic theory: the neoclassical (in Greek. Neos - new). The basis of the neoclassical theory amounted to the development of 3 scientific schools: Austrian-K. Meager, E. Bam-Baberk and F. Vizer; Cambridge - A. Marshall and Lausanne - L. Valras.

Supporters of the neoclassical direction combines the idea that the market economy will function in the best way, if they submit to each of its subjects of MAK economic freedom. In this sense, neoclassics are direct followers of A. Smith. They were and remain defenders of the traditional values \u200b\u200bof the capitalist economy - that is, the private initiative and freedom of private entrepreneurship, the lack of state regulation. These values, from their point of view, are the main conditions for the effectiveness of the entire social system. The focus of the neoclassical theory is a separate company, a separate consumer, mahs arrived and minimal costs, i.e. microeconomics.

Economics.
Neoclassical theory is one of the 3rd currents of modern Western economic theory (economics). Western economic theory, in contrast to Marxism, is not a whole, but a combination of various currents, schools, sometimes sharply differing analysis methods, finite conclusions and recommendations in the field of economic policy. The absence of unity of views among Western economists is not a consequence of the weakness of science, but the reflection of the diversity of economic reality, its contradictions and variability. Economyxes proceeds from the fact that scientific knowledge can comprehend the truth only with a certain degree of approximation and taking into account the changes occurring in the economic life, clarifies or discards outdated views, comes to new conclusions.

Modern economic theory develops mainly in the framework of the three main currents: 1) Neoclassical (it was mentioned above), 2) the theory of regulated capitalism, 3) institutionalism.

Modern economic theory.
The formation and development of the theory of regulated capitalism began in the 1930s of the 20th century. Its main idea is that the state should actively interfere with economic life. This teaching denies the ability of the market mechanism to self-regulation, i.e. It believes that the market economy cannot ⌠ whistled with such diseases as unemployment, inflation, low economic growth rates, crises. According to theoretics of this direction, the market mechanism must be unconditionally preserved (for, in the sense of economic efficiency, it has no alternative replacement), but supplemented with comprehensive state regulation.

The most recognized school, who proposed its recipes for regulating the economy, is related to the works of English. John Mainard scientist (1883-1946)

The original current in the Economyx is the so-called institutionalism. This flow is quite vague, because The views of his representatives vary greatly on a variety of problems. However, you can allocate some of the leading ideas of this course:

1. Institutionalists do not closes on the analysis of purely economic relations, but are urged to take into account all the conditions affecting economic life - i.e. Forms of the economic organization, norms of behavior, legal laws, customs, traditions.

2. They propose to study not as much as it functions as it develops, a capitalist society is modified. Moreover, they are characterized by the general critical attitude towards capitalism and the requirement of expanding social programs with the help of the state.

3. The market is not a neutral and non-universal resource allocation mechanism. He seeks not to meet the needs of people, but to maintaining and enriching large enterprises (monopolies). The basis of the power of large enterprises - technique, and not the laws of the market. Against dictates of entrepreneurs need joint actions of trade unions and states. In addition, the state needs to take such vital areas as ecology, education and healthcare under its care.

The founder of institutionalism is the American scientist T.Veblen

The largest economists of our time, which developed many directions of economic theory in Ukraine, should include I. Lukinov, Yu. Pakhomov, V. Chernyak, A. Trunk.

Acquaintance with the main milestones of the history of economic theory shows how difficult and controversial process, reflecting the complexity and inconsistency of the very object of studying the V economics of society.

None of the numerous theories, schools, flows could explain this process in its entirety, but each of them contributes to the knowledge of economic laws.

When studying the following course, we will get closer with the main directions of economic theory.

Introduction. 3

The emergence of economyteoria. 4

Economy History as Science. 8

Item and Method of Economics. 11

Conclusion. 13

Bibliography… 14

Introduction

Economic theoryizes sources, factors of national wealth, studying social and production, i.e. Economic relations in society, studying the economic laws that manage social production.

Economic theorioshiro uses the construction of models of economic phenomena and processes. Formation of models can be graphic and mathematical. Economic is a tool for economic forecasts. The complex of economic principles is explained how the economy and its individual sectors are functioning.

Based on the analyzed domestic and foreign work on economic development, three stages of its development can be distinguished:

1. Savings;

2. Political economy;

3. Economics.

The subject of economic studio is the problem of the rational use of limited resources in escalating the satisfaction of the increasing material needs of a person.

So, this work is impressed by the consideration of the development of economic theory, the history of the economy of Kakovuki, as well as issues of the subject and method of economic theory.

The emergence of economic theory

1. The first stage is the savings. Economic science first emerged as a science about savings, skillful degree in economy. Its goal was to educate the citizens of rational management (this term is still found in the writings of Aristotle in an erachugustological building). In the era of feudalism, economic science was interpreted by the positions of the Holy Scriptures. In the biblical texts "Fair price for commodity, for example, from the point of view of the Christian norms of morality, the co-composition was condemned as unnatural enrichment and as a phenomenon that the human soul destroys."

Economic theory of Kakovuk (that is, systematized knowledge of the essence of the economy) originated in 17-18VV. During the formation of capitalism.

Mercantilism.In England, Italy, France and Dr. Savn originally originated theoretical school - mercantilism (from Ital. "Mercanta" is a merchant, merchant). She believed that the wealth of people is gold, money for which everyone can buy. Such ideas were not accidental. Opened the initial type of capitalist activity - international revenue, which brings large income. Here the increase in wealth was obvious. In one-way goods in one country were bought at lower prices, and in the other selling at higher. Mercaltiles advised the state expanding and accumulate gold in the country.

The French Merkantistantantouan de Monkereyne (1575-1621) gave economic theory of the "Political Savings" (where the definition of "political" formed by the "politician" is to manage the state), which meant: Nauka-state economic management. This emphasized the active partition in economic activity.

PhysiCrats. Another direction of economic treatment arising as a reaction to mercantilism was presented in labor physiosicrats (from Greek. Physio - nature, and the browner). The founder of this is Kene. Notable for this teaching was that they were the continued study of the origin of the surplus product from the sphere of the proof of production, but limited it only to the sphere of agriculture. Industry was considered the unproductive industry.

2. Classical Polytic Savings. Mercaltism historically outlived himself in a new era, when the economy store does not dominate trade, but industrial capital. He is replaced by a declared political economy. This is the direction of economic theory awarded the actual source of wealth, the production of material goods. It became to consider economic activities in the form of production, distribution of exchange and consumption of useful things. Classical political economy has passed to the study of the essence of economic phenomena (for example, the exchange of goods for money) and the laws of economic development.

An outstanding personnel of the English classical political economy is Adamsmith (1723-1790). For the first time, he systematized scientific knowledge and outlined them with VKNIG "Research on the nature and causes of the wealth of peoples." After this, the economic theory began to be taught in higher educational institutions.

In the era, when the feudal oppression and arbitrariness, A. Smita, perfectly performed for the celebration of a nominous device, in which the development of the economy is in line with the Soviet laws of the economy. Natural order in the field of economic existence, he considered the domination of private property, free competition, wobble trade, state non-interference in economic activities.

Classical political economy has created its teaching about the wealth of society. She found that nature, figuratively speaking, "mother" of wealth. It supplies people with life (fish, fruits, ores, etc.). The "father" of wealth was proclaimed (Chang Economist Petty). He was the impetus for the labor theory of value.

The ideas of A. Smita will later have been developed by another English economist David Ricardo (1772-1823) in the work of the "Gold price", he laid the foundations of a quantitative theoridegue, where he exposed his judgments on the theory of cost, salaries, capital, land and land and etc.

Close to representatives of Classical political economy is English economist Mill (1806-1876). He believed that the laws of production would not depend on the disconnected and economic system, while the distribution can be regulated. It has reduced only to production costs, was a supporter of reforms that restrain the growth of population.

English Political Economying Labor Cost Theory. It argued that the work of workers producing goods creates their cost. The latter commensuses between itself and money. Applying the labor concept of the value to the study of the capitalist economy, A. Smith founded the theory of surplus value. On examined that the factory workers are creating a new cost. The last one partially goes to them - (wages), the rest of the frequency and the opportunity - the capitalists are assigned.

French economist Jeanbaticist This (1767-1832) is the main work - "Treatise of political economy". I will fully move away from the labor theory of value, identifying the last wealth of things. In its creation, 3 factors are involved: labor, capital, nature that bring social revenues, wages, profit and land rent. It will notice that this theory is widely used by modern economists of the Nazapade. This manufactured manufacturing as a purely technical process, not recognized the existence of economic crises, was a supporter of free trade.

Marxism.The teaching of British classics in Novyuppodent Carl Marx (1818-1883). In his main work "Capital", he worked for 40 years, he deeply and comprehensively developed the theory of theory value and the theory of value, based on the actual material of the Oravitization of capitalism in England. Marx sought to put political economy in the service of the interests of the working class. Such a class approach was adversely on the scientific objectivity of a number of provisions expressed them.

At the end of the 19th century, the manufacture of life has demonstrated a certain limited-classical direction of political economy.

First, it was inappropriate to the historical features of the England of the period 17-19VV. (ultra-compound form of capital, free competition and non-interference from the state economy). At the turn of the 19-20 centuries, the economy was very transformed (it has become majority of major joint-stock companies, which sought suppressions to the borer, the state began to actively interfere in economic life).

Secondly, when developing a market price, English classics and Karl Marx deeply revealed their dependence mainly from production, from the supply of goods on the market. However, such a look was one-sided. It was not due to the balance of the demand of buyers for the price.

The successor of the ideas of K. Marx and his companion F. Engels in the field of economic theory was V.I. Lenin (1870-1924). In numerous works, he concreticized the students. Marks as applied to a new historical situation, developed the theory, proved that in a capitalist developing country, the bundle of small owners on rich and poor and others. Questions.

Neoclassical separation. In the end of the third of the 19th century in Austria, the United States, England, there was a genuine coup of the Vestoomic theory: the neoclassical (in Greek "Neos" - new) . Wizer; Cambridge - A. Marshall Ilozannskaya - L. Valras.

The supporting classical direction combines the idea that the market economy will function in the best possible way, if they provide economic freedom to each of the most facilities. In this sense, neoclassics - the speakers of A. Smith. They were and remain defenders of the traditional values \u200b\u200bof the capitalist economy - that is, the private initiative and freedom of private enterprises, the lack of state regulation. These values, this point of view, are the main conditions for the effectiveness of the entire social system. In the attention of the neoclassical theory, a separate company, a separate consumer, makh arrived and minimal costs, i.e. microeconomics.

3. Economics. Neoclassical theory is a generic of three currents of modern Western economic theory (economics). The factory economic theory, unlike Marxism, is a neaseous, and the totality of various flows, schools, sometimes sharply different analysis, finite conclusions and recommendations in the field of economic polica. The absence of unity of views among Western economists is not alability of science weakness, but the reflection of the diversity of economic development, its contradictions and variability. Economics is increasing that scientific knowledge can comprehend the truth only with a well-known degree and taking into account the changes occurring in the economic life, refined rejects outdated views, comes to new conclusions.

Modern economy develops mainly in the framework of the three main currents:

1) Neoclassical (about unbeams above),

2) the theory of adjustable-diplocismism,

3) institutionalism.

Contemporary theory. The formation and development of the theory of regulated capitalism began in the 30-kgodakh of the 20th century. Its main idea is that the state should act in economic life. This teaching denies the ability of market system to self-regulation, i.e. It believes that the market economy cannot "cure herself from such diseases as unemployment, inflation, low heat-economic growth, crisis. According to theoretics of this direction, marketame mechanism must be unconditionally preserved (for, in the sense of economic efficiency, it has no alternative substitution), but is supplemented with comprehensive state regulation.

The most recognized name, who offered his recipes for regulating the economy, is associated with the work of the English scientist John Mainard (1883-1946)

Extremely original in the economics is the so-called institutionalism. It is temptedly vague, because The views of his representatives are greatly distinguished by a kiss row of problems. However, you can allocate some of the leading ideas of this way:

1. Institutionalists do not clic down on the economic relations, but call on to take into account all the conditions affecting foreign life - i.e. Forms of the economic organization, norms of behavior, legal laws, customs, traditions.

2. They offer to study not so much as much as the capitalist community is developing and modified. Moreover, it is characterized by the general critical attitude towards capitalism, the requirement of expanding social programs with the help of the state.

3. The market is not a neutral and non-communication mechanism for the distribution of resources. He seeks not to satisfy the consistency of people, but to maintaining and enriching large enterprises (monopolies). The basis of the power of large enterprises - technique, and not the laws of the market. The opposite of the Dictates of Entrepreneurs requires joint actions of trade unions of goggles. In addition, the state must be taken under its guardianship, such important areas as ecology, education and health care.

The fundamentalism is considered the American scientist T.Veblen.

Economy History as Science

The history is economically engaged in the study of the economy as a phenomenon. The economy is designed to solve twinkular interrelated issues: production and distribution. It is still more involved to achieve economic efficiency. This is possible only to bring the economy with other areas of human life: state-legal, socio-political systems, as well as with high-level development of the spiritual and mental sphere. Economic history is studying, as he was the search for humanity optimal ways to develop.

The economy is a birthday and its activities. The market is the generation of the economy. He also, as well as the economy, is developing, but it is precisely largely under its impact of the economy. It was the market relations that led to the birth of a rapid economic phenomenon - business. The efficiency of the functioning of the market and business requires quite certain conditions. In the event that the commenced most important factors, like land, work, capital, have the opportunity to grow, there is a dynamic economic development and the economy quite quickly turns a number of stages of its development.

The huge place and role of the body of human civilization play such concepts and phenomena, as the economy, politics, society, culture. They are in direct and tense.

Economy - The art of homeholding. Under the economy is understood:

· Association of production relations, the economic basis of society.

· People's economy-country country or its part, including the relevant types of production of IOTRAVLY.

· The basis of all public relations and plays a decisive role in the development of society;

· Reflective features of a single country in connection with its geographical position, participation in the international division of labor, historical industries achieved by the level of development of economic culture and eating concrete-historical conditions.

At the same time, it is economically analyzed by a close relationship with politics and, on the contrary, the socio-political factor affects the economy.

Civilization (from Latin "Civilis") -Gezhdanny, state;

1) Synonym for culture. In Marxist system, it is also used to designate material culture.

2) the level, the stage of social development of material and spiritual culture (antique civilization; contemporary).

3) Public Development Stage, following barbarism (L. Morgan, F. Engels).

The concept of "civilization" appeared in the XVII century in close connection with the concept of "culture". French philosophers-enlighteners called civilization society based on Status and Justice. In the XIX century, the concept of "civilization" was used as Kabitalism as a whole, but such an idea of \u200b\u200bcivilization was not dominant.

So, N. Ya. DanilevskySformed the theory of the general typology of cultures, or civilization, according to which there is a world history, and there is only a history of data of civilizations that have an individual closed character.

In the concept of O. Spengler, civilization is a certain final stage of development of any culture. Such is the main signs: the development of the industry and technology, the degradation of the art of the world, the emergence of a huge accumulation of people in large cities, the transformation of peoples into faceless "masses." Following him, A. Toynbee has more than 26 civilizations independent of each other.

Culture (from Latin "Cultika" -Adding, upbringing, education, development, reverence) - the historical level of development of society and human, expressed in the types and norms of the life and activities of people, as well as in the materialities created by them, the materialities of spiritual values.

The concept is culturallyiable for the characteristics of the material and spiritual level of the development of the development of historical eras, socio-economic formations, concrete communities, nations, nations (for example, antique culture, the culture of Maya), the attack of specific spheres of activity or life (culture of labor, articulture, culture of life).

History (From the Greek "Historia" - the story of past events, the story of what is recognized, studied) - the science that studies the past of human society in all its concreteness of the immunity, which is appointed to understand its present and future.

For historical scientific, the study of the specific history of society is. At the same time, it is based on the facts of the past and present. Collecting the facts, their systematization and associations of each other there is an internal basis of historical science.

True science of requireing accumulation and study of facts. At the same time, it is necessary to take ingetny facts, and the entire set of related to the issues under consideration, without a single exception.

Theoretical generalization, awareness of the aggregate accumulated and studied depending on each other and conclusions - is the second side of the story as science.

The unity of these two structural science is inextricably. His violation in one way or another always leads to an embodiment of the process of knowledge of the history of society. Industries of Historical Science: Political History, Economic Story, etc.

Historism - The principle of approach to the validity of the time-changing time, developing.

Economic history It is an important subject of study, and economic culture is one of the most important criteria for development. The basic principles of the approach in the coverage of economic history: historicism, evolutionism and comparative analysis.

Subject and method of economic theory

Functions of Economics:

o Cognitive

o Practical

o Methodological

Cognitive function - It is that the economic theory is designed to study and explain the processes and the emergency life of society.

Practical function It is related to the fact that the economy does not limit the simple statement of the facts, their description. It should penetrate the essence of one or another phenomenon and open-economic laws that manage economic processes, and this is very centurposed society.

Methodological Function It is that economic theory acts as a theoretical fundamental complex of economic sciences as sectoral economic sciences (economically industriality, agriculture, transport) and functional economic sciences (labor economics, finance, credit, economist). In addition, there are economic sciences located on the sederable areas of knowledge: Economic geography, demography. Meanconimic theory as society is developing, because intensifying the company's movement to progress.

The knowledge of economic projects and phenomena in the economy is carried out using various methods, methods, techniques. First of all, the universal method of knowledge of economic development is dialectic methodwhich is a binding state-to-economist to consider phenomena and processes in their universal connection of life-dependence, in a state of continuous development, during which the combination of quantitative changes leads to a change in a qualitative state. Of course, this method has great importance the method of scientific abstraction. Abstraction means cleansing our ideas about the processed processes, incoming, single and allocating durable, stable typical. As a result of abstraction, economic categories of both cacthetical expressions of the actual existing relationships of phenomena and processes are derived. They combine conceptual apparatomics together.

In addition to these two methods for economic reality in the practice of economic development, a lot of ways and techniques of knowledge of economic development are developed and applied.

Methods and techniques:

1. statistical observations - It is a study and an arrangement material that characterizes economic phenomena and processes of precise terms of place and time. This allows you to identify the design facilities in the development of phenomena and processes.

2. Extension and testing hypotheses. The hypothesis is the assumption that it is the basis of the process and phenomenon, that is, an estimated judgment of the ozkomeric causal relationship between phenomena and procession economic life.

3. Analysis and synthesis.Analysis - helps to decompose a ryrashchept this or other economic phenomenon or economic relations to the surrounding parts and explores each of these parts separately. By synthesizaeconomics as science recreates a holistic single picture of phenomenon or process.

4. Induction and deduction.Through induction (innovation), the transition from the study of single facts to the general provisions of the tests is ensured. Deduction is (elimination) makes it possible to transition from the most common to the relatively partial.

5. Systems approach.The systematic approach is the method of preparation of scientifically based solutions of large comprehensive problems in spheres, planning, finance, loans, etc. This is carried out on such drugs, as the dynamism of the system, the interaction and connection of the elements of the system, the integrity of the system, the allocation of the main link (the main element of the system).

Conclusion

So, the economy is an ethonauka on how society uses limited resources for production products and distributes them among various groups of people.

Economic theory is filled with the following functions:

o Theoretical - identifies the essence of the process, establishes the economic patterns of Izacons, which act in economic life, identifies the tendencies of the economic processes;

o Practical - develops practical recommendations, principles and methods of efficiency;

o Methodological and economic theory is a base for other economic disciplines;

o Social (informative) - expands the horizons of knowledge, helps formation of economically competent specialists.

Economic theory - the science of the empirical, that is, based on the facts of real life, but at the same time it is inherent in certain methods of research:

1) globalization - the preliminarity of processes in unity, in relationships and in development).

2) In general, they enjoy the right economic theory, but also other sciences. These include:

o method of scientific abstraction - it consists in the allocation of the most essential parties to the studied and distraction from random;

o Isitiate analysis method. Analysis - complex phenomena and processes are disenguded to separate alone elements that are subjected to a detailed study. Synthesis - the results of the individual parts are summarized and the relationship between the element system as a whole is established;

o Iceduction induction method. Induction is a transition from private to a common (synthesis of facts). Detucition - on the contrary;

o Systemic Analysis - involves the interpretation of the economic object as a system, and at the same time of the element of an even more complex system.

3) Private methods include the following methods: graphic; statistical; methodological and mathematical modeling; Comparative analysis method; Economic experiment.

Bibliography Iookhin V.Ya. Economic theory. Textbook. M., lawyer, 2000 course of economic theory. Ed. Chepurin M.N., Kiselevoe E.A. Kirov, 2002 McConnell K.R., Bruz S.L. Economics: principles, problems and politics. M, infra-m, 1999 Mask N.G. Principles of Economics. St. Petersburg, Peter, 2003 Economic Theory. Ed. A.I. Dobrynina, L.S. Tarasevich. St. Petersburg, Peter, 2002