FEATURES OF THE POLITICAL SYSTEM OF THE USSR IN THE 1930s

1. Merging of the party and state apparatus. Dictatorship of the party over the state;

2. One-party government;

3. Emergency as the main method of government (emergency legislation, hypertrophy of the punitive apparatus, judicial and extrajudicial repressions);

4. Omnipotence of the party nomenklatura;

5. Non-alternativeness of elections;

6. Formality of the Soviets of People's Deputies. The right of provincial committees to cancel elections to the Soviets in whole or in part;

7.Departmental;

8. Appointment, nomenclature lists;

9. Leaderism and the cult of the leader.

"EMERGENCY LEGISLATION"

August 7, 1932 Decree "On the protection of property of state enterprises, state farms and cooperatives, the strengthening of state property" (introduced the highest measure for theft of collective farm and cooperative property - execution with confiscation of property, under extenuating circumstances - imprisonment for 10 years with confiscation of all property ");

April 7, 1935 Resolution of the Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars on bringing to criminal responsibility from the age of 12;

March 1935 - Law on Punishment of Family Members of Traitors

1939 - the establishment of a minimum of workdays on collective farms;

1940 - prohibition of unauthorized leaving the enterprise, criminal liability for absenteeism.

Political repressions of the 1930s

dispossession;

· the fight against sabotage;

political repression;

repression in the army;

deportation of peoples.

The exact scale of the repressions has not yet been precisely established. According to a rough estimate, from 1930 to 1953 at least 800 thousand people were sentenced to death.

SHOW TRIALS OF THE 1930s

1928 - Shakhty case.

The case of the "Industrial Party",

The case of the Chayanov-Kondratiev group;

Case of the Union for the Liberation of Ukraine,

The case of "academicians";

1931 - the case of the "Union Bureau of the Mensheviks";

1935 - the case of the Moscow counter-revolutionary organization;

1936 - the case of the Trotskyist-Zinoviev United Center;

The Case of the Anti-Soviet Parallel Trotskyist Center;

The case of "marshals" (closed process);

1938 - the case of the anti-Soviet Right-Trotsky bloc.

WAVES" OF RESPRESSIONS in the late 1920s-1940s.

1 wave: 1929-32 - engineers and "specialists", the intelligentsia ("the case of academicians" in 1929), "dispossessed" peasants, ministers of the church;

2 wave: 1937–38 -"Yezhovshchina" opposition members of the 1920s in the military-industrial complex (b), party members with pre-revolutionary experience, the remnants of the socialists, members of the Politburo, the command staff of the Red Army, peasants, intelligentsia;

The political system of the USSR in the 1930s.

The assertion of the omnipotence of the party apparatus and the merging of its functions with the functions of state authorities constituted the essence of Stalinism, which took the form of a regime of personal power (the cult of personality). Stalinism had its own social base: active - the inner circle of the leader and passive - the masses, including workers, the rural poor, the middle peasantry, the marginalized strata. In the 20s. in the hands of Stalin was concentrated the whole matter of appointing leading cadres in the country, placing them at various levels of the nomenklatura. By the mid-30s, the political system of Stalinism can be considered to have finally taken shape, which was enshrined in the new Constitution of the USSR, which was adopted at the VIII Congress of Soviets on December 5, 1936 ᴦ. and operated until 1977 ᴦ. The Constitution legislated "the victory of the socialist system" in the USSR. The supreme body of state power was declared the Supreme Soviet of the USSR (instead of the Congress of Soviets), and between its sessions - the Presidium. The Constitution forbade the exploitation of man by man, eliminated class restrictions in the electoral system, established universal, equal direct elections by secret ballot. In 1939 ᴦ. At the 18th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, it was announced "the victory of socialism in the main" and "the transition to the full-scale construction of communism." In the Soviet political model of those years, there were signs traditionally attributed to socialism: the absence of exploiting classes; replacement of private property by collectivist property; planning, which extended to the entire national economy; guaranteed right to work, free universal secondary education; universal suffrage. Formally and legally, the existence of two forms of socialist property was established - state and group (cooperative-collective farm), although the directive economy that had developed by that time was characterized by virtually complete nationalization of the means of production. Stalinism existed as an integral, exceptionally rigid, authoritarian ideology that embraced all spheres of society. It was based on Marxism-Leninism, even more simplified and modified. The political regime that developed in the USSR by the end of the 1930s had a totalitarian character.
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Its main features were: blurring the boundaries between the state and society; the concentration of power in the hands of the party apparatus (power was not limited by law and was based on repression); leader's personality cult; total control over society and the individual; the prohibition of political opposition and free thought; a tendency to spread outside Soviet ideas and practices; the situation of the "Iron Curtain" (ᴛ.ᴇ. restrictions in the field of political and humanitarian contacts with foreign countries in the conditions of foreign trade state monopoly).

There are other points of view on the nature of the political system of the USSR in the 1930s. Supporters of the first point of view consider the victory of the socialist system in the USSR to be real, although in a deformed form. As arguments, such features are given as the elimination of private property, exploitative classes, planning, social rights. The hypertrophied role of the state and repressive bodies, repressions, etc. are recognized as a manifestation of deformation that occurred under the influence of a number of factors, incl. the backwardness of the country, the personality of Stalin, the environment hostile to the USSR, etc.

According to other authors, Stalinism was one of the extreme, extreme, namely, the ultra-left version of global social development (as opposed to the ultra-right - fascist and as opposed to neo-liberal - American and Western European).

The Constitution of the USSR of 1936 (informal names: ʼʼStalin's constitutionʼʼ, less often - ʼʼConstitution of victorious socialismʼʼ) is the basic law of the USSR, adopted by the VIII All-Union Extraordinary Congress of Soviets on December 5, 1936, and valid until 1977.

The constitution proclaimed that socialism in the USSR had won and had basically been built. This meant that private ownership of the means of production and the exploiting classes had been abolished (and, consequently, the dictatorship of the proletariat was a past stage), socialist relations of production had won. The economic basis was proclaimed a planned socialist system of economy and socialist ownership of tools and means of production, which had either a form of state ownership (public property) or a form of cooperative-collective farm property (the property of individual collective farms, the property of cooperative associations) ʼʼ.

For the first time in the history of the Soviet state, the Constitution of 1936 granted equal rights to all citizens:

universal, equal and direct suffrage by secret ballot;

the right to work and rest, material security in old age and illness, the right to education (free of charge).

Freedom of conscience, speech, press, meetings and rallies was proclaimed, as well as the inviolability of the person and the secrecy of correspondence.

The land, its bowels, waters, forests, factories, factories, mines, mines, railway, water, land and air transport, banks, means of communication were declared public property; the land occupied by collective farms was transferred to them for perpetual use.

In article 126 of the section "Basic Rights and Duties of Citizens", the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) was proclaimed the representative of the "leading core" of all public and state organizations (the party was not mentioned in the Constitution of 1924).

The bicameral Supreme Soviet of the USSR was declared the highest legislative power in the country, and in the intervals between its sessions - the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. The constitution did not include the position of the sole president of the country, and the functions of the "collective president" were assigned to the Presidium of the Supreme Council; provided for the equality of the chambers of the Supreme Council and its right to create investigative and audit commissions on any issue; the responsibility of the deputies to the voters and the right to recall those who did not justify the trust placed in them was fixed.

The government of the country retained its name - the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR, but in 1946 it was transformed into the Council of Ministers of the USSR. The government was the highest executive body, accountable to the Supreme Soviet and its Presidium.

For the first time, a special chapter was included in the text of the Constitution, establishing the basic rights and obligations of citizens. The right of citizens to work, to rest, to material security in old age and in case of disability, to education, freedom of speech, press, meetings and rallies, street processions and demonstrations, inviolability of the person and home, privacy of correspondence was declared. In practice, however, most of these rights have been consistently violated. Attempts to really use the constitutional right to freedom of speech entailed persecution by the NKVD and condemnation for ʼʼanti-Soviet agitationʼʼ. Some rights of the authorities were deliberately not included in the text of the Constitution, for example, the right to freedom of movement.

Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, Constitution of the USSR 1936 ᴦ. or, as it was also called, the ʼʼStalin Constitutionʼʼ, was in many respects a declarative document that covered up numerous violations of the law under the conditions of a totalitarian regime.

The political system of the USSR in the 1930s. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "The political system of the USSR in the 1930s." 2017, 2018.

The political system in the USSR in the 1930s. Stalin's personality cult: origins, essence.

36 Political system of the USSR
1. The political system that had taken shape in the USSR by the beginning of the Second World War and referred to as Stalinism began to take shape in the late 1920s. By the middle of the 1930s, it can be considered to have finally taken shape, which was enshrined in the new Constitution of the USSR. The constitution, adopted at the VIII All-Union Congress of Soviets on December 5, 1936, and in force until 1977, legislated the "victory of the socialist system" in the USSR. The supreme body of state power was declared the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, and between its sessions - the Presidium. The constitution forbade the exploitation of man by man, eliminated class restrictions in the electoral system, and established universal, equal, direct elections by secret ballot. In 1939, at the 18th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, it was announced "the victory of socialism in the main" and "the transition to the full-scale construction of communism."
2. In the Soviet political model of those years, there were signs traditionally attributed to socialism: the absence of exploiting classes; replacement of private property by collectivist property; planning, which extended to the entire national economy; guaranteed right to work, free universal secondary education; universal suffrage. Formally and legally, the existence of two forms of socialist property was established - state and group (cooperative-collective farm), although the directive economy that had developed by that time was characterized by virtually complete nationalization of the means of production.
2. Essence of Stalinism
1. Social base. The assertion of the omnipotence of the party apparatus and the merging of its functions with the functions of state bodies of power constituted the essence of Stalinism, which took the form of a regime of personal power (the cult of personality). Stalinism had its own social base: active - the inner circle of the leader and passive (workers with their anti-bourgeois sentiments, the rural poor, the middle peasantry who took neutrality, marginal strata).
2. Political repression. Terror and repression were an integral part of the Stalinist political regime of the 1930s. An important goal of the organizers of the trials was the desire to deepen the atmosphere of general distrust and suspicion in the country, to convince the masses of the need to "tighten the screws."
3. Years of "great terror". During the years of the so-called "great terror" (1936-1940), reprisals began against the former leaders of the inner-party opposition - G.E. Zinoviev, L.B. Kamenev, N.I. Bukharin, A.I. Rykov and others. In total, 40 thousand commanders were repressed in the Red Army (espionage undermining the power of the Red Army). A wave of mass terror was unleashed against figures of science and culture. During the repression of 1937-1940. the Russian population suffered significantly, terror also affected all the republics of the USSR. Thus, in Georgia at least 50 thousand people were repressed, in Azerbaijan - 100 thousand, in Belarus and the Baltic States - 1-2% of the population, etc. Entire nations were declared guilty of betrayal. Before the war, the exiled peoples numbered approximately 2.5 million people. The repressions had catastrophic consequences for the demographic situation in the country (direct human losses during the years of the crisis amounted, according to various sources, from 4-5 to 12 million people).
Conclusion: The political regime that developed in the USSR by the end of the 1930s had a totalitarian character. Its main features were: blurring the boundaries between the state and society; the concentration of power in the hands of the party apparatus (power was not limited by law and was based on repression); leader's personality cult; total control over society and the individual; the prohibition of political opposition and free thought; a tendency to spread outside Soviet ideas and practices; the situation of the "iron curtain" (i.e. restrictions in the field of economic, political and humanitarian contacts with foreign countries). There are other points of view on the nature of the political system of the USSR in the 1930s. Supporters of the first point of view recognize the victory of the socialist system in the USSR, although in a deformed form. As arguments, such features are given as the elimination of private property, exploiting classes, planning, social rights, as well as the hypertrophied role of the state and repressive bodies. According to other authors, Stalinism was one of the extreme, extreme, namely, the ultra-left version of global social development (as opposed to the ultra-right - fascist and as opposed to the neo-liberal - American and Western European)".

Rice. 1. Politburo 1936

The implementation of grandiose socio-economic plans led to the formation of totalitarianism. Power was concentrated in the hands of the top party leadership. It destroyed democratic freedoms, the opposition, subordinated society to its interests. No law was adopted without the approval of the Politburo. It determined the main directions of domestic and foreign policy. Gradually, the party itself also changed - ordinary members were removed from the real solution of issues.

Rice. 2. Demonstration against kulaks

Party control over the media played a huge role in the formation of totalitarianism. The cessation of contacts with the West made it possible to avoid the influence of other ideological views on the population. The study of the Marxist-Leninist foundations of all sciences came to the fore in education. In 1932, an attack on creative unions began. In 1934, all writers were united in the Union of Soviet Writers, headed by M. Gorky.

Rice. 3. Confiscation of icons

Subsequently, similar unions arose among filmmakers, artists, and composers. Those who worked within the framework of the official ideology were supported with material benefits and privileges. The rest of the population also consisted of public organizations, trade unions, Komsomol, Pioneer and October organizations. Athletes, inventors, women, etc. united in various organizations.

Rice. 4. Poster 1932

A characteristic feature of the political life of this period was the personality cult of I. Stalin. On December 21, 1929, on Stalin's 50th birthday, the country learned that it had a great leader. He was declared "Lenin's first disciple". Soon, Stalin began to attribute all the successes of the country. He was called "great", "wise", "leader of the world proletariat", "great strategist of the five-year plan.

Rice. 5. Prisoners on the construction of the White Sea Canal

At the same time, punitive bodies were being formed to persecute dissidents. In the early 1930s, the last trials of the Socialist-Revolutionaries and Mensheviks took place. The "Shakhty affair" of 1928 led to repressions against bourgeois specialists. This was followed by a campaign against the kulaks. In 1932, the "Law on three spikelets" gave rise to the persecution of even the poorest peasantry. In 1934, the Special Meeting of the NKVD acquired the right to extrajudicially send "enemies of the people" to the colonies.

Rice. 6. Funeral of S.M. Kirov

The reason for the deployment of mass repressions was the murder of S. Kirov on 1.12.34 - after it it was decided to conduct an investigation into "terrorist cases" in an abbreviated manner, within 10 days, the prosecutor and lawyer were absent at the trial, pardons were prohibited, and death sentences were carried out immediately. In 1935, the law was amended, and adolescents from the age of 12 fell under its action. The families of "enemies of the people" were treated like criminals.

Rice. 7. Zinoviev G.E.

Rice. 8. Kamenev L.B.

In the middle. In the 1930s, Stalin began to liquidate all the dissatisfied. In 1936, the trial took place in the case of Zinoviev, Kamenev and their supporters. The defendants were charged with the murder of Kirov, the attempt on Stalin's life and other crimes. Prosecutor A. Vyshinsky demanded that they be shot, and the court pronounced a death sentence. These were followed by new processes.

Rice. 9. Bukharin N.I.

Rice. 10. K. Radek

In 1937, the heroes of the civil war, Tukhachevsky, Yakir, Uborevich and other military commanders, were shot in the "case of the marshals". In March 1938, N. Bukharin, A. Rykov, K. Radek and others were convicted at the 3rd trial. The country plunged into an atmosphere of fear. The secret department of the NKVD overtook its victims even abroad - in 1940 L. Trotsky was killed in Mexico.

Rice. 11. Constitution 1936

The "Great Terror" was intended to relieve social tension caused by the failures of the economic and political decisions of the leadership. The Constitution, adopted on December 5, 1936, corresponded to the same goal. It proclaimed democratic rights and freedoms and masked the totalitarian regime. The constitution proclaimed the building of socialism in the USSR and the creation of state and collective-farm-cooperative ownership of the means of production.

Rice. 12. Poster 1936

The Soviets were declared the political basis of the state, and Marxism-Leninism was declared the state ideology. The supreme body of the state became the Supreme Council. The USSR included 11 union republics.

In real life, most of the norms of the Constitution were not implemented, and "Stalin's socialism" had a very remote resemblance to what K. Marx wrote about.

The national policy of the USSR in the 30s.

Rice. 13. School for adults in Uzbekistan

In the late 1920s, the Bolsheviks launched an offensive against Islam - church land ownership was abolished, church education became secular, and hospitals became state-owned. Sharia courts were abolished. The eradication of Muslim rituals began in the cities. On March 8, 1927, women gathered for rallies publicly tore off their veils, but a sad fate awaited them - Muslims beat them, and sometimes killed them.

Rice. 14. Women who took off the veil

Campaigns against Ramadan have reached a particular scale. This was explained by the fact that church customs contradicted the plans for the socialist transformation of society. Kalym and polygamy were banned. Making the pilgrimage to Mecca became impossible. This led to fierce resistance, but only in Chechnya did it develop into an uprising. The Basmachi also raised their heads in Central Asia. All these performances were suppressed with the help of army units in 1930.

Rice. 15. Central pavilion at VDNKh

In the end of the 20s. the course towards the development of national languages ​​and cultures was curtailed. The use of national languages ​​in state institutions was abolished. Compulsory study of the Russian language was introduced in schools. Higher education was conducted only in Russian, with the exception of Georgia and Armenia. In the Caucasus and Central Asia, as a result of language reforms, writing was first translated into Latin, and then into Cyrillic script.

Rice. 16. Matura

In the army in 1938, the formation of units on a national basis was eliminated, and the Russian language became the language of military education. The Russian language became the language of interethnic communication, the Russian-speaking population easily adapted to life in the Union republics, education became available to everyone. Raising the status of the Russian language did not mean a return to the tsarist policy of Russification, because. a blow was also dealt to Russian Orthodox culture.

Rice. 17. B. Efimov Steel "hedgehogs"

One of the tasks of industrialization and collectivization was the equalization of the level of economic development of the national outskirts.

Rice. 18. Kazakhs in national clothes

In Uzbekistan, the plan of the 1st five-year plan provided for an increase in cotton production. The principle of “indigenization” of local leadership was abolished; the directives of the Center often met with dissatisfaction from the local authorities.

Rice. 19. Construction of a canal in the Fehran Valley

Industrialization changed the face of the national republics. Industrial centers arose on the basis of local raw materials. In Belarus, industry provided 53% of income, new industries appeared - fuel, engineering, and the chemical industry. More than 400 enterprises were built in Ukraine. It became a highly developed industrial republic. In Central Asia, cotton-cleaning and silk-reeling factories and food industry enterprises are springing up.

Rice. 20. Laying the foundation. Uzbekistan. Mid 30s.

Power plants and railways are being built in a number of regions. The construction of canals made it possible to irrigate millions of hectares of land. In the RSFSR, huge funds were invested in the autonomous republics. Their industrial production increased by almost 5 times, but most of the enterprises were extractive. Often enterprises were built by the whole country. All this led to the emergence of a special community of people with their own mentality - the Soviet people.

Lesson summary on the topic: "The political system of the USSR in the 1930s."

Goals: educational goals :

1. Based on knowledgestudents in the history of Russia (§24 "The political system of the USSR in the 1930s.// N.V. Zagladin History of Russia. XX - beginning of the XXI century. Grade 11.) othe reasons for the emergence of a totalitarian society in the USSR; the peculiarities of the intrapatristic struggle for power, the clash of various political figures of the 1920s; the most notorious trials of the 1920s; Stalin's success in the fight against political opponents; the formation of a one-party system;

2. Uncover the reasons for the changesocial order in the USSR in the 1930s,essence of politicsbuilding a "new society", reasons for creatingthe concept of building "socialism in a single country", the formation of a "cult of personality", the design of a command-administrative system;

Refine students' knowledge ofthe activities of punitive bodies in Soviet society (NKVD), to reveal the features of the trials of the 1930s, the spread of mass repressions in Soviet society.

Form students' understanding of the reasonsadoption of the Constitution of 1936, its features of functioning in a totalitarian society;

Deepen concepts:repressions, cult of personality, command-administrative system, “troikas”, fiscal system;

3. Lead students to a conclusion: about the reasonsthe formation of totalitarianism in the USSR, its specific features and characteristics, the formation of ideological control, the significance of the role of mass repression in the formation of strict control over society, the role of Stalin's personality in this process.

Development goals:

1. Continue the formation of the ability to work with historical sources (Fragment fromN.I. Bukharin at the Plenum of the Central Committee and Central Control Commission of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks (April 18, 1929);

2. Continue the formation of the ability to work with the scheme (scheme: "The main features of a totalitarian society in the USSR.)

3. Continue the formation of the ability to work with tables ("Characteristic features of Soviet society in the 1930s»).

4. Continue the formation of skills in comparing and analyzing historical facts, identifying cause-and-effect relationships.

5. To continue the formation of skills in working with the illustrative material of the textbook (N.V. Zagladin textbook on "History of Russia. XX - early XXI century." Grade 11.)

Educational goals:

Raise the desire to protect the sovereignty of their country;

Cultivate an active citizenship on the basis of;

Instill interest in own history and, to form a historical memory of the tragic pages of national history.

Debating question: The political system of the USSR in the 1930s: the only possible way of development or a deviation from the “Leninist norms”?
Value orientation:“Hundreds of thousands, millions of people were destroyed and exiled to camps, shot, tortured to death. Moreover, these were people with their own opinion, people who were not afraid to express it. This is the color of the nation... And we, of course, for many years, still felt this tragedy on ourselves.V.V. Putin
Equipment: Textbook A.A. Danilova, L.G. Kosulina, M.Yu. Brandt "History of Russia XX - beginning of XXI century." Grade 11. M., 2010Scheme: The main features of a totalitarian society in the USSRTable: « Characteristic features of Soviet society in the 1930s.Sources : From the speech of N.I. Bukharin at the Plenum of the Central Committee and Central Control Commission of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks (April 18, 1929);

On the economic situation and moods of the Trans-Ural peasantry (from a summary of unpublished letters to the Pravda newspaper, June 24, 1930); From the report of the former employee of the State Bank of the USSR P. Yanishevsky on the operations of the State Bank of the USSR with gold (January 1933); From the petition of the department of the OGPU to the secretariat of the Chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee for permission to remove the gilding from the domes of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior (February 24, 1930); From the Constitution of the USSR of 1936; From the platform of the "Union of Marxist-Leninists" (M.N. Ryutin, 1932);

Plan for explaining new material: 1. Formation of a totalitarian regime.2. Ideologization of public life.3. Formation of Stalin's personality cult.4. Massive repressions.5. Show trials.6.Constitution of "victorious socialism".

Literature for students:

Gimpelson E.G. Formation of the Soviet political system. 1917-1923 M., 1995. The voice of the people. Letters and responses of ordinary Soviet citizens to the events of 1918-1932. M., 1998.Gorinov M.M. NEP: Search for ways of development. M., 1990. Two views from abroad (A. Zhid and L. Feuchtwanger). M., 1990.Lebina N.B. Everyday life of a Soviet city: Norms and anomalies. 1920-1930s SPb., 1999. NEP: a view from the side. M., 1991.Osokina E.A. Hierarchy of consumption: About the life of people in the conditions of Stalin's supply. 1928-1935 M., 1993. Russia in Exile: The Fates of Russian Emigrants Abroad. M., 1999.Teptsov N.V. Agrarian policy: On the sharp turns of the 20-30s. M., 1990.Fitzpatrick Sh. Everyday Stalinism. Social history of Soviet Russia in the 30s: City. M., 2001.Khlevnyuk O.V. 1937th. Stalin, the NKVD and Soviet society. M., 1992.Tsakunov S.V. In the labyrinth of doctrine: From the experience of developing the country's economic course in the 1920s. M., 1994.Shishkin V.A. Power. Politics. Economics: Post-revolutionary Russia (1917-1928). SPb., 1997.

Literature for the teacher:

Volkogonov D.A. Triumph and Tragedy: A Political Portrait of I.V. Stalin: In 2 vols. M., 1989.

Voslensky M.S. Nomenclature. M., 1991.

Galas M.L. The defeat of the agrarian-economic opposition in the early 1930s: the case of the Central Committee of the Labor Peasant Party (based on the materials of the investigation) // Domestic History. 2002. No. 5. S. 89-112.

Golubev A.V. Russia, XX century ... // "National History", 1997, No. 5.

Gordon L.A., Klopov E.V. What it was: Reflections on the background and outcome of what happened to us in the 1930s and 1940s. M., 1989.

Zhyromskaya V.B. Demographic history of Russia in the 1930s. A look into the unknown. M., 2001.

Ivnitsky N.A. Collectivization and dispossession (early 1930s). M., 1994.

Ivnitsky N.A. The repressive policy of the Soviet government in the countryside (1928-1933). M., 2000.

Kulikova G.B. USSR 1920-1930s through the eyes of Western intellectuals // Patriotic history. 2001. No. 1. S. 4-24.

Latsis O.R. Get out of the box: Notes of an economist. M., 1991.

Medvedev R.A. About Stalin and Stalinism. M.: 1990.

Understand the cult of Stalin. M., 1989.

Osokina E. Behind the facade of "Stalin's abundance". Distribution and the market in the supply of the population during the years of industrialization, 1927-1941. M., 1998.

Political history of Russian emigration. 1920-1940 Documents and materials / Ed. A.F. Kiselev. M., 1999.

Rehabilitation: Political processes of the 1930-50s. M., 1991.

Romanovsky N.V. Stalin's people: a study for a collective portrait // Patriotic history. 2000. No. 4. S. 65-76.

Russian Abroad. Golden book of emigration. First third of the twentieth century. Encyclopedic biographical dictionary. M., 1997.

Simonov N.S. History of the military-industrial complex of the USSR. 1920 - 1950s. M., 1996.

Socio-economic adaptation of Russian emigrants (end of the 19th - 20th centuries). Sat.st. / Ed. Yu.A.Polyakova and G.Ya.Tarle. M., 1999.

Telitsyn V.L. Economic thought of the Russian emigration of the "first wave": centers, evolution, achievements (1920s - 30s) // In the book: Economic history of Russia in the 19th-20th centuries: a modern view / Ed. acad. V.A. Vinogradov. M., 2000.

The tragedy of the Soviet village: Collectivization and dispossession. Documents and materials. In 5 volumes / Comp. V. Danilov and others. M., 2001-2002.

Khlevnyuk 0.V. Politburo. Mechanisms of political power in the 1930s. M., 1996.

The economy of the Gulag and its role in the development of the country in the 1930s: Collection of documents. M., 1998.

Questions:

1. What are the main directions of the foreign policy of the USSR in the 30s? What was its contradictory nature?

2. What alternatives to the economic development of the Soviet Union existed at the end of the 20s? Who represented them in the leadership of the CPSU(b)? How can you explain the victory of the Stalinist alternative?

3. How was the process of preparing the first five-year plan? In what years was the first five-year plan carried out? What are its results?

4. What are the features of the country's economic development during the years of the second and third five-year plans? In what years were they carried out?

5. How did industrialization in the USSR fundamentally differ from the experience of Western countries in solving this problem?

6. What were the goals and methods of the "dekulakization" policy?

7. What are the causes and extent of the famine of 1932/33? in USSR?

8. What place did the Gulag system occupy in the economy of the USSR during the first five-year plans?

9. Were there objective prerequisites for the formation of a totalitarian regime in the USSR? Justify your answer.

10. What did the planned model of the economy mean, which was established in the USSR during the implementation of the pre-war five-year plans?

1) The course towards industrialization was adopted in the USSR in
a) 1921 b) 1925 c) 1928 d) 1935
2. The main sources of industrialization in the USSR
a) foreign loans and investments b) the enthusiasm of the Soviet people c) transfer of funds from the villaged) domestic loans
3) The course towards forced collectivization in the USSR was adopted in
a) 1924 b) 1929 c) 1931 d) 1933
4) The course for the accelerated development of the economy assumed
a) continuation of the new economic policy, but at a faster pace b) accelerated development of heavy industry c) strengthening the social orientation of the transformations, the priority development of light industry d) the creation of large farms in the countryside - state and collective e) the transition to predominantly administrative methods of managing the national economy;
5) The main reasons for forced collectivization
a) rapidly increase the production of bread in the country b) catch up with the United States in terms of agricultural development c) meet the country's increased demand for export grain for the needs of industrialization d) liquidate the kulaks as a class e) raise the welfare of the peasants;
6) Causes of the famine of 1932-1933.
a) excessive withdrawal of grain from the collective farms of grain regions during grain procurements in order to increase the export of grain abroad for the purchase of industrial equipment b) an unprecedented drought c) an increase in funds for the social needs of workersd) the destruction of the collective farm system
7) Purpose of Stalin's article "Dizzy with Success" (March 1930)
a) admit your own mistakes b) lay responsibility for the "excesses" of collectivization on local authorities c) to warn the peasants against hasty entry into the collective farmsd) a call for curtailing industrialization

8) Characteristic features of a totalitarian regime
a) freedom of speech, unions, assembly, etc. b) the dominance of the one-party system c) separation of powers (legislative, executive and judicial) d) the cult of the national leader e) mass repressions;
9) The goals of Stalin's repressions a) getting rid of foreign spies b) fight against political opponents c) obtaining in this way cheap labor for industrialization d) protection of society from criminal elements;
10) Characteristic features of the national policy of the USSR in the 1930s.
a) strengthening the unitary state b) expansion of the independence of the union republics c) deportation of a number of peoples d) a tendency towards Russification of the peoples of the USSR ("fight against nationalism");
11) The main foreign policy task of the USSR in 1933-39. a) the course for a world revolution b) strengthening Soviet influence in the Far East c) creation of a system of collective security in Europe;d) creation of an alliance with the leading powers of the West
12) The most important results of the pre-war five-year plans
a) the industrialization of the heavy and defense industries was carried out b) industrialization of agriculture was carried out c) a planned model of the economy was createdd) an all-Russian market has been created
13) In the 1930s. the Soviet leadership organized trials of "enemies of the people" in order to a) shift the responsibility for failures in the economy to "enemies" b) to strengthen the personal power of I.V. Stalin c) prevent civil war in the country
d) unleash the "great terror"
14) The establishment of a totalitarian regime in the USSR in the 1930s is connected with
a) a strategy of accelerated development (socialist mobilization model), which required a sharp increase in state intervention in the life of society, the widespread use of administrative and command levers of control b) the personal qualities of Stalin, striving to concentrate all power in his hands c) the need to strengthen Soviet power in the localities;d) fight against totalitarianism
15). What political system has been formed in the USSR since the late 1920s?a) Authoritarianismb) Military democracyc) totalitarianismd) Cult of personalitysixteen). Elements of the political system of the USSR in the 1930s. were (multiple answers possible):a) multi-party systemb) Cult of personalityc) Freedom of speech and press, pluralism of opinions

d) Massive repressions

17). According to the Soviet Constitution of 1936, the supreme governing body of the USSR became:

a) Soviets of Working People's Deputies

b) Communist Party

c) Special meeting of the NKVD

d) Supreme Council

eighteen). A kind of "reason" for the start of mass repressions was (o):

a) The rise of the Nazis to power in Germany in 1934.

b) Adoption of the Constitution of 1936

c) The murder in 1934 of S.M. Kirov

d) The conspiracy of the top military leadership led by Marshal Tukhachevsky in 1937

nineteen). Establish a correspondence between the term and definitions characteristic of the political system of the USSR in the 1930s

a) Terror 1) The circle of former associates of V.I. Lenin

b) Repression 2) The official ideology of the state

c) "Lenin's guard" 3) Policy of intimidation and subjugation

d) Marxism-Leninism 4) Measure of pressure against political opponents

Table "Characteristic features of Soviet society in the 1930s"

In the economic sphere

Scheme: The main features of a totalitarian society in the USSR

Totalitarianism

Constitution of "Victorious Socialism" 1936

Stalin's personality cult

Ideologization of public life. Marxism-Leninism

Trials of intra-party opposition

Mass repressions 3.8 million 1930-1940

One-party political system

Sources:
1. From the speech of N.I. Bukharin at the Plenum of the Central Committee and Central Control Commission of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks (April 18, 1929)
It seems to me that the comrades have a clear overestimation of the possibilities of influencing the bulk of the peasantry without market relations. I would formulate the matter in such a way that they are overestimating the possibility of direct influence on the small and smallest peasantry, that they are jumping into some further phase in the development of our economic relations.
1. What is the difference between Bukharin's approach to the country's economic development and Stalin's position on this issue (document 1)? Which other leaders of the so-called. "Right deviation" in the CPSU(b) Do you know? How was their fate?
2. On the economic situation and moods of the Trans-Ural peasantry (from a summary of unpublished letters to the Pravda newspaper, June 24, 1930)
One hundred million peasants have been disgraced - there is nowhere else to go. During grain procurements, they didn’t do anything: they spat in the eyes, pulled their beards ... You already had no one to rob, you attacked the working peasant. All the people have departed not from Soviet power, but from bad deeds.
…Socialism and communism were started early, when you set up the machines, then maybe everything will be as soon as possible. You write - to fix the collective farms, what is this word "fix"? Is this the time of Catherine the Great, who wrote that people should not move from landowner to landowner? ... You are doing all this with the intent to undermine Soviet power. We also warn you that we will fight another time, but not the way we fought.
…No manufacture, no sugar, no tea, no tobacco, well, in a word, nothing.
…We ask you to take power from an irresponsible element and give it to honest middle peasants, then Russia will be saved from the terrible disaster that is already overhead.
We are all partisans, long live the working peasant Soviet power, long live the free people.
… Dear editor... save Russia before it's too late, we don't have more patience.
Describe the policy of the authorities in the village and its consequences.
3. From the report of the former employee of the State Bank of the USSR P. Yanishevsky on the operations of the State Bank of the USSR with gold (January 1933)
From the first day of the existence of the so-called. Emission department of the State Bank, not a single member of the board of the State Bank, not to mention the simple heads of departments, was not allowed into the pantry on Neglinny, where gold and other precious metals and valuables lay. The first balance sheet of the State Bank and its issuing department, in the acts of which gold was listed for almost a billion gold rubles, was drawn up not on the basis of an act of inspection of metals and valuables, but on the basis of a simple note from the Politburo. The note was typed on a typewriter and had no signature, but was marked with a red letter "L", which then stood for "Lenin". As usual, this note was returned to the Politburo... All entries in the balance sheets of the State Bank and the emission department on the movement of gold were made according to the same Politburo notes. We, of course, guessed that the records were fictitious, but we were forced to remain silent. All directors, heads of departments and accountants were summoned to the Lubyanka, where they had to give a signature that they pledged to keep secret about the affairs of the State Bank, especially about the gold reserve, under pain of death.
After the death of Lenin, everything passed to Stalin ... Since 1924 ... began intensive shipments of gold abroad. Especially a lot went to Germany. It was always sent in the same order as under Lenin, i.e. by order of the Politburo. ... For three years - 1927, 1928 and 1929 - sent abroad for 390 million rubles. gold. Over the years, 90% of the gold was sent to the Reichsbank. Huge shipments of gold left almost every two weeks. Usually these operations were carried out at night so that the public would not see that Russian gold was being transported abroad ... Once (member of the board of the State Bank) Katsenelenbaum, who was checking settlements with the Reichsbank, told me: “It turns out that we are saving the German currency with our gold. What other state would pay in gold for cars and other products that everyone buys on a long-term loan. And those damned Germans are sucking all the gold out of us.”
…According to the books of the State Bank for 9 years, from 1923 to 1930-31, the Reichsbank received from us gold over one billion marks, British banks - 600 million marks, Scandinavian and American - 650 million marks. I believe that not only the entire gold reserve, but also a significant part of the gold production over the past 8 years, as well as gold seized from churches and from private individuals, has been sold abroad. But I am summing up only those transports that went abroad through the State Bank. But besides this, gold was sent directly to plenipotentiaries and other agents for various political and propaganda purposes. This cannot be taken into account...
How does the excerpt from the document characterize the financial policy of the USSR in the 1920s and early 1930s? Who controlled the country's gold reserves? What are the reasons for the increase in sending gold abroad since the mid-1920s?
4. From the petition of the department of the OGPU to the secretariat of the Chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee for permission to remove the gilding from the domes of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior (February 24, 1930)
Considering that at present leaving up to 20 poods of gold (1/2 million currency) on domes is an excessive luxury for the USSR, and the sale of gold will be a great contribution to the industrialization of the country, we ask you to urgently resolve the issue of the temple and domes.
What features of industrialization in the USSR are evidenced by an excerpt from the document? What are the main sources of funds for the industrialization of the country.
5. From the Constitution of the USSR of 1936
Article 3. All power in the USSR belongs to the working people of town and country, represented by the Soviets of Working People's Deputies.
Article 118 Citizens of the USSR have the right to work, that is, the right to receive guaranteed work with payment for their labor in accordance with its quantity and quality.
Article 119 Citizens of the USSR have the right to rest.
Article 120 Citizens of the USSR have the right to material security in old age, as well as in case of illness and disability.
This right is ensured by the extensive development of social insurance for workers and employees at the expense of the state, free medical care for workers, and the provision of a wide network of resorts for use by workers.
Article 121 Citizens of the USSR have the right to education. This right is ensured by compulsory primary education, free education, including higher education, a system of state scholarships for the overwhelming majority of students in higher education, education in schools in their native language, organization of free production, technical and agronomic education at factories, state farms, machine and tractor stations and collective farms. training of workers.
Article 123 Equality of rights for citizens of the USSR, regardless of their nationality and race, in all areas of economic, state, cultural and socio-political life is an immutable law.
Article 124. In order to ensure freedom of conscience for citizens, the church in the USSR is separated from the state and the school from the church. Freedom of worship and freedom of anti-religious propaganda is recognized for all citizens.
Article 125 In accordance with the interests of the working people and in order to strengthen the socialist system, the citizens of the USSR are guaranteed by law: a) freedom of speech, b) freedom of the press, c) freedom of assembly and rallies, d) freedom of street processions and demonstrations.
In the literature, the Constitution of the USSR of 1936 is assessed differently: 1) it was the most democratic constitution in the world at that time, since it was the first to provide for material guarantees of the socio-economic rights of citizens; 2) democratic in form, this constitution was an inactive Basic Law, had a declarative character, etc. Analyze document 5 and state your position on this issue. Motivating your position, answer the questions: What, according to the Constitution of 1936, was the political basis of the USSR? Who held all the power in the country and what rights were guaranteed to Soviet citizens? How effective was the mechanism for exercising these rights?
6. From the platform of the "Union of Marxist-Leninists" (M.N. Ryutin, 1932)
…(Union) is part of the CPSU(b) ... will only most consistently and resolutely express and defend these interests. He does not oppose himself to the party, but only opposes Stalin and his clique.
…(We offer) in the field of internal party relations:
1. Liquidation of the dictatorship of Stalin and his clique;
2. The appointment of new elections of party organs on the basis of genuine inner-party democracy ...
3. Resolute and immediate return of the Party on all questions to the soil of Leninist principles.
In the state area:
1. Immediate new elections of the Soviets and decisive real elimination of appointments;
2. Change of judicial apparatus. The introduction of strict revolutionary legality;
3. A change and a decisive purge of the GPU apparatus.
In the field of industrialization:
1. An immediate cessation of the anti-Leninist methods of industrialization and the game of Leninism by robbing the working class and peasants in the countryside, through direct and indirect, overt and disguised taxes and fines. Carrying out industrialization on the basis of a real and steady increase in the well-being of the masses;
2. Bringing investments in capital construction into line with the general condition of all available resources of the country.
What circumstances led to the creation of document 6? Describe the tasks of the Union of Marxist-Leninists. What was the fate of this organization and its leader? Are you aware of any other facts of opposition to the Stalinist regime in the 1930s?

The political system of the USSR in the 1930s. establishment of a totalitarian regime.

By the end of the 1930s. In the USSR, a totalitarian regime developed, which had a number of common features with similar regimes in other countries. At the head of the totalitarian regime is the sole leader of the charismatic type, who makes all the most important decisions. In the 1930s Stalin's cult of personality was finally established in the USSR. A huge bureaucratic apparatus was formed, which closely merged with the party elite, forming an administrative-command control system with a strict vertical hierarchy of power penetrating all spheres of life. The approval of the system of Soviets meant the weakness of representative power, the concentration of management functions in executive committees, and the absence of an independent judiciary. In the economy, totalitarianism meant the nationalization of property, the centralization of management, and equal distribution. The absence of market relations dictated the need for the daily intervention of the party and state apparatus in solving economic issues. The state needed obedient executors, so leveling psychology was encouraged. The democratic rights and freedoms proclaimed by the Constitution of the USSR turned out to be hardly feasible in real life. The general literacy and qualifications of the workers were still low. There was an alienation of people from property and real power. Gradually, a totalitarian type of personality was developed, fitting into the general picture of unanimity, submission to the instructions given from above. In such circumstances, it was impossible to talk about the rule of law and civil society. The psychology of the people of Soviet society was distinguished by such paradoxical features as, in many respects, a sincere desire for new achievements, pathos and enthusiasm (the Stakhanov movement, shock work at construction sites, etc.) and at the same time fear, a misunderstanding of the meaning of dispossession, political repression. The practice of ethnic relations also did not correspond to the principles of federalism, independence, and sovereignty proclaimed by the Constitution.

The end of the Civil War put practical tasks on the order of the day

building a new society. Rigidly formulated principles, ready

The ruling party had no recipes for such construction. Intra-party

the struggle over these problems has acquired a permanent character since 1921.

The factions and groupings that arose in the party represented a kind of

a surrogate for a multi-party system. They acquired their leaders, political

whose ambitions played far from the last role in the intensity of passions.

Gradually, the internal party struggle turned into a struggle for power in the party.

and the state, and in the second half of the 1920s - early 1930s became

threaten the interests of national security.

The split in the ruling party initially touched its top and partly

middle-level party apparatchiks, but it was also felt in the organs

state security. Already the discussion of 1923 showed that unity among

there were no OGPU employees. As of December 1923, out of 546 people,

registered in the OGPU party cell, the Central Committee line was supported by 367

communists, 129 - hesitated, 40 supported the opposition.

the chairman of the OGPU F.E. Dzerzhinsky, who, with a pencil in his hands, personally

tracked the political positions of each employee of the central office

OGPU

He was very concerned about the unity of the party and saw the main danger

not in the current discussion. In a letter to the head of the PUR, V.A. Antonov-Ovseenko

Dzerzhinsky, in particular, pointed out that the desire to keep the dictatorship

proletariat "... demands from the party the greatest ideological unity and

fight Trotsky." A year and a half later, when the "new opposition" arose,

he again repeated the same idea in a letter to I.V. Stalin and G.K. Ordzhonikidze.

At the same time, Dzerzhinsky emphasized that the leaders of the "new opposition" L.B. Kamenev

and G.E. Zinoviev "forgot that the party had to debunk Trotsky

solely because, having attacked Zinoviev, Kamenev and other members of the Central Committee

our party, raised his hand against the unity of the party ... ". Not long before his

death, he wrote to V. V. Kuibyshev that the inner-party struggle led to

loss of the correct line in the management of the country and the economy, slowdown

socialist construction and argued that the growth of the opposition would lead to

the emergence of a "dictator - the funeral director of the revolution."

F.E. Dzerzhinsky opposed the transformation of state security agencies into a tool

internal party struggle. However, after his death, the situation began to change. V

In 1926-1927, there was already an open struggle for power and a united left

the opposition used every means to seize power. By this time

the personnel composition of the leadership of the central office and authorized

representative offices of the OGPU in the field. Opposition supporters were transferred to

economic work in other departments, or were completely out of work. WITH

on the one hand, the OGPU continued to be part of the state apparatus,

providing a solution to security problems, on the other hand, it was

"armed detachment of the communist party", which Stalin considered

as a kind of "order of swordsmen within the Soviet state." This

duality in many ways began to affect the forms and methods of combating

opposition.

The leaders of the OGPU V.R. Menzhinsky, G.G. Yagoda, M.A. Trilisser not

enjoyed such authority in party circles as F.E. Dzerzhinsky, but

played an important role in ensuring the Soviet statehood. They

were invited to almost all meetings of the Politburo, took part in

the work of plenums and congresses, were members of the highest legislative bodies

authorities.

The fight against the opposition was concentrated in the Secret Operational Directorate,

and then to the SPO OGPU. According to established practice, the state security agencies do not

could conduct intelligence and operational development and repress party members

without party approval. The fight against the opposition was the prerogative

Central Control Commission and local control commissions. From 1927

1999, it became mandatory to include in the composition of the presidiums of commissions

senior officials of the OGPU. Questions in the central office of the OGPU

the fight against the opposition was supervised by Deputy Chairman G. G. Yagoda.

In 1927, the inner-party struggle reached its apogee. public time

discussions have passed. At a meeting of the Presidium of the Central Control Commission, the old party member A.A. Salts

stated that "the OGPU may have to arrest the oppositionists headed by

Trotsky". L.D. Trotsky and his followers immediately started talking about a "new

Thermidor. " Prominent Trotskyist N.I. Muralov in a private conversation threw the phrase,

that "with such a heat of struggle, one can reach a shootout," and his interlocutor

declared to the OGPU and the Central Control Commission that the opposition was turning to terror.

members of the illegal organization Shcherbakov and Tverskoy were arrested. During

during the search, copying equipment and printed publications were confiscated from them, with

platform of the united left opposition. During the interrogation, Tverskoy testified

about the existence among the opposition of a group of military conspirators

(Mrachkovsky, Gerdovsky, Okhotnikov), allegedly engaged in the preparation

on the preparation of a military coup in the USSR in the near future. These materials

The Central Control Commission was attached to the case of an illegal printing house. Secretariat of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks

gave permission for the OGPU to carry out searches of communists associated with

a special letter on the connections of the oppositionists who printed the pre-Congress

platform in an underground printing house, with counter-revolutionary conspirators. V

response to these actions opposition leaders Zinoviev, Smilga and Peterson

turned to the Central Committee with an official request regarding the identity

accepted by the leadership of the OGPU. Present at the conversation G.G. Yagoda said,

that the "Wrangel officer" is their employee and "helped the OGPU more than once

reveal the White Guard conspiracies." However, he refused to give his last name because

conspiratorial considerations. The Presidium of the Central Control Commission reprimanded the employee

of the central apparatus of the OGPU M. I. Gay for giving false testimony about the underground

Trotskyist printing houses.

During the celebration of the 10th anniversary of October, opposition leaders tried to

make speeches to the columns of demonstrators in Moscow and Leningrad and

organize their columns, however, through the efforts of the members of the party apparatus, the OGPU,

militia and cadets of military schools were isolated, and their supporters

overclocked.

During 1928, measures were taken against the opposition not only

party, but also strict administrative influence. They were excluded from

parties, were relieved of their posts in the state and economic

apparatus, followed by arrests, imprisonment in political isolators and deportations.

All this was supported by a powerful propaganda campaign. Exactly then

there was a mechanism for combating dissent in the ruling party, which

lasted with minor modifications until the 1980s, and

the development of dissent has become one of the tasks of the state security agencies. V

Directive of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks "On Measures to Combat the Opposition" stated that this

secret organization "is rooted in the bowels of the CPSU (b) and the Komsomol and is still

has been using their apparatus ever since, trying to destroy them from within.” As well as

ideological and organizational measures in the document determined

the following tasks of the state security organs: “The GPU is obliged about all participants

underground organizations of the Trotskyist and Sapronov opposition to bring to

information from local party organizations. Arrests and exile must be

reduced to a minimum."

In the periodical press, the idea of ​​rebirth is increasingly being carried out.

communist opposition into an anti-Soviet underground party.

The "theoretical justification" came from I. V. Stalin. In December 1928

in the article “Sinked” he wrote: “During 1928, the Trotskyists completed

its transformation from an underground anti-Party group into an underground

anti-Soviet organization. This is something new that made during 1928

years, Soviet authorities to take repressive measures to

attitude towards the leaders of this underground anti-Soviet organization.

Of course, the transition to illegal methods of activity, the seizure of premises,

calls for strikes, appeals to workers, demonstrations by the opposition

undermined the Soviet statehood.

It should be noted that the leaders of the Russian emigration closely followed

behind the processes of internal party struggle in the USSR and relied on deepening

internal party crisis as a harbinger of the fall of the Soviet regime. In that

meaning the use of repressive measures against the opposition was in the interests of

strengthening state security.

Simultaneously, there were complex processes of transformation of the security agencies into

instrument of the regime of Stalin's personal power in the party and state. The process was

complex and straightforward, as sometimes portrayed in the literature. It is known

that the refusal to use emergency measures in the summer of 1928 in many respects

was determined by the position of Yagoda and Trilisser, who refused to support Stalin

and his supporters. Through complex political maneuvering, Stalin

managed not only to strengthen its position, but also to completely subjugate

state security apparatus. With regard to the management team,

the usual proven practice of unexpected movement on

economic and Soviet work. Decree of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks dated 6

August 1931 were removed from their posts by S.A. Messing, A. I. Belsky,

Ya. K. Olsky, E. G. Evdokimov. In March-April 1933, on demand

Politburo of the Central Committee collegium of the OGPU was forced to exclude from the composition

republican, regional and regional collegiums 23 members and dismiss 58

senior officials of the regional and regional departments of the OGPU on charges of

conciliatory attitude towards the opposition.

At the same time, undercover development of "Opponents" of persons belonging to

to the so-called right deviation. Particular attention was paid to the environment

N.I. Bukharin, A.I. Rykova, M.P. Tomsky, former leaders of the Moscow

party organization. Relevant instructions were given to the heads of regional

secret political departments of the OGPU.

Active undercover development of L.D. Trotsky and his entourage

I.A. Akulov sent to the Presidium of the CEC a submission on the deprivation of 36 emigrants

citizenship of the USSR with an appendix for each short certificate of

"counter-revolutionary" activities abroad, compiled on the basis of undercover

operational data by the head of the INO OGPU S.A. Messing. For example, in the help

about “Son” it was reported: “Sedov Lev Lvovich, son of Trotsky, in August 1928

him. Actively conducts illegal counter-revolutionary work against the USSR. By

Trotsky moved to Berlin, where he organized an illegal security

item for Trotskyists. Established contact with the Mensheviks, whom he supplies

information about the USSR.

Opposition leaders who remained in the USSR were also the targets of special

agent-operational developments. So the operation "in-laws" was aimed at

L.D. lighting Kamenev and G. E. Zinoviev. All ordinary oppositionists after

exclusions from the party were actively developed by regional bodies

state security. During the party purge of 1929-1930, all materials on

those expelled were transferred to the OGPU, and during the purge of 1933-1935

State security officials were already part of the

central and local commissions for the cleaning and exchange of party documents. V

in turn, they passed compromising materials on party members to

party bodies. Since 1932, on all organs expelled from the party

security forces started special forms and belonging to the opposition

regarded as a crime against Soviet statehood.

Definitions of “counter-revolutionary Trotskyist activity” appear,

"anti-Soviet Trotskyist activity".

Oppositionists were actively dealt with by operational officers of the 1st department

Secret political department under the leadership of A.F. Rutkovsky,

curatorship was carried out by G.A. Molchanov and Ya.S. Agranov. Directions

regarding the development of the opposition, they were given by the staff of the secretariat

General Secretary first L.3. Mekhlis, and then A.N. Poskrebyshev. During preparation

XVII Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, employees of the GUGB were included in the organizational and

mandate commissions, and during the congress - its working bodies; they were in

the composition of each of the thirteen subcommittees for counting votes for elections

the governing bodies of the party. Strict control was established over the former

leaders of the left and right opposition. G.E. Zinoviev, L.B. Kameneva, A.I.

Rykova, N.I. Bukharin, M.P. Tomsky was accompanied everywhere by employees of the SPO,

Special department, KRO.

Since 1934, I. V. Stalin personally supervised the activities of the NKVD. With him

invariably agreed on all issues of changing the structure of organs

state security, staffing and displacement, were determined

"the armed detachment of the party" turned into the leader's personal guard.

After the murder of S.M. Kirov struggle against dissent in the party was reduced to

physical destruction of former oppositionists. All actions and statements

political opponents were henceforth attributed the character of an organized

anti-Soviet speech. The beginning was laid by a closed letter of the Central Committee “Lessons

events connected with the villainous murder of comrade. Kirov, prepared

resolution "On the Zinovievites", which authorized the expulsion from

Leningrad 663 people.

The version about the transition of the opposition to terror was most fully stated

Secretary of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks and Chairman of the Party Control Commission N.I.

Yezhov in the pamphlet "From factionalism to open counter-revolution". Her draft

Deputy People's Commissar of Internal Affairs G. E. Prokofiev signed the directive

local bodies of the NKVD, instructing "immediately begin to eliminate

all cases on Trotskyists and Zinovievites, not limited to the seizure of an asset,

directing the investigation to the opening of underground counter-revolutionary formations,

all organizational ties between the Trotskyists and Zinovievites and the opening

terrorist groups." By April 1936, 506 people had been arrested. V

the same month, People's Commissar for Internal Affairs G.G. Yagoda sent to all heads of the UNKVD

operational directive, which stated: “The main task of our

bodies today is the immediate identification and complete defeat to the end

all Trotskyist forces, their organizational centers and connections, the identification,

exposure and repression of all double-dealing Trotskyists. In August

held an open trial of the first group of former

oppositionists, the first blood was shed.

There are two types of development: innovative and mobilization. Innovative development is carried out when a society for its progressive movement has all the necessary resources: financial, temporary, intellectual, foreign policy, human. In this case, the changes occur relatively smoothly, painlessly.

The mobilization type, on the other hand, arises as a way of development in conditions of a shortage of resources necessary for transformations, a lack of maturity of internal factors. The tasks facing society are formulated by the political elite, the authorities. The contradiction between the tasks of the country and the ability of the population to implement them is resolved through the use of coercive and coercive measures by the state. Various modifications of these two types of development are inherent in all states that have striven and are striving to fit into the modern world around them. Transformations in our country were carried out along the mobilization path.

For the period 1929-1939. account for the completion of the formation of the mobilization political system in the USSR.

Its main elements arose in 1917-1920 and underwent some changes in the 1920s. and acquired finished forms by the end of the 1930s.

The system included: the communist party as the leading political force in society; Soviets led by the Party, called upon to exercise the dictatorship of the proletariat; mass public organizations (trade unions, Komsomol, etc.), which were considered as instruments of party influence on the non-party masses; law enforcement agencies; the state apparatus for centralized management of economic life; party and state structures of agitation and propaganda, striving to make the communist worldview not only dominant, but also the only one.

The political system of the new society was initially formed as a mobilization one: it was built to wage a revolutionary war against internal and external class enemies.

It was a system based on a holistic worldview.

By the end of the 1920s. In the USSR, a one-party political system was finally established.

Throughout the 1920s. there was a tightening of discipline, restriction of inner-party freedom.

In the middle - second half of the 1920s. the party experienced a serious ideological crisis and split.

The main and fundamental, determining the entire economic policy of the Soviet government, was recognized as "every possible increase in the country's productive forces." A nationwide plan is being introduced that makes it possible to manage the entire national economy as a single whole: "by the economic task" directed from the center, the state organizes "the entire economic activity of the country."

In the field of agriculture, the main course was to carry out "a whole series of measures aimed at organizing large-scale socialist agriculture," including the establishment of partnerships for joint cultivation of the land, communes "for conducting a large-scale common economy."

In the late 1920s the international environment was assessed as predominantly hostile, and the situation was unstable, fraught with the threat of an attack on the USSR. Even then, the internal self-perception of Soviet Russia as a besieged fortress was being formed.

By the end of the 1920s. the overcoming of the crisis of supreme power in the party and the state, which acquired acute forms in 1922-1927, is being completed.

The formation of the mobilization political system was based on setting the task of large-scale modernization of the country with the awareness of the limited resources available: the impossibility of obtaining large-scale loans, the absence of colonies and other territories for robbery, as was the case in the West.

The factor of historical time deficit acquired an important independent significance: everyone was sure that the peaceful respite would be short-lived and its future depended on how successfully the USSR could use it.

The departure from the “economic bond” between town and countryside posed another fundamental question for the authorities: about the motives for labor activity, about how to force people to work in conditions of lack of funds and underdevelopment of the production of goods and services for mass consumption.

In the absence of economic incentives, stakes were placed on the enthusiasm and creative impulse, above all, of the young builders of the new society. However, it was clear that enthusiasm alone would not be enough and would not do without administrative pressure, even repression or the threat of its use.

By 1929, the transition from unstable “multi-leaderism” (many leaders contesting power from each other) to “mono-leadership” was completed, which was distinguished by greater power certainty, which facilitated the centralized management of the party and the country.

Simultaneously with the assertion of the power of one leader, there is the assertion of a mono-ideology - a single and obligatory system of views for all citizens (party and non-party) on what has happened and is happening in the country and beyond its borders.

In the 1930s the previously outlined changes in the political system are completed, the type of device, which is called "party - state", is finally formed.

It was normal and logical to transfer responsible workers from party work to Soviet, economic, trade union work and vice versa - depending on the emerging tasks and current needs.

In the late 1920s - 1930s. there is a formation of a planned-directive economy. Its creation was based on the idea that under socialism economic life is determined not by the elements of the market, but by the ability and readiness of the proletarian state to consciously determine economic priorities.

As a result, a rigid vertical of economic management developed in the USSR. Strategic planning was carried out by all-union party and state structures.

The nature of the Soviet economy and methods of managing it were greatly influenced by the need for a large-scale modernization of the USSR Armed Forces, which went in parallel with the reconstruction of the entire economy and drew on significant resources.

The strengthening of centralization in the management of the economy and politics was reflected in the reform of the administrative-territorial division of the country. In 1929, the three-tier system "oblast (krai) - district - district" was recognized as ineffective. In order to bring the central party apparatus closer to the local party organizations and the Soviets, it was decided to liquidate the district link. The transition to the two-tier system "region - district" increased the role of the district apparatus and contributed to the transformation of districts into strongholds of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b).

Large-scale technical and economic changes in the USSR were impossible without solving the most important social problem - a large-scale increase in the level of culture of the entire population. In a country where by the end of the 1920s. there were many millions of illiterate and semi-literate masses, there was an insignificantly thin layer of specialists, intellectuals, the solution of this problem required the inclusion of mobilization mechanisms.

From the first years of the existence of the state, Soviet leaders demonstrated a special attitude towards science. Given the shortage of scientific personnel, on the one hand, and the enormity of the tasks of reconstruction, on the other, the correct use of the existing scientific potential was especially important. In this area, the mobilization mechanism was used effectively. Achievements in science (primarily in natural science and technology) were associated with a new system of its organization.

The formation of planned and directive management of the economy was accompanied by the formation of a system of labor incentives that corresponded to it, which qualitatively differed from a market economy.

Fear was not the only stimulus to work. The successes of the first five-year plans are inseparable from the sincere enthusiasm of the working class, the intelligentsia, without which it is impossible to understand the peculiarities of the late 1920s and 1930s. At the heart of this enthusiasm was the preserved romantic idea of ​​a revolutionary transformation of society based on the principles of universal equality and justice, which was first implemented in our country.

A huge role in mobilizing the masses to fulfill the tasks of the first five-year plans was assigned to ideological tools - agitation and propaganda, social sciences and art.

As a result of the rapid "offensive of socialism along the entire front" by the mid-1930s. In the USSR there were huge economic, social and political changes. The multistructural nature of the economy and the remnants of the exploiting classes were eliminated; the peasantry was socially transformed, a new intelligentsia and a new ruling stratum were formed.

However, the "triumph of democracy" coexisted with the mass repressions of 1935-1938, which were associated with the peculiarities of the political culture of the party-state elite of the 1917-1930s.

At the heart of the tightening of pressure on entire groups of the population in the mid-1930s. lay the idea of ​​the Bolshevik leaders about the admissibility of preventive (preemptive, intimidating, designed to paralyze the will to resist) repression. Preventive repression was seen as a means of suppressing not only individuals, but also entire social groups whose interests were alien to the principles of Soviet power and which could actively oppose it.

There are three stages of repressive policy.

At the first, which covers the period of the revolution and the Civil War, revolutionary terror was directed against the "class enemies": former bourgeois, landowners, officers, bourgeois intelligentsia, clergy, Cossacks and members of their families. This took the form of "red terror" - executions of hostages, moving to special camps.

The second turn of the repressive spiral falls on the late 1920s - early 1930s. The objects of preventive repression were not only former "class enemies", but also those who openly did not accept or doubted the correctness of the course towards forced industrialization and collectivization. Passive loyalty was no longer enough: active participation in the implementation of audacious plans was required.

The third stage of the policy of preventive repression begins in the mid-1930s. Its features are connected with the fact that now, under the rink of “political expediency”, members of the CPSU (b) have been added to the former groups, especially with pre-revolutionary experience, who disagree with the course being pursued and are personally dissatisfied with Stalin.

In the course of the repressions, a change in the ruling stratum took place: a layer of Bolsheviks with pre-revolutionary experience and those who had come forward during the years of the revolution and the Civil War were removed from public life.

The main thing was that the development of mobilization required not independent "leaders-politicians", but "leaders-creators" who did not doubt the correctness of the supreme power and were ready to fulfill all its decisions.

The beginning of the repressions in the summer of 1937 was largely due to the “expediency” for the authorities of the destruction and isolation in the Gulag of a significant mass of the population that had suffered from the regime in the recent past, but received the right to vote in the upcoming elections under the new Constitution. Therefore, the “quotas” for repressions initiated by the “places” (republics, territories and regions) most concerned about the outcome of the vote were increased by 3-5 times, and the total number of those repressed before the elections reached almost 770 thousand people.

The role that was assigned to coercion in the course of the forced construction of socialism predetermined the special position of law enforcement and repressive agencies in the political system of the Soviet state (VChK, OGPU, NKVD, courts and prosecutors).

In the 1930s the Soviet people managed to accomplish a genuine historical feat. The country has made a powerful breakthrough in development, its socio-economic and cultural appearance has changed qualitatively, and its place in the world has changed. Enormous results were achieved with incredible efforts, a high human price was paid for them.

The solution of grandiose tasks was ensured by the state-political system, which was of a mobilization nature. Built on a rigidly centralized basis, in the spirit of wartime, it managed to ensure the concentration of available resources in the main areas. Combining coercion and moral incentives, using fear and enthusiasm, the created vertical of control as a whole solved the tasks that faced the country in the late 1920s.

The unleashing of a new world armed conflict in the second half of the 1930s. led not to "loosening the screws", but to their forced "tightening". The ensuing struggle against Nazi Germany and the beginning of the "cold war" extended the life of those methods of state-political management that had developed by the end of the 1930s for more than a decade and a half.

Levandovsky A. A., Shchetinov Yu. A., Mironenko S. V. History of Russia. XX - beginning of the XXI century, § 21, 22.

Chubaryan A. O., Danilov A. A., Pivovar E. I. et al. History of Russia in the XX - early XXI century, § 16.

Aleksashkina L. N., Danilov A. A., Kosulina L. G. Russia and the world in the XX - early XXI century, § 29, 30.