The means of individualization of a citizen are his appearance, name (Articles 19 and 150 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation) and his place of residence (Article 20 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation).

The name of the citizen (individual). Under in the name a citizen in Russia understands his own name, patronymic and surname.

Each person participates in civil legal relations under a certain name and only in relatively rare cases (for example, in an author's relationship) - under a pseudonym (fictitious name) or anonymously (without a name). The name is one of the means of individualizing a citizen as a participant in civil legal relations.

In a broad sense, the concept of "name" for most of the peoples of Russia includes the surname, name and patronymic. However, the national customs of some peoples of our country do not know such a concept as a patronymic, therefore, it is not indicated in official personal documents. In the 90s. XX century In Russia, there is a tendency to indicate only the first and last name of an individual. In the media, the president, other statesmen and public figures, scientists and other citizens began to be called by his first and last names. It seems that such a desire to perceive the Western model does not correspond to the Russian tradition.

Right to a name, as noted in the textbook "Civil Law" (part 1) edited by E.A. Sukhanov, - the most important non-property right of a citizen (individual), personality. Outstanding Russian civilist I.A. Pokrovsky noted that the richer the inner content of a person, the more she values ​​her name. Everyone knows how the old aristocratic surnames cherish their name. But here it is worth noting the fact that over time this is done by the general tendency of a person who grows up in the consciousness of his own dignity.

A good name as a good belonging to a citizen is protected in the cases and in the manner provided for by the Civil Code of the Russian Federation and other laws, and is one of the inalienable and non-transferable benefits (clause 1 of Art. 150 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). In particular, it provides for the protection of the right to a name in cases of distortion or use of a citizen's name in ways or in a form that affects his honor, dignity or business reputation (paragraph 2, clause 5, article 19 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation).

Upon reaching the age of 16, a citizen has the right to change his name (which, in accordance with clause 1 of article 19 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, includes the actual name, surname and patronymic) in the manner prescribed by law. In this case, appropriate changes are made to the documents issued in his previous name, or they are replaced (passport, marriage certificate, diploma, etc.).

A number of legal facts concerning a citizen are subject to state registration with the civil registry office (registry office), and these facts themselves are called acts of civil status. These include: birth, death, conclusion and dissolution of marriage, adoption (adoption), establishment of paternity (motherhood), change of name and surname (Article 47 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation).

In addition, the most important characteristics of a person are such legal categories as:

a) citizenship;

b) age;

c) marital status;

d) gender (different ages of reaching the retirement age, you cannot accommodate children of different sexes over 9 years old in one room);

e) state of health (compulsory medical examination for applicants for certain positions, for some specialties; limitation of legal capacity, etc.).

Place of residence. Under his own name, a citizen enters into transactions, and the place of residence is important for determining the jurisdiction of civil cases.

Place of residence a citizen is the place where a citizen lives permanently or predominantly (clause 1 of article 20 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). This is an apartment, hostel, hotel, office building, etc.

Citizens live as owners, on the basis of a lease agreement or on other grounds (Article 20 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). Citizens of the Russian Federation have the right to free movement and residence throughout the territory of the Russian Federation. According to the law of the Russian Federation of June 25, 1993 "On the right of citizens of the Russian Federation to freedom of movement, choice of place of stay and residence within the Russian Federation", citizens of the Russian Federation are required to register at the place of stay and residence within the Russian Federation.

Registration of an individual entrepreneur (an entrepreneur without forming a legal entity) is carried out at the place of permanent residence. In the event of an application (in this case, an application is submitted in the established form, the registration fee is paid), the person must be registered as an entrepreneur, or a reasoned refusal to register must be issued, which in turn can be appealed to the court.

Individuals as subjects of civil relations must have two properties - legal capacity and legal capacity.

These two properties are united by the concept "Legal personality" .That there is a person becomes the subject of legal relations to the extent that his legal capacity allows. But, as a rule, for individuals the concept of "legal capacity" is more commonly used, and the term "legal personality" is used in the context of legal relations associated with legal entities.

Legal capacity and legal capacity.

Legal capacity - the ability of a person to have any civil rights and obligations permitted by law (it arises with the birth of a person and ends with his death) (Article 17 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). The content of legal capacity is stated in Art. 18 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation.

Legal capacity belongs to every citizen. It is considered as a certain quality (or property) inherent in a citizen. This quality lies in the ability to have rights and responsibilities.

Civil legal capacity differs from other subjective rights in that it is designed to provide every citizen with a legal opportunity to acquire specific rights and obligations. But it is closely related to the personality of the carrier (depending on the state of health, age, etc.), since the law does not allow the alienation of civil legal capacity or its transfer to another person. So, in accordance with paragraph 3 of Art. 22 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, transactions aimed at limiting legal capacity are void.

According to Art. 18 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, every citizen can:

Own property as property;

Inherit and bequeath property;

Engage in entrepreneurial and any other activity not prohibited by law;

Create legal entities independently or jointly with other citizens and legal entities;

Make any transactions that do not contradict the law and participate in obligations;

Choose a place of residence;

Have other property and personal non-property rights.

However, limitation of legal capacity is allowed in cases established by law (punishment for a committed crime, etc.).

Legal capacity - the ability of a citizen to acquire and exercise civil rights and obligations by his actions (clause 1 of article 21 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). This property fully arises in a citizen only from the moment he reaches the age of majority.

The amount of incomplete legal capacity:

From 6 to 14 years old - legal capacity of minors (incomplete partial);

From 14 to 18 years old - partial legal capacity (incomplete legal capacity).

Incomplete partial legal capacity (from 6 to 14 years old). At this age, the person (child) has a small amount of legal capacity. As a rule, this is the opportunity to participate in small transactions (for example, buying ice cream), as well as the possibility of accepting property as a gift (the price of the gift must be reasonable).

Incomplete legal capacity (from 14 to 18 years old). Parental consent is required to engage in entrepreneurial activity at this age. Transactions, other legal actions must be approved by parents, adoptive parents, trustees (the consent of one of the parents, adoptive parents, trustees is sufficient).

This consent is not required if, by decision of the guardianship and guardianship authority, as well as with the consent of both parents (adoptive parents, guardians), the person is declared fully capable. This fact is called emancipation. Moreover, in the absence of the consent of the parents (adoptive parents, trustees), the decision on emancipation can be made by the court.

Independently of their parents, children aged 14-18 can dispose of their earnings, scholarships, and other income, independently make contributions to credit institutions and dispose of them.

Between the ages of 14 and 18 - citizens delinquent, those. are responsible for the harm they have caused themselves. If they do not have property, then their parents will reimburse it, if they do not prove that the harm has arisen through no fault of theirs (Article 1073 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation).

In cases stipulated by law, educational, educational, medical and other institutions pay for harm.

At this age, persons have the right to independently conclude transactions that are aimed at receiving benefits free of charge (reasonable price of a gift).

At the age of 18, full legal capacity begins. The features of a citizen's legal capacity in each of the above periods are described in detail in the legislation (Articles 21, 26, 28 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation) and are reduced to the differentiation of the types of transactions that he can perform.

The legal capacity of citizens can be reduced only by recognizing a citizen by a court partially incapacitated or incapacitated (Articles 29, 30 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). A citizen who, due to a mental disorder, cannot understand the meaning of his actions or control them, at the request of interested persons, may be declared incompetent by the court. He does not have the right to make any transactions, including small household transactions, and does not bear any responsibility for them, as well as for causing harm. On his behalf, all transactions are made by the guardian.

A citizen who, due to abuse of alcoholic beverages or drugs, puts his family in a difficult financial situation, at the request of interested persons, may be restricted by the court in his legal capacity. He is not entitled to make any transactions, except for small household transactions, without the consent of the trustee.

Legal capacity can be increased by emancipation citizen, i.e. recognizing him as an adult in the case of marriage registration at the age of 16, as well as engaging in entrepreneurial activity. This happens by decision of the guardianship and trusteeship authorities with the consent of the parents (at least one of them), adoptive parents or guardians, or by a court decision in the absence of the consent of the parents, guardianship and guardianship authorities.

The institution of guardianship and trusteeship was introduced to protect the rights and interests of incapacitated or incompletely capable citizens.

Guardianship established over incapacitated citizens, guardianship- over partially capable ones. Guardians (trustees) are the legal representatives of their wards. Their representation does not require the issuance of a power of attorney to them with a designation of their powers. The document certifying the powers of the guardian (trustee) is the certificate of guardianship, and in its absence - the decision of the guardianship authority on the appointment of the person as the guardian (trustee).

Guardianship (guardianship) is established by the guardianship and guardianship body, which is a local government body, within one month from the date of receipt of the notification of interested persons (court decision) about the need for guardianship (guardianship).

Patronage- a form of guardianship over capable citizens, when for health reasons they cannot independently exercise and defend their rights and fulfill their duties. In this case, the trustee (assistant) is appointed only with the consent of the ward. The trustee has the right to conclude transactions for the maintenance of the ward with his consent. The disposal of the property of the ward is carried out by the trustee on the basis of an agreement of assignment or trust management concluded with the ward. Patronage is terminated at the request of the ward.

Citizen bankruptcy. Sometimes the participation of a citizen in property relations is associated with the risk of being left without funds, entailing the inability to pay debts, fulfill obligations to pay mandatory payments, etc. This situation is classified as insolvency (bankruptcy).

Insolvency (bankruptcy)- this is a recognition by an arbitration court or the debtor's declared inability to fully satisfy creditors' monetary obligations or to make mandatory payments.

Federal Law of October 26, 2002 No. 127 "On Insolvency (Bankruptcy)" provided for three cases of bankruptcy of citizens:

1) bankruptcy of a citizen who is not an individual entrepreneur;

2) bankruptcy of an individual entrepreneur;

3) bankruptcy of a peasant (farm) economy.

As mentioned earlier, a sign of a citizen's bankruptcy is his inability to satisfy creditors' claims in full. In this case, the arbitration court makes a decision to recover the debt from the value of the citizen's property. But there are limitations. According to the law, a foreclosure cannot be imposed on some property.

As a result of these procedures, the most important consequence of declaring a citizen bankrupt is his release from obligations, including those not extinguished, i.e. he is freed from the burden of debt.

From the moment the court makes a decision on the bankruptcy of an individual entrepreneur, the registration of a citizen as such becomes invalid, and the licenses issued to him are also canceled. Within one year from the date of being declared bankrupt, he cannot be registered in this capacity. Consequently, his legal capacity in connection with bankruptcy is limited to a certain extent.

The peculiarities of the bankruptcy of a peasant (farm) economy are that it is the farm that is declared bankrupt, and not its head - an individual entrepreneur (Art. 168-171 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation).

Recognition of a person as missing or deceased. In the case of the unknown absence of a citizen at the place of residence for one year, the court may declare him missing (Article 42 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation).

Unknown absence - the fact of a long-term absence of a citizen at his place of residence (if it was not possible to establish his place of stay) certified in court.

According to paragraph 1 of Art. 42 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, any interested persons can initiate the procedure for recognizing as missing (they must prove their interest in court). The concept of “interested person” is not specified in the law.

The consequences of such recognition are:

The property of this citizen is transferred by a court decision to trust management a person appointed by the guardianship and trusteeship authority;

From the property of this person, the maintenance of his dependents is allocated (Article 43 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation);

His dependents receive a survivor's pension;

The spouse has the right to dissolve the marriage in a simplified manner (clause 2 of article 19 of the Family Code of the Russian Federation), etc.

The legal consequences of recognizing a citizen as missing are terminated if the court cancels its decision in connection with the appearance of the citizen (Article 43 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation).

Declaring a citizen as deceased. Recognition of a citizen as missing does not eliminate the resulting legal uncertainty, since he remains a participant in a number of legal relations. Meanwhile, in the long absence of a citizen, if it is impossible to establish the place of his stay, there is reason to assume that he has died. However, legal consequences cannot be associated with such a proposal until the facts that give rise to it are established in an official manner, for an error in resolving this issue may entail serious violations of the rights and interests of the individual.

According to paragraph 1 of Art. 45 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, a citizen can be declared dead by a court. In this case, it is not required that he was previously recognized as missing.

The conditions for declaring the deceased are:

The absence of a citizen in the place of permanent residence for 5 years, counting from the date of receipt of the latest information about him, and in certain cases specified in the law - 6 months;

Failure to receive information about the place of stay of a citizen within the specified timeframe and the impossibility, despite the measures taken, to establish whether he is alive.

In the absence of a citizen at his place of residence for 5 years, the court may declare him dead (Article 45 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). This period can be reduced to 6 months if the citizen disappeared under circumstances that threatened him with death; 2 years, if the person disappeared due to hostilities (the period is calculated from the moment of the end of hostilities). However, the court recognizes in this case the fact of the death of a citizen, and declares him dead on the basis of the presumption of death in an accident. In such cases, not only the consequences indicated above occur, but also an inheritance is opened.

However, the declaration of a citizen as deceased, in contrast to death, establishes only a presumption, but not the fact of death itself. Therefore, in those exceptional cases when a citizen declared dead is actually alive, a court decision will in no way affect his legal capacity. If a citizen really died, then his legal capacity is terminated by virtue of natural death, regardless of when a court decision is made to declare him dead.

< 502b span style="font-size: 14px">If a citizen appears, the court cancels its decision, and the citizen has the right to return the property that belonged to him, which turned out to be in the possession of other persons.

According to paragraph 2 of Art. 46 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, regardless of the time of his appearance, a citizen can demand from any person the return of the preserved property that was transferred to this person free of charge after the citizen was declared dead (for example, to the heir, to the person to whom the property was donated, etc.).

Yuksha Ya.A. Textbook "Civil Law"




A feature of the concept of "information" is its "universality"; it is used in all spheres of human activity without exception. The specific meaning of the concept of "information" depends on the context, that is, the concept of "information" has many meanings.






The process of processing information by a person is extremely complex, it also depends on the person's life experience, on his education, on erudition, on the profession, on interest in certain information, and even on the temperament and moral attitudes of the individual. For example: 1. The engine noise on the bus has changed. For an ordinary passenger, this event does not carry any information, and for a bus driver, a change in sound can serve as a signal (source of information) about a problem with the bus. 2. It was reported on the radio: "Sharapova won the tennis tournament." If you are not interested in tennis, there is no such information for you (as they say, "turned a deaf ear").


What is an object? Def. By an object we mean any object, phenomenon, process or state that is perceived by our consciousness as a whole, is characterized by certain signs and has a name. Any really existing object has a name (title), which is, as it were, a unique label of the object, which makes it possible to distinguish this object from many others.




Object Active Objects are objects that can manifest their behavior without being influenced by other objects. For example: human operating system, computer viruses. Passive objects are objects that can change their state only under the influence of other objects, and their behavior is manifested only when active objects "access" them. For example: tools, data in computer memory, texts, pictures.
11 Homework: Questions and Tasks: 1. What is information? 2. Describe the functions performed by human organs in information processing. 3. What is an object? 4. What are the object names for? 5. Describe the signs of a light bulb and a ballpoint pen (describe their properties, state, behavior, action).

2. Storage and processing of information by a person, decision-making and cognitive processes

3. Speech communications in operator activities.

1. Reception and primary processing of information by the operator.

The essence of mental phenomena lies in the fact that they are subjective, i.e. a construction emerging in the human mental world in the form of subjective images - sensations, perceptions, ideas, thoughts, feelings. The emerging psychic, subjective reality is characterized by the presence of consciousness, language, speech, will, manifests itself in the form of a personality with self-awareness, a certain freedom in the implementation of their plans and programs. There are no full-fledged analogues in the physical world of inanimate nature for these phenomena, which creates problems when taking them into account in the process of creating man-machine systems. We also note the qualitative, not amenable to direct measurements, the nature of mental phenomena, which are directly accessible only to their bearer, and to no one else.

The most important component of the operator's activity is the reception of information about the control object. This is a staged process, culminating in the perception of information and the creation of a sensory perceptual image.

There are four stages of perceptual action: detection, discrimination, identification and recognition.

At the stage of detection, the observer separates the object from the background, but cannot judge its shape and features.

At the stage of discrimination, the observer is able to separately perceive two objects located next to each other, to highlight their details.

At the stage of identification, the object is identified with the standard recorded in memory.

At the stage of identification, the observer singles out the essential features of the object and assigns it to a certain class.

Note that detection and discrimination are perceptual, and identification and recognition are cognitive actions. The essential difference between these processes is that perception is an action to create an image, a standard, and recognition is the action of comparing a stimulus with standards in memory and assigning it to a certain category.

The primary form of mental perception is the sensation arising from the direct impact of objects and phenomena of the material world on the analyzers of a person.

On the basis of the synthesis of sensations, a more complex form of reflection is formed - perception. Unlike sensations, not individual properties are formed in it, but the image of the object as a whole. Perception is formed on the basis of the joint activity of a number of analyzing systems. Perception is always holistic. We never confuse objects with each other, despite the many different sensations we get from them.

In the process of perception, a "perceptual image" is formed, which plays an important role in the regulation of human behavior and activity. The perceptual image has the properties of constancy - invariability when the conditions of perception of objects change. The processes of constructing a perceptual image have an automatic cyclical nature, they go on constantly and are often not realized by us.

The image has the property of objectivity: in the image the object is represented as being outside the perceiving system. The image is subjective - inaccessible to an outside observer.

The mechanisms for constructing a mental image in detail are unclear, depend on many conditions, and it is possible only from a practical point of view to talk about the adequacy of perception. Perception becomes the result of the constructive function of the psyche. Its content is conditioned by the person's experience and the situation.

It is important to provide the operator with operating conditions under which there would be no transformation of perceptions leading to ineffective actions.

On the basis of sensation and perception, a more complex form of sensory reflection of reality arises - presenting laziness is a secondary sensory image of an object that does not act on the senses at the moment, but acted in the past. Subjectively, representation is associated with concepts such as instability, fragmentation, fragility, impermanence, in contrast to the certainty and constancy of perception. Representation accumulates in itself all the constant properties of a phenomenon and is its collective image, a scheme. It acts as an "internal standard" against which perceived objects are compared. Representations serve as the basis for mental actions, a stage in the transition to thinking - a form of mediated reflection.

Among the models that describe human properties within the framework of engineering methodology as a system, the most common are cybernetic models with elements of the information approach. In this case, a person is considered as a "black box" with inputs and outputs (including motor). Its behavior at the output is studied when various signals are applied to the inputs.

The main function of the human psyche from an informational point of view is the perception of changes in the external environment and a change in the internal state of the body and its behavior in accordance with these changes in order to obtain the maximum adaptive effect that allows ensuring the physiological integrity of a person and obtaining reserves for existence for the longest time possible.

To solve this problem, the brain, as the main organ of mental regulation, has practically unlimited possibilities for the perception and processing of incoming vital information, its transformation on carriers of various physical nature - electrical, chemical, biochemical and others. The brain is a process of continuous change and adaptation.

Communication with the outside world is carried out through evolutionary acquired "analyzer systems", which always act in an integrated manner, in constant interconnection, realizing the functions of perception. For the purpose of scientific study, they are divided into visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, skin analyzers, analyzers of internal organs and a motor analyzer that evaluates the condition of muscles and tendons.

Any analyzer is a complex regulation system that consists of:

A receptor;

Conductive nerve pathways;

Center in the cerebral cortex.

The main function of the receptor is the transformation of the energy of an irritant of various physical nature acting on it into a nervous process, accompanied by a change in the information carrier, contained in the physical parameters of the stimulus, from its external carrier to its internal one.

So, the irritant for the receptors of the eye are electromagnetic waves of a certain spectrum, for the receptors of the ear - mechanical vibrations of the environment, for the receptors of taste - the chemical composition of the acting substance, etc.

The activity of receptors, their properties (sensitivity, selectivity, etc.) change depending on the assessment of the value and quality of the information received by the central organs of the brain and are regulated within wide limits.

The model we are considering is, of course, extremely crude and practically is a physiological reduction, in which mental processes in their qualitative definition are practically not considered. However, at the same time, these ideas make it possible to solve many problems of an engineering and psychological plan with an accuracy acceptable for practice. First of all, this concerns the design of operator workplaces and their elements, the organization of information models, the choice of ranges and restrictions on the conditions of human interaction with the technical environment. All this can be considered as a solution to the problem of designing human-machine interfaces that provide communication between the operator and the technical system. This class of problems for its solution requires knowledge about the work of the perceptual systems of the human body in quantitative form, which is provided by means of psychophysiology.

Characteristics of the visual analyzer.

Through sight, a person receives most of the information that allows him to carry out a deliberate, purposeful activity. The visual analyzer forms the primary visual sensations in the human psyche - colors, light, shapes, images of the external world, and ensures human visual activity.

Paired eye interaction causes binocular the effect,

due to which there is a perception of the volume of objects, their remoteness in space.

The perceiving part of the eye includes two types of receptors - rods and cones, which form the retina of the eye, onto which the image of objects of the outside world enters through the lens. The rods are the apparatus of achromatic (black and white) vision, and the cones are the chromatic (color) vision.

The absolute sensitivity of vision is very high and amounts to only 10-15 quanta of radiant energy, when exposed to the retina, a sensation of light appears in the human psyche.

The visual system operates in a very wide range of brightness. The maximum brightness causing glare is 32.2 stilba, and the minimum perceived illumination by the eye is about 8.10 -9 lux. Under ideal conditions, a person can see the light emitted by 6th magnitude stars.

The eye is sensitive to electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range from 380 to 760 microns, and the maximum light sensitivity of the eye shifts depending on the level of illumination. This explains the “effect Purkinje ": under twilight lighting, blue and green objects appear lighter than red and yellow. Waves of different lengths cause sensations of color and its gradations: red - 610-620 microns; yellow - 565-590 microns; green - 520 microns; blue - 410-470 microns; violet - 380-400 microns.

The sensitivity of the eye to distinguishing the color tone is different and has about one hundred and thirty gradations. In practice, these features of color vision are used to create color coding and signaling systems. Usually no more than four colors are used - red, yellow, green and white. The most subtle difference with the eye is the wavelengths in the region of 494 microns (greenish-blue color) and 590 microns (orange-yellow). In the middle part of the visible spectrum (green), as well as at its ends (violet and red), the differentiation of chromaticity is much coarser. The maximum color sensitivity of the eye in daylight lies in the yellow part of the spectrum (555 microns).

The most contrasting ratios of colors in decreasing order of color contrast: blue on white, black on yellow, green on white, black on white, green on red, red on yellow, red on white, orange on black, black on magenta, orange on white, red on green.

Color and light play a significant role in human practice. When creating many products, it is necessary to take into account their color and light characteristics. Color can fulfill energetic and informational functions. The color coded states of indicators of technical systems. For example, red indicates critical and dangerous modes, green indicates normal system operation, yellow warns of a change in mode. A traffic light is an example of a technical device in which color plays a purely informational role in regulating traffic.

U.S. military standards establish the following augmented color code alphabet:

Red - used to warn the operator that the system or part of it is not working;

Flashing red - to indicate a situation that requires an immediate response;

Yellow color - to indicate extreme conditions in which caution is required;

Green color - normally working system;

White color - used to indicate functions that are not known about, they are correct or erroneous, for example, to indicate intermediate states of the system;

Blue - reference and advisory information.

When organizing complex control and display panels containing a large number of coding features, complex interactions of lightness and color arise, which requires special measurement procedures and color selection. For this purpose, special scales and methods for constructing an isotropic space for distinguishing between lightness and color are used. The advantage of color coding in solving detection problems has been proven. The search time for objects by color is minimal.

The illumination of the workplace affects the operator's performance. A decrease in illumination leads to a decrease in performance. Visual comfort and performance depend on the relationship between the brightness of the observed object and the brightness of the background surrounding the object.

The human visual system has a certain inertia with a rapid change of light stimuli, which, after a certain threshold, called the “critical frequency of fusion of light flashes” (CFF), are perceived as a continuous signal. Film and television systems operate on this effect, presenting an image for a short time in the form of a sequence of pictures. CFFF, depending on the parameters of the presented signal and the functional state of the visual analyzer, varies in the range from 14 to 70 Hz.

Human visual acuity - the minimum angle of view at which two equidistant points are visible as separate, is several tenths of an angular minute and depends on the illumination and contrast of the object, its shape and position in the field of view. This characteristic plays an important role in the tasks of information retrieval and detection, which constitute a significant part of the operator's activity.

The range of perception of the intensity of the luminous flux by a person is very large and is achieved in the process of light and dark adaptation, the time of which is from 8 to 30 minutes.

Dark adaptation occurs when the background brightness decreases from a certain value to the minimum brightness (practically darkness). A number of changes take place in the visual system:

Transition from cone vision to rod vision;

The pupil expands;

The area on the retina increases, along which the effect of light is summed up;

The time for summing up the light effects is increased;

The concentration of light-sensitive substances in the visual receptors increases;

The sensitivity of the visual system increases.

Light adaptation is the opposite of dark adaptation. It occurs in the process of adaptation of the visual system after a long stay in the dark.

The inertia of vision is also associated with the phenomenon of sequential visual images that arise immediately after the cessation of retinal irritation. In this case, superposition and distortion of perceptions are possible, leading to erroneous actions of a person. The illusions of movement and inertia of vision owe their development to cinema and television.

The human visual system allows you to perceive movement. The lower absolute threshold of speed perception is:

If there is a fixed reference point in the field of view, 1-2 ang. min / s;

Without reference point 15-30 arc. min / s.

Uniform movement with low speeds (up to 10 arcmin / s) in the absence of fixed landmarks in the field can be perceived as intermittent.

The field of view of each eye: upwards 50 degrees; down 70 degrees; towards the other eye 60 degrees; in the opposite direction 90 deg. The total horizontal field of view is 180 degrees. Accurate perception of visual signals is possible only in the central part of the visual field. This is where the most important elements of the operator's workstation should be located.

The maximum throughput of the visual analyzer at the level of photoreceptors is 5.6 x 10 bit / s. As we move towards the cortical structures, it drops to 50-60 bps. Despite such a low speed of perception, a person in his subjective world deals with images of perception with high resolution and detail. This is due to the constructive functions of the psyche, which builds an image on the basis of not only external information, but also information circulating in memory systems and experience fixation.

Currently, there is no satisfactory scientifically grounded theory explaining the work of the human visual system as a whole, there are only a number of assumptions about the principles of operation of individual links of the system. However, its properties are fully described and presented in the form of reference data. Their use requires great care from designers, since the parameters of the visual system are very variable and strongly depend on the conditions and methods of measurement.

1.4.3. Before a person can react to the information received, he must first become aware of it. This is precisely where the possibility of error lies because the range of functioning of sensory systems is extremely narrow. From the senses, information enters the brain, where it is processed, resulting in a conclusion regarding the nature and meaning of the message received. This activity, called the assimilation of information, is a conducive environment for errors to occur. Expectation, experience, attitude, motivation, and motivation are all concepts that have some impact on learning and possibly sources of error.

1.4.4. After conclusions have been drawn regarding the content of the message received, the decision-making process begins. Many factors can lead to an erroneous decision, for example: particular training or past experience; emotions or business considerations; fatigue, exposure to medication, motivation, and physical or psychological distress. Decision-making is followed by action (inaction). This is another stage, also fraught with errors, because it (action) can function incorrectly and the error will occur sooner or later. As soon as the action has taken place, the feedback mechanism begins to function. The disadvantages of this mechanism can also lead to errors. All this can be represented by the following diagram.

Control over human errors.

1.4.5. Controlling human error involves two different approaches

· First, it is necessary to minimize the possibility of errors. This is achieved through the training of highly qualified personnel; developing appropriate management procedures so that they meet the individual characteristics of the individual; establishing proper checklists, rules, guidelines, maps, plans, SOPSs, etc., and reducing noise, vibration, temperature limits and other stressors. Training programs aimed at improving interaction and communication between individual crew members can also reduce errors. (Absolute elimination of the likelihood of human error is difficult because errors are a normal part of human behavior.)

· A second approach to controlling human error is to minimize the consequences of errors through cross-observation and improved interaction between crew members. Designing equipment that is capable of correcting errors (ensuring the execution of a given program by an automatic device), and equipment that can control or even supplement human actions and improve its performance, also reduces the likelihood of errors and helps to eliminate their negative consequences.



(A specialist in training personnel who plans, prepares, provides and performs flights must be highly qualified. Since it is not possible for each individual to develop an appropriate procedure, due to their large number. reaction to the emerging factors of a non-standard situation and, in accordance with this, develop generalizing procedures. Currently, for the most part, this work is entrusted to the leadership of civil aviation. person, even within the framework of professional duties.At the same time, developing a specialist training program aimed at reducing the number of mistakes made is not an easy task and requires a thorough analysis of the production activities of each member of the of the production team, whether it is the crew of an aircraft or a shift in the traffic service or transportation services.).

Information processing consists in obtaining some "information objects" from other "information objects" by performing some algorithms and is one of the main operations carried out on information and the main means of increasing its volume and variety.

At the highest level, numerical and non-numerical processing can be distinguished. In these types of processing, different interpretations of the content of the concept of "data" are embedded. Numerical processing uses objects such as variables, vectors, matrices, multidimensional arrays, constants, etc. In non-numeric processing, objects can be files, records, fields, hierarchies, networks, relationships, etc. Another difference is that in numerical processing, the content of the data does not matter much, while in non-numerical processing we are interested in direct information about objects, and not their totality as a whole.

From the point of view of implementation, based on modern advances in computing technology, the following types of information processing are distinguished:

  • sequential processing used in the traditional von Neumann architecture of a computer with a single processor;
  • parallel processing, used in the presence of several processors in the computer;
  • pipeline processing associated with the use of the same resources in the architecture of a computer for solving different problems, and if these tasks are identical, then this is a sequential pipeline, if the tasks are the same - a vector pipeline.

It is customary to classify existing computer architectures from the point of view of information processing to one of the following classes.

Architecture with single stream of commands and data (SISD). This class includes traditional Von Neumann single-processor systems, where there is a central processor that operates with attribute-value pairs.

Architectures with single streams of commands and data (SIMD). A feature of this class is the presence of one (central) controller that controls a number of identical processors. Depending on the capabilities of the controller and processor elements, the number of processors, the organization of the search mode and the characteristics of the routing and equalization networks, the following are distinguished:

  • matrix processors used to solve vector and matrix problems;
  • associative processors used to solve non-numerical problems and use memory in which you can directly access the information stored in it;
  • processor ensembles used for numerical and non-numerical processing;
  • pipeline and vector processors.

Multiple Command Stream Single Stream (MISD) architectures. Pipeline processors can be referred to this class.

Architecture with multiple command stream and multiple data stream (MIMD). This class can include the following configurations: multiprocessor systems, multiprocessing systems, computing systems from many machines, computer networks.

The main data processing procedures are shown in Fig. 4.5.

The creation of data, as a processing process, provides for their formation as a result of the execution of a certain algorithm and further use for transformations at a higher level.

Data modification is related to the display of changes in the real subject area, carried out by the inclusion of new data and the removal of unnecessary ones.

Rice. 4.5 Basic data processing procedures

Control, security and integrity are aimed at adequate display of the real state of the subject area in the information model and provide information protection from unauthorized access (security) and from failures and damage to hardware and software.

The search for information stored in the computer's memory is carried out as an independent action in responding to various requests and as an auxiliary operation in information processing.

Decision support is the most important activity performed in information processing. The wide alternative of the decisions made leads to the need to use a variety of mathematical models.

The creation of documents, summaries, reports consists in converting information into forms that are readable by both humans and computers. Associated with this action are operations such as processing, reading, scanning, and sorting documents.

When transforming information, it is transferred from one form of presentation or existence to another, which is determined by the needs arising in the process of implementing information technologies.

The implementation of all actions performed in the process of information processing is carried out using a variety of software tools.

The most common area of ​​application of the technological operation of information processing is decision making.

Depending on the degree of awareness of the state of the controlled process, the completeness and accuracy of the models of the object and the control system, interaction with the environment, the decision-making process takes place in different conditions:

  • 1.Decision making in conditions of certainty. In this problem, the models of the object and the control system are considered given, and the influence of the external environment is insignificant. Therefore, there is an unambiguous relationship between the chosen strategy for using resources and the final result, from which it follows that, in conditions of certainty, it is sufficient to use the decision rule to assess the utility of decision options, taking as the optimal one that leads to the greatest effect. If there are several such strategies, then they are all considered equivalent. Methods of mathematical programming are used to find solutions in conditions of certainty.
  • 2. Decision making in the face of risk. In contrast to the previous case, for making decisions under risk conditions, it is necessary to take into account the influence of the external environment, which cannot be accurately predicted, but only the probabilistic distribution of all states is known. Under these conditions, the use of the same strategy can lead to different outcomes, the probabilities of which are considered given or can be determined. Evaluation and selection of strategies is carried out using a decision rule that takes into account the probability of achieving the final result.
  • 3. Making decisions in the face of uncertainty. As in the previous problem, there is no unambiguous connection between the choice of strategy and the final result. In addition, the values ​​of the probabilities of the appearance of the final results are also unknown, which either cannot be determined or do not have a meaningful meaning in the context of the content. Each pair "strategy - end result" corresponds to some external evaluation in the form of a win. The most common is to use the criterion for obtaining the maximum guaranteed prize.
  • 4. Decision making in a multi-criteria environment. In any of the above tasks, multicriteria arises in the case of the presence of several independent, not reducible goals. The presence of a large number of solutions complicates the assessment and selection of the optimal strategy. One of the possible solutions is the use of modeling methods.

Problem solving with the help of artificial intelligence consists in reducing the enumeration of options when searching for a solution, while the programs implement the same principles that a person uses in the process of thinking.

The expert system uses the knowledge that it possesses in its narrow field to limit the search on the way to solving the problem by gradually narrowing the range of options.

To solve problems in expert systems, use:

  • method of inference based on a technique of proof called resolution and using the refutation of negation (proof "by contradiction");
  • the method of structural induction, based on the construction of a decision tree to determine objects from a large amount of input data;
  • method of heuristic rules based on the experience of experts, and not on the abstract rules of formal logic;
  • a machine analogy method based on presenting information about compared objects in a convenient form, for example, in the form of data structures called frames.

Sources of "intelligence" that emerges in solving a problem may turn out to be useless or useful or economical, depending on the specific properties of the area in which the problem is posed. Based on this, the choice of the method for constructing an expert systems or using a ready-made software product.

The process of developing a solution based on primary data, the diagram of which is shown in Fig. 4.6, can be divided into two stages: the development of feasible solutions by mathematical formalization using a variety of models and the choice of the optimal solution based on subjective factors.

The information needs of decision-makers, in many cases, are focused on integral technical and economic indicators that can be obtained as a result of processing primary data reflecting the current activities of the enterprise. By analyzing the functional relationships between the final and primary data, it is possible to build a so-called information scheme that reflects the processes of information aggregation. Primary data, as a rule, are extremely diverse, the intensity of their receipt is high, and the total volume in the interval of interest is large. On the other hand, the composition of the integral indicators is relatively small, and the required

Rice. 4.6.

the period of their actualization can be much shorter than the period of changes in the primary data - arguments.

To support decision making, the following components are required:

  • summarizing analysis;
  • forecasting;
  • situational modeling.

Currently, it is customary to distinguish two types of decision support information systems.

Decision support systems DSS (Decision Support System) select and analyze data on various characteristics and include tools:

  • access to databases;
  • extracting data from heterogeneous sources;
  • modeling the rules and strategies of business activities;
  • business graphics for presenting analysis results;
  • analysis "if that";
  • artificial intelligence at the level of expert systems.

Systems of online analytical processing OLAP (OnLine Analysis Processing) for decision making use the following tools:

  • powerful multiprocessor computing technology in the form of special OLAP servers;
  • special methods of multivariate analysis;
  • special data warehouses Data Warehouse.

The implementation of the decision-making process is to build information applications. Let us single out typical functional components in an information application that are sufficient to form any application based on a database (2).

PS (Presentation Services) - tools representation. Provided by devices that accept input from a user and display what the PL presentation logic component tells him, plus associated software support. It can be a text terminal or X-terminal, as well as a personal computer or workstation in the terminal or X-terminal software emulation mode.

PL (Presentation Logic)– presentation logic. Manages the interaction between the user and the computer. Processes user actions for selecting an alternative to a menu, clicking a button, or selecting an item from a list.

BL (Business or Application Logic) - applied logics. A set of rules for making decisions, calculations, and operations that an application must perform.

DL (Data Logic) - data management logic. Database operations (SQL SELECT, UPDATE, and INSERT statements) that must be performed to implement the application data management logic.

DS (Data Services) - database operations. DBMS actions called to execute data management logic, such as manipulating data, defining data, committing or rolling back transactions, etc. The DBMS usually compiles SQL applications.

FS (File Services) - file operations. Disk read and write operations for DBMS and other components. Usually functions of the OS.

Among the development tools for information applications, the following main groups can be distinguished:

  • traditional programming systems;
  • tools for creating file server applications;
  • client-server application development tools;
  • office automation and document management tools;
  • development tools for Internet / Intranet applications;
  • application design automation tools.