Information process theory(TIP) - a set of statistical methods designed (or used) to analyze information processes (IP) occurring in technical, economic, social, biological, ecological and other systems.

Basic information processes: formation, transformation, collection, storage, processing, distribution, use of information, etc. Each information process is characterized by target function implemented by specific technical means.

Each objective function can be associated with information model described by mathematical expressions, conventions, or symbols ( informational-objective function mathematical model).

Computer science- the field of science and technology, which studies information processes and methods of their automation by means of computer technology. Informatics as a science forms the methodological foundations for building an information model of an object. The creation of such a model (for the organization of purposeful activity in technical, biological, economic, social and other systems) is carried out on the basis of the implementation of information processes.

Information Technology, in a broad sense, is the development of algorithms, programs and their application on a computer for the purpose of analyzing and synthesizing complex systems (technical, informational, biological, economic, social, etc.).

Thus, the relationship between the concepts of "information processes", "informatics" and "information technology" can be expressed as follows:

According to the definition adopted by UNESCO, information Technology- is a complex of interrelated scientific, technological, engineering disciplines that study methods of effective organization of the work of people involved in the processing and storage of information; computing technology and methods of organizing and interacting with people and production equipment, their practical applications, as well as related social, economic and cultural problems.

The main goal of IT- as a result of targeted actions to process the primary information, obtain the information necessary for the user in order to analyze it, and based on it, make a decision on the implementation of any action. The general IT structure can be divided into a sequence of basic procedures:

- Collection new and search for information accumulated in various sources about the state of the studied or used objects, processes and phenomena.

- Broadcast information from the place of collection to the place of processing or use with preservation of information in the presence of interference.

- Adaptation new data to existing models, complex information processing, conducting computational experiments, developing decisions and scenarios for optimal behavior, decision-making.

- Perfection mathematical models, expansion of knowledge bases, expert systems.

- Creation technical and technological means (workstations, information storages, means for displaying models and information, means for editing information, information and analytical centers, communication systems, etc.).

- Planning the optimal information processing system in order to improve the control of information reliability, clarification of options for previously made decisions.

- Analysis practical results of using the informatization system, control of efficiency, forecasting of activities, diagnostics of the operation of subsystems.

Information system(IS) is an organizationally ordered interconnected set of means and methods of IT used to store, process and issue information in order to achieve a set goal. Such an understanding of the information system assumes the use of computers and communication facilities as the main technical means of processing information, implementing information processes and issuing information necessary in the process of making decisions on problems from any field, for the fullest satisfaction of information requests of a large number of users.

Implementation of IS functions is impossible without knowledge of IT oriented towards it. IT can exist outside of the realm of IP as well. Thus, IT is a more capacious concept that reflects the modern understanding of the processes of information transformation in the information society.

Depending on the specific field of application, ICs can vary greatly in their functions, architecture, and implementation. It is possible to highlight the main properties that are common to all ISs:

The structure of the IS, its functional purpose must correspond to the set goals.

Production of reliable, reliable, timely and systematized information based on the use of databases, expert systems and knowledge bases. Since any IS is designed to collect, store and process information, then any IS is based on an environment for storing and accessing data. The environment should provide a level of storage reliability and access efficiency that is appropriate for the scope of the IS.

IP should be controlled by people, understood and used in accordance with the basic principles implemented in the form of an enterprise IP standard. The IP user interface should be easy to understand at an intuitive level.

Use of data transmission networks.

ICs are addressed by the following main goals:

- Search, processing and storage of information, which accumulates for a long time and the loss of which is irreparable. Computerized ICs are designed to process information faster and more reliably, so that people do not waste time, to avoid inherent random errors, to save costs, to make people's lives more comfortable.

- Storing data of different structures... There is no developed IS working with one homogeneous data file. Moreover, it is a reasonable requirement for an information system to be able to evolve. New functions may appear that require additional data with a new structure. In this case, all previously accumulated information should remain saved.

- Analysis and forecasting of information flows of various types and types moving in society... The streams are studied in order to minimize them, standardize them and adapt them for efficient processing on computers, as well as the features of information streams flowing through various channels of information dissemination.

- Research of ways of presenting and storing information, the creation of special languages ​​for the formal description of information of various nature, the development of special methods for compressing and coding information, annotating voluminous documents and abstracting them. Within the framework of this direction, work is being developed to create large-volume data banks that store information from various fields of knowledge in a form accessible to computers.

- Construction of procedures and technical means for their implementation, with the help of which it is possible to automate the process of extracting information from documents that are not intended for computers, but focused on their perception by a person.

- Creation of information-search engines capable of accepting queries to information stores formulated in a natural language, as well as special query languages ​​for systems of this type.

- Creation of networks for storage, processing and transmission of information, which include information data banks, terminals, processing centers and communication facilities.

The specific tasks to be solved by the information system depend on the application area for which the system is intended.

Trends in the development of modern IT lead to a constant increase in the complexity of IP created in various fields. Modern large IP projects are characterized, as a rule, by several features:

- Complexity of description- the presence of a sufficiently large number of functions, processes, data elements and complex relationships between them, requiring careful modeling and analysis of data and processes.

- The presence of a set of closely interacting components (subsystems) that have their own local tasks and goals of functioning (for example, traditional applications related to transaction processing and solving routine tasks, and analytical processing (decision support) applications that use ad hoc requests to large data volumes).

- Lack of direct analogs limiting the use of any typical design solutions and application systems.

Necessary integration existing and newly developed applications.

- Functioning in a heterogeneous environment across multiple hardware platforms.

- Disunity and heterogeneity separate groups of developers by skill level and established traditions of using certain tools.

- Significant time span of the project, caused, on the one hand, by the limited capabilities of the development team, and, on the other hand, by the scale of the customer's organization and the varying degree of readiness of its individual departments to implement IS.

Similar information.

| Planning lessons for the academic year (according to the textbook of N. D. Ugrinovich) | Information processes in various systems

Lesson 2
Information processes in various systems

§ 1.1. Information in nature, society and technology

1.1.3. Human: information and information processes

About 40 thousand years ago, in the process of the evolution of living nature, a reasonable man (Latin homo sapiens) appeared. A person exists in the "sea" of information, he constantly receives information from the world around him with the help of his senses, stores it in his memory, analyzes it with the help of thinking and exchanges information with other people.

Ways of perceiving information. The expedient behavior of a person, like that of animals, is based on the analysis of information signals that he receives with the help of his senses. The nerve endings of the sensory organs (receptors) perceive the effect (for example, on the fundus of the cones and rods react to the effect of light rays) and transmit it along the nervous system to the brain.

The methods of perceiving information by living organisms depend on the presence of certain sense organs in them. A person can use different ways of perceiving information using different senses:

. vision- with the help of the eyes, information is perceived in the form of visual images;
. hearing- with the help of ears and hearing organs, sounds are perceived (speech, music, noise, etc.);
. smell- smells are perceived with the help of special receptors in the nose;
. taste- the receptors of the tongue allow you to distinguish between sweet, salty, sour and bitter;
. touch- skin receptors (especially fingertips) provide information about the temperature of objects and the type of their surface (smooth, rough, etc.);
. orientation in space- gravitational receptors provide information about the position of the body in space.

The largest amount of information (about 90%) a person receives through sight, about 9% through hearing and only 1% through other senses (smell, touch, taste and orientation in space).

A person stores the information received in the form of visual, auditory and other images in memory, processes it with the help of thinking and uses it to control his behavior and achieve his goals. For example, when crossing a road, a person sees traffic signals and moving cars, analyzes the information received and chooses a safe crossing option.

Information in the form of messages. A person cannot live outside of society. In the process of communicating with other people, a person transmits and receives information in the form of messages. At the dawn of human history, sign language was used to convey information, then oral speech appeared. Currently, the exchange of messages between people is carried out using hundreds of natural languages ​​(Russian, English, etc.).

In order for the information to be understandable, the language must be known to all people involved in communication. The more languages ​​you know, the wider your circle of communication. Comprehensibility is one of the properties of information.

According to the biblical legend of the Babylonian pandemonium, the tower under construction in the ancient city of Babylon was not completed and collapsed, as hundreds of builders suddenly spoke in different languages ​​and ceased to understand each other (Fig. 1.5).

Rice. 1.5. Tower of Babel. Painting by Bruegel the Elder

Information in the form of knowledge. From the very beginning of human history, the need arose to accumulate information for its transmission in time from generation to generation and transmission in space over long distances. The process of accumulating information began with the invention in the 4th millennium BC of writing and the first carriers of information (Sumerian clay tablets and ancient Egyptian papyri).

In order for a person to be able to navigate correctly in the world around him, the information must be complete and accurate. Completeness and accuracy are two more properties of information. The task of obtaining complete and accurate information about nature, society and technology is facing science. The process of systematic scientific cognition of the surrounding world, in which information is considered as knowledge, began in the middle of the 15th century after the invention of printing.

For long-term storage of knowledge (transmission from generation to generation) and their dissemination in society (replication), information carriers are needed. The material nature of information carriers can be different.

Up to now, paper is used as the main carrier of information. In the last century, photographic and cinematographic films were widely used for storing graphic information. At present, magnetic media, flash memory and optical media (CD and DVD) are also widely used to store information (Fig. 1.6).

Rice. 1.6. First printed book and modern optical disc

Mass media. The term "mass media" is widely known - mass media (newspapers, radio, television), which bring information to every member of society. Such information must be accurate, current and useful. These are properties of information that are important for the media. Inaccurate information misleads members of society and can cause social upheaval. The irrelevant information has no application at the present moment in time, and therefore no one, except historians, reads last year's newspapers. Useless information creates information noise that makes it difficult to perceive useful information.

Control questions

1. What methods and organs of sense does a person use when perceiving information?

2. What should be the properties of the information presented in the form of messages?

3. What should be the properties of information presented in the form of knowledge?

4. What should be the properties of the information disseminated by the mass media?

What is the system

Systemology is the science of systems. Our world is filled with a variety of different objects. We often use the concepts of "simple object", "complex object". A complex object consists of many simple ones. And the more “details” it contains, the more complex the subject. For example, a brick is a simple object, but a building made of bricks is a complex object. Or again: a bolt, a wheel, a steering wheel and other parts of a car are simple objects, and the car itself, assembled from these parts, is a complex device. A system is a complex object consisting of interconnected parts (elements) and existing as a whole. Any system has a specific purpose (function, goal).

Consider a bunch of bricks and a house built with those bricks. No matter how many bricks there are in the heap, it cannot be called a system, because there is no unity in it, no expediency. A residential building has a very specific purpose - you can live in it. In the laying of a house, bricks are interconnected in a certain way, in accordance with the design. Of course, in the construction of a house, besides bricks, there are many other parts (boards, beams, windows, etc.), all of them are connected in the right way and form a single whole - the house.

Here's another example: lots of parts and assembled from them. The bicycle is a system. Its purpose is to be a vehicle for humans.

The first main property of the system is expediency. This is the purpose of the system, the main function that it performs.

System structure

Any system is determined not only by the composition of its parts, but also by the order and method of combining these parts into a single whole. All parts (elements) of the system are in certain relationships or connections with each other. Here we come to the next most important concept of systemology - the concept of structure.

Structure is the order of connections between the elements of a system. Structure is the internal organization of the system. From the same bricks and other details, besides a residential building, you can build a garage, a fence, a tower. All these structures are built from the same elements, but have a different design in accordance with the purpose of the structure. Applying the language of systemology, we can say that they differ in structure.

How many of you have not been fond of children's designers: construction, electrical, radio engineering and others? All children's construction sets are arranged according to the same principle: there are many typical parts from which various products can be assembled. These products differ in the order of joining the parts, that is, in the structure.

From all that has been said, we can conclude that every system has a certain elemental composition and structure. The properties of the system depend on both. Even with the same composition, systems with different structures have different properties and can have different purposes.

The second main property of the system is integrity. Violation of the elemental composition or structure leads to a partial or complete loss of the appropriateness of the system. You have had and still have to meet with the dependence of the properties of various systems on their structure in different school disciplines. For example, graphite and diamond are known to be composed of molecules of the same chemical, carbon. But in diamond, carbon molecules form a crystalline structure, while in graphite, the structure is completely different - layered. As a result, diamond is the hardest substance in nature, and graphite is soft, and pencil leads are made from it.

An example from physics: all radio systems consist of the same parts (resistors, capacitors, transistors, transformers, etc.), but different radio devices have a different structure.

Consider an example of a social system. Various associations (collectives) of people are called social systems: a family, a production collective, a school collective, a brigade, a military unit, etc. Links in such systems are relations between people, for example, relations of subordination. Many such connections form the structure of the social system.

Here's a simple example. There are two construction crews of seven people each. The first brigade has one foreman, two his deputies and two workers subordinate to each deputy. The second brigade has one foreman and six workers who report directly to the foreman.

The figures show schematically the structure of subordination in these two teams:

Thus, these two teams are an example of two production (social) systems with the same composition (7 people each), but with a different structure of subordination.

The difference in the structure will inevitably affect the efficiency of the work of the teams, their productivity. With a small number of people, the second structure turns out to be more effective. But if there are 20 or 30 people in the brigade, then it is difficult for one foreman to manage the work of such a team. In this case, it is reasonable to introduce the positions of deputies, that is, to use the first subordination structure.

The essence of the system effect: every system has new qualities that are not inherent in its constituent parts.

The same property is expressed by the phrase: the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. For example, individual parts of a bicycle: frame, handlebars, wheels, pedals, seat do not have the ability to ride. But these details were connected in a certain way, creating a system called "bicycle", which acquired a new quality - the ability to ride, that is, the ability to serve as a vehicle. The same can be shown with the example of an airplane: no part of an airplane in isolation has the ability to fly; but the aircraft (system) assembled from them is a flying device. Another example: the social system is a construction team. One worker with one specialty (bricklayer, welder, carpenter, crane operator, etc.) cannot build a multi-storey building, but the whole team together cope with this work.

About systems and subsystems

As another example of a system, consider an object that you often deal with in computer science lessons - a personal computer (PC). In fig. 2.1 shows a diagram of the composition and structure of the PC.

The most superficial description of a PC is as follows: it is a system, the elements of which are the system unit, keyboard, monitor, printer, mouse. Can they be called simple elements? Of course not. Each of these parts is also a system consisting of many interconnected elements. For example, you know from the basic computer science course that the system unit includes: a central processor, random access memory, hard drives and floppy disks, CD-ROMs, controllers of external devices, etc. In turn, each of these devices is complex. system. For example, the central processor consists of an arithmetic logic unit, a control unit, and registers. So you can go on and on, delving deeper and deeper into the details of the computer device.

A system that is part of some other, larger system is called a subsystem.

From this definition it follows that the system unit is a subsystem of a personal computer, and the processor is a subsystem of the system unit.

Is it possible to say that some simple part of a computer, for example a nut, is not a system? It all depends on the point of view. In a computer device, a nut is a simple part, since it cannot be disassembled into smaller parts. But from the point of view of the structure of the substance from which the nut is made, this is not the case. Metal is made up of molecules that form a crystal structure, molecules are made of atoms, and atoms are made up of a nucleus and electrons. The deeper science penetrates into matter, the more it becomes convinced that there are no absolutely simple objects. Even the particles of the atom, which are called elementary, such as electrons, also turned out to be difficult.

Any real object is infinitely complex. The description of its composition and structure is always of a model nature, that is, it is approximate. The level of detail of such a description depends on its purpose. One and the same part of the system in some cases can be considered as its simple element, in other cases - as a subsystem that has its own composition and structure.

Systems in science and systems approach

The main meaning of a scientist's research work is most often the search for a system in the subject of his research.

The task of any science is to find systemic patterns in those objects and processes that it studies.

Let's remember where in school subjects you encountered the concept of a system. In the 16th century, Nicolaus Copernicus described the structure of the solar system: the earth and other planets revolve around the sun; they are connected into a single whole by the forces of attraction.

Systematization of knowledge is very important for biology. In the 18th century, the Swedish scientist Karl Linnaeus wrote a book called Systems of Nature. He made the first successful attempt to classify all known species of animals and plants, and most importantly, he showed the relationship, that is, the dependence of some species on others. All living nature appeared as a single large system. But it, in turn, consists of a system of plants, a system of animals, that is, subsystems. And among animals there are birds, beasts, insects, etc. All these are also systems.

The Russian scientist Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky created the doctrine of Fr. By he understood a system that includes the entire plant and animal world of the Earth, mankind, as well as their habitat: the atmosphere, the surface of the Earth, the world ocean, the subsoil developed by man (all this is called the active shell of the Earth). All subsystems of the biosphere are interconnected and dependent on each other. Vernadsky, on the other hand, owns the idea of ​​the dependence of the state of the biosphere on cosmic processes, in other words, the biosphere is a subsystem of larger, cosmic systems.

If a person wants to be a good specialist in his field, he must necessarily have a systematic thinking, to show a systematic approach to any work.

The essence of the systematic approach: it is necessary to take into account all the essential systemic connections of the object with which you work.

A very "sensitive" example for all of us of the need for a systematic approach is the work of a doctor. Having undertaken to treat some disease, some organ, the doctor should not forget about the relationship of this organ with the entire human body, so that it does not work out, as the saying goes, “we treat one thing, cripple the other”. The human body is a very complex system, therefore, great knowledge and caution are required from the doctor.

Another example is ecology. The word "ecology" comes from the Greek words "ekoe" - "house" and "logos" - "teaching". This science teaches people to treat their environment as their own home. The most important task of ecology today has become the protection of nature from the destructive consequences of human activity (use of natural resources, emissions of industrial waste, etc.). Over time, people increasingly interfere with natural processes. Some interventions are harmless, but there are some that can lead to disaster. Ecology uses the concept of "ecological system". This is a person with the "fruits" of his activities (cities, transport, factories, etc.) and natural nature. Ideally, a dynamic balance should exist in this system, that is, the destruction that a person inevitably produces in nature should have time to be compensated for by natural processes or by the person himself. For example, people, cars, factories burn oxygen, and plants emit it. For equilibrium, it is necessary that oxygen is released no less than it is burned. And if the balance is disturbed, then in the end there will be a catastrophe on the scale of the Earth.

In the 20th century, an ecological catastrophe occurred with the Aral Sea in Central Asia. People thoughtlessly took water from the Amu Darya and Syrdarya rivers feeding it for irrigation of fields. The amount of evaporated water exceeded the inflow, and the sea began to dry up. Now it has practically died and life on its former shores has become impossible for either people or animals and plants. Here's an example of the lack of a systematic approach. The activity of such "nature transformers" is very dangerous. Recently, the concept of "environmental literacy" has appeared. By interfering with nature, one cannot be a narrow specialist: only an oilman, only a chemist, etc.

Studying or transforming nature, one must see it as a system and make efforts not to disturb its equilibrium.

Information processes in natural and artificial systems

You know from the basic course:

There are three main types of information processes: information storage, information transfer,. A person stores information in his own memory and on external media: paper, computer disks, etc. The process of transferring information proceeds from a source to a receiver through information channels. The process is associated with obtaining new information, changing the form or structure of existing information, searching for data in the information array.

Natural and artificial systems

Let us return to the question of the connections that exist between the elements of the systems. When it's a house or a car, everything is clear. Bricks are bonded with cement mortar, machine parts - bolted, welded, riveted. And what is the connection between the systems of animals, plants, or, say, the education system? To understand this, let's divide all kinds of systems into two types.

There are natural systems, or natural, that is, created by nature, and artificial systems - created by man. Natural systems: space systems - galaxies, systems of stars and planets, such as our solar system; systems of animals and plants; molecular and atomic systems.

Artificial systems are created by people. If you think carefully, you can recall many of these systems that we encounter in everyday life - these are the urban transport system, the telephone system, the trade system, the education system, the health system, the water supply system, the country's defense system, the state energy system, etc. e. Human society itself is also a system of interconnected individuals that form various subsystems: families, labor collectives, parties, nations, races, etc.

Material connections in natural and artificial systems

Let us discuss the nature of connections in natural systems. First, these are physical forces that, for example, keep the planets near the Sun in their orbits, carbon molecules in a diamond crystal; these are energetic processes, such as photosynthesis, which converts solar energy into the energy of plant life. Thanks to genetic links, animal and plant species are preserved and continued. These connections are contained in a certain structure of DNA molecules that make up the cells of the body. We can talk about climatic connections - they unite the system of flora and fauna in a certain part of the planet. All of these types of connections can be called material.

Now about artificial systems. There are many material systems created by man: all equipment (cars, airplanes, machine tools, computers, etc.), building structures (houses, bridges, cities, dams, canals); artificial materials (alloys, plastics). Connections in such systems, as in natural ones, are material in nature. Earlier we talked about building structures, about machines. Let us also imagine, for example, an energy system: stations, transformers, power lines, electrical appliances; all this is connected to one another and works in concert.

Information links in natural and artificial systems

However, in living nature, there are systemic connections that can in no way be attributed to material ones. For example, a flock of cranes flying in a wedge to the south. What keeps them in this formation? The cranes see the leader of the flock and follow him in a specific order. In addition, the cranes give each other voice signals. This is an example of a connection that can be called informational. Similar examples can be cited from the life of animals, fish and even insects.

In the systems of living nature, there are both material and informational connections.

Above we talked about material artificial systems. Another type of artificial systems is social (social) systems, that is, various associations of people. Of course, there are also certain material connections between them (for example, a common room, economic dependence, kinship-genetic ties), but informational connections are very important for social systems. Not a single collective, from family to state, can exist without information exchange.

There are also connections between people based on certain agreements, for example, the constitution of the state, legislation, the charter of an organization. In addition, there are connections determined by human ethics - rules of conduct that are not written down in laws: national traditions, family traditions, rules of decency, etc. People know these laws and rules and obey them, And since any knowledge is information, then such connections can also be called informational.

For the functioning of social systems, information links are of paramount importance.

Information processes in systems

What are the informational links? It would seem that the answer is obvious: in the exchange of information, in the transfer of information from one element of the system to another. But can it be argued that two other types of information processes - storage and processing of information - are optional for such systems?

The transfer of information is impossible without its storage: from somewhere the information must be taken when sending and placed somewhere when received. Let's take, for example, the social system that is closest to you - the education system. The main type of connection between the two types of its elements - teachers and students - is the process of transferring knowledge from teachers to students. But the information that teachers pass on to students is stored in textbooks, in, in the teacher's memory. Pupils, on the other hand, keep the knowledge gained in their memory and in notebooks.

In the learning process, information is constantly being processed by both the teacher and the students. When explaining the educational material, the teacher transforms it, presenting it to students in different forms: in text, graphic, tabular, on models. Students, in turn, answer questions, solve problems, and this is information processing.

Consider other elements of the education system: the ministry and educational institutions. These are elements of the education management subsystem. It also transfers information (orders, plans, reports, regulatory documents), storage of information (stores documentation, various statistical data), information processing (compilation of the same documentation, statistical information, etc.). Finally, consider technical information systems. These include telegraph and telephone systems, radio and television systems, computers and computer networks, and cellular communication systems. These are artificial systems created by people for the implementation of information processes: storage, processing and transmission of information.

In the basic computer science course, it was said that the computer was purposefully created by the inventors as a universal machine for storing, processing and transmitting information. Therefore, all three types of information processes in it are implemented by definition. But, for example, a mobile phone? Its main purpose is to receive and transmit information. Where is the storage and processing here? In fig. 2.2 schematically shows the process of sending and receiving SMS-co - communication through.

It can be seen from this diagram that during the operation of the system, information is stored, transmitted and processed. Similarly, you can describe the work of the other above-mentioned technical systems, in which all three types of information processes take place.

Control systems

You know from the basic computer science course that the study of control processes is the science of cybernetics. Cybernetics was initiated by the American scientist Norbert Wiener with his book Cybernetics, or Control and Communication in an Animal and a Machine, published in 1948.

Management is understood as a systematic impact on a certain object in order to achieve a certain result. From the point of view of cybernetics, the control process is considered as the functioning of a control system. This system consists of two subsystems: a control object and a control system. The cybernetic control model is shown in Fig. 2.3.

The control system can be a person (driver, orchestra conductor, teacher, director), a collective (government, parliament), and maybe a technical device (automatic regulator, computer). The object of control can be a technical device (car), one person (student, soldier) or a team (orchestra, employees of the enterprise).

The interaction that exists between these two subsystems in the control process is considered by cybernetics as an information connection. The direct communication line transfers control commands from the control system to the control object. Through the feedback line - information about the state of the control object, about its reaction to the control action, as well as about the state of the environment, which can also influence the control process. The diagram in Fig. 2.3 turns out to be universal for all types of systems, both artificial and natural, where control takes place.

All components of the control system are present in the organisms of animals and humans. The brain is the control system, the organs of movement are the objects of control, the nervous system is the channels of information communication.

In control systems, information is transmitted, as well as its storage and processing. Both the control system and the control objects have to store and process information (the student, soldier, labor collective also store and process the information that comes to them in the control process).

The control process takes place according to the program stored in the memory of the control system. If the control system is capable of its own programming, then it can be called a self-controlled system. Elements of self-government are inherent in the representatives of the animal world. A person has the greatest ability for self-government.

Questions and tasks

What is a system? What is structure? Give examples of systems that have the same composition (the same elements), but different structures. What is the essence of the systemic effect? Give an example. What is a subsystem? What is the purpose of any science from a systems point of view? What is a systems approach? Give examples of situations where the lack of a systematic approach leads to disastrous consequences. Select subsystems in the following objects considered as systems: car; a computer; school; army; state. The removal of which elements from the above systems will lead to the loss of the system effect, i.e., to the impossibility of fulfilling their main purpose? What systems are called natural, artificial systems? Give examples. Give examples of material and informational connections in natural systems. Give examples of material and informational connections in social systems. What is a control system? What components does it consist of? What is a self-governing system? Give examples. Can a control system exist without a feedback line? What are the consequences of this? (Consider driving a car as an example.)

Provision of information - actions aimed at obtaining information by a certain circle of persons or transferring information to a certain circle of persons.

Dissemination of information - actions aimed at obtaining information by an indefinite number of persons or transferring information to an indefinite number of persons.

Each of the following stages of the information circulation process has its own objective laws. Studying them will allow you to competently organize the work of any information system.

1. In information sources, information is created.

In the field of creation (production) of information, there is an objective law of incomplete use of information, which is determined by both the property of redundancy of information and the inability of subjects to use it fully.

From a legal point of view, the creation of information is the generation of information products and resources in the process of creative, industrial and other socially useful activities of a person and citizen, legal entities, bodies and other subjects of the right to information.

Legal regulation is present here in the form of regulatory norms that contribute to the creation of organizational and economic prerequisites for the development and improvement of information production; in the form of guarantees of freedom of creativity, behavior, education, in the form of protection and protection of rights to objects of intellectual property, as well as in the form of prohibitions on the production of "harmful" information, the dissemination of which may harm the legitimate interests of other subjects of information relations.

Gathering information is the process of obtaining information from the outside world and bringing it to the form that is standard for a given information system. The necessary stages in the information collection system are its perception and transformation.

Perception of information is the process of converting information entering a social, technical system or living organism from the outside world into a form suitable for further use. Due to the perception of information, the system is connected with the external environment (which can be a person, an observed object, a phenomenon or a process, etc.). The perception of information is necessary for any information system, as long as it claims to be of some kind.

The processes of information perception are influenced by the following factors: the need for information is the individual's conscious need to obtain and use the information received in practice; interest in information is, first of all, the separation of any information from the stream functioning in a given society. Interest in information is characterized by such parameters as depth, breadth, specialization; sociocultural level of personality. This factor characterizes a person's possession of a certain amount of cultural values.

Modern information systems, created, as a rule, on the basis of a computer, as their component part, have a more or less (depending on the purpose of the system) a developed system of perception. The information perception system can be a rather complex set of software and hardware. Depending on the analyzers (included in the complex of technical means of the perception system), the perception of visual, acoustic and other types of information is organized.

Information transformation is the second stage of information collection, as a result of which information should be presented in a form suitable for its further use. The main forms of information presentation in the information system are analog and digital forms.

The analog form of information presentation is associated with such categories of media used in modern information systems as text, video and voice. One of the first ways that prehistoric people kept in touch was through sound. Sounds indicated emotions such as pleasure, anger and danger, as well as objects of the environment, including, for example, food, tools, and so on. Sounds assumed their meanings in accordance with some conventions by using them multiple times under similar circumstances. Combining parts of sound made it possible to represent more complex concepts, gradually leading to the emergence of speech and, ultimately, to spoken "natural" languages.

In the field of information collection, an objective law of information growth operates - the number of elements involved in the process of ensuring the growth of information in it, q is the coefficient of the level of communication organization in the system, i.e. communicativeness of its elements.

Indeed, any system can acquire information from the external environment. But each subject of the system should strive to receive information that is new for this system, different from that received by all its other subjects. The latter is possible if their actions are well coordinated, if they are informed about the achievements of all other actors. Information is acquired from the external environment in the process of material activity, during scientific and design developments, thanks to life experience, in the process of communication, during training, etc. Hence it follows that the largest number of elements (subjects or objects) should operate in information-intensive areas of activity.

The law of information growth is called the basic law of cybernetics, informatics and social systems.

As a result of the operation of this law in society from 1900 to 1950 the volume of information increased 8-10 times, until the 80s the volume of information doubled every 5-7 years; in the 1980s, doubling occurred every 20 months; in the 90s - annually. This phenomenon is called "information explosion".

The law of information growth predetermines a continuous objective process of increasing the amount of information in nature and society, which we observe in reality.

To search for information of interest in the entire array of circulating information, information must be organized. Consider the basic means of organizing information.

Cataloging and classification are proven tools, often grouped under the general heading "indexing", to provide the necessary level of organization of information. Both were in use as long as libraries existed, but their importance in the so-called information age increased significantly with the use of computers.

The purpose of a catalog is to identify all objects in a collection and to group similar items together. All large libraries of the ancient world were required to have lists and inventories on clay tablets, in stone, on papyrus, parchment, palm leaves, or on bamboo strips. Examples of this can be found in museums around the world.

Thesauri occupy a special place among catalogs. The new use of the term thesaurus, now widespread, dates back to the early 1950s in connection with the work of N.R. Luhn of IBM, who was looking for a computer process capable of generating a list of authorized terms for indexing scientific literature. The list was to include a structure for cross-referencing between concept families. The main thesaurus, and one of the earliest, is Thesaurofacet (1969), a highly detailed list of engineering terms developed by Gene Atchison for the English Electric Company. The thesaurus has proven to be very useful for both indexing and searching machine systems.

Thesauri contain subject headings organized in lists that help users find the appropriate heading for a topic (section) of interest, identify related terms used for narrower or broader topics. One of the functions of a managed vocabulary is to select from a large group of synonyms one term that best describes a topic.

The next stage is the transfer of information between various elements of the information system. Information transfer is carried out in various ways: by courier, mailing, delivery by vehicles, remote transmission via communication channels. Remote transmission via communication channels reduces the time of data transmission, but for its implementation, special technical means (fiber-optic networks, modems, faxes, etc.) are required. By automatically collecting information, these technical means can transfer it directly to the computer memory for further processing. It is on this that all modern electronic document management systems are built.

The message from the source to the receiver is transmitted in material and energy form - electrical, light, sound and other signals. A person perceives a message with the senses. Information receivers in technical systems are measuring and recording equipment.

The information channel combines biological, social, technical (radio, television) and psychological processes (perception of information, memorization, reproduction). Information channels are complex telecommunication systems and physical fields (electromagnetic, radio waves). And, of course, communication channels can introduce various kinds of distortions into the transmitted information. Accordingly, there is a need to develop transmission methods that reduce the distortion of information. This is the subject of one of the main theorems of the theory of information about the transmission of signals through communication channels in the presence of interference leading to distortion - Shannon's theorem. Let it be necessary to transmit a sequence of symbols that appear with certain probabilities, and there is a certain probability that the transmitted symbol will be distorted during the transmission. The simplest way to reliably restore the original information from the received one is to repeat each transmitted character a large number of times. However, this will lead to a decrease in the speed of information transfer, practically reducing it to zero. Shannon's theorem states: there exists a positive number, depending only on the indicated probabilities, that at a transmission rate less than or equal to this number, it is possible to restore the original sequence of symbols with a very low probability of error. At the same time, at a speed greater than this number, this is no longer possible.

The central stage in the process of information circulation in an information system is information processing. Depending on the general purpose of the system, at this stage, the collected information is systematized, search, logical or other analytical procedures are implemented. For example, statistical analysis of the collected data or automatic translation into another language of the entered texts is carried out.

The stage of storing information is necessary in the process of circulating information in an information system. Information to be widely disseminated requires repositories external to human memory; the accumulation of human experience, knowledge and learning would be impossible without such memory, making the appearance of writing absolutely necessary.

During the XX century, universal electromagnetic means have opened up new possibilities for recording primary analog information. Magnetic audio tape is used to capture speech and music, magnetic video recording provides a low-cost medium for recording analog voice and video signals directly and simultaneously.

Magnetic technology has other applications for direct recording of analog information, including alphanumeric information. Magnetic symbols, bar codes and special marks are printed on receipts, letterheads and forms for subsequent reading by magnetic or optical devices and converting them into digital form. Banks, educational institutions and retailers are moving completely to this technology. Nonetheless, paper and film continue to be the dominant means for direct storage of text and visual information in analog form.

The versatility of modern information systems is associated with their ability to present information electronically in the form of digital signals and to manipulate them automatically at an extremely high speed. Information is stored in a large number of binary (binary) devices, which are the basic components of digital technology. Since these devices are in only one of two states, information is presented in them either as the absence or as the presence of energy (electrical impulse). It is convenient to denote these two states of binary devices with binary digits - zero (0) and one (1).

In this way, the alphabetic characters of natural language writing can be represented numerically as combinations of zeros (no impulse) and ones (impulse present).

The creation of recording media and recording techniques made it possible for society to begin the formation of repositories of human knowledge. The idea of ​​collecting and organizing written records seems to originate in the Sumerians some 5,000 years ago; Egyptian writing appeared shortly thereafter. Early collections of Sumerian and Egyptian texts in cuneiform on clay tablets and hieroglyphs on papyri contain information regarding legal and economic transactions.

In these and other early collections of documents (for example, Chinese dating back to the Shang dynasty in the 2nd millennium BC, and Buddhist documents in India dating from the 5th century BC), it is difficult to separate the concept of an archive and a library.

From the Middle East, the concept of a collection of documents penetrated into the Greco-Roman world. Roman emperors institutionalized census collections as early as the 6th century BC. The large library in Alexandria, founded in the 3rd century BC, is known as the largest collection of papyri containing inventories, taxes and other payments to citizens, merchants and each other. It is, in short, the ancient equivalent of today's administrative information systems.

The academic brilliance of the Islamic world from the 8th to the 13th century can be largely attributed to the existence of public and private book libraries. So, Beit Al-Hikm ("House of Wisdom"), founded in 830. in Baghdad, contained a public library with a large collection of materials on a wide range of issues, and the library of the X century. Caliph Al-Hakam in Cordoya (Spain) has over 400,000 books.

The belated but rapid development of 16th century European libraries followed the invention of typesetting, which spurred the growth of the print and publishing industry. Since the beginning of the 17th century, literature has become the most important vehicle for the dissemination of knowledge. Primary literature is used to refer to background information in various print media: newspapers, monographs, conference proceedings, educational and business journals, reports, patents, newsletters and newsletters. The academic journal is a classic medium of scientific communication first appeared in 1665. Three hundred years later, the number of periodicals in the world was estimated at more than 60,000, reflecting not only the growth in the number of scientists and the expansion of knowledge due to specialization, but also the maturation of the incentive system. which encourages scientists to publish.

Within a short time, there was a rapid increase in the amount of printed information, which insured any individual from the complete absorption of even a tiny fraction of it. Techniques such as tables of contents, summaries, and indices of various types, which aid in identifying and locating relevant information in primary literature, have been used since the 16th century and led to the creation in the 19th century of what has been called "secondary literature." The purpose of the secondary literature is to "filter" primary information sources - usually in a specific field - and to provide pointers to this literature in the form of reviews, abstracts and indices. Over the past century, subject, national and international abstracting and indexing systems have been created that act as a gateway to several attributes of primary literature: authors, subject matter, publishers, publication dates (and languages), and citations. The professional activity associated with these easy access tools is called documentation.

Huge masses of printed materials make it impossible, as well as undesirable, for any institution to acquire and store even a small part of them. The management of recorded information has become a public policy issue, as many countries have established national libraries and archives to manage the organized collection and acquisition of documents. As these institutions alone are unable to keep up with the release of new documents and records, new forms of cooperative planning and sharing of recorded materials are evolving, namely public and private, national and regional library networks and consortia.

The advent of digital technology in the middle of the 20th century actively influenced the storage of information accumulated by mankind. Improvements in computer memory, data communication, computer sharing software, and automated text indexing and search techniques are fueling the development of computer databases. Electronic applications to bibliographic management in libraries and archives have led to the development of computerized catalogs and the consolidation of catalogs into library networks. They have also resulted in the introduction of comprehensive automation programs in these institutions.

The explosive development of communication systems after 1990, especially in the academic world, hastened the emergence of the "virtual library". Publicly oriented information is becoming a leading feature of development. Housed in thousands of databases distributed around the world, a growing portion of this vast resource is now available almost instantaneously via the Internet - a convergence of computer networks that connects global user communities. Web resources of electronic information include selected library catalogs, collected works of literature, some abstracting journals, full-text electronic journals, encyclopedias, scientific data from multiple disciplines, program archives, demographic directories, hundreds of thousands of bulletin board messages and e-mails.

As a rule, information systematized and stored in an information system is intended for a certain circle of users. Moreover, not only people, but also other information systems can act as users. Simultaneous provision of the same information to a wide range of users leads to the need for its replication. In the process of replication, identical copies of information are created, which at the next stage should be distributed to addressees. From a technical point of view, all copies are absolutely identical. However, in the process of solving legal problems, the problem of distinguishing between the original and copies of the document arises. Additional procedures are applied to protect the original document, for example, an electronic digital signature.

Dissemination of information is often associated with the need to overcome information barriers. Today in the scientific literature the following information barriers are distinguished: a large amount of information. The avalanche flow of information that has been observed in recent years does not allow a person to perceive it in full; technical barriers. For example, artificial interference that impedes the reliable reception of radio and television programs, i.e. distribution of radio, television and other technical signals in the frequency band in which broadcasting is carried out under license. Industrial interference (i.e., artificial interference arising from the operation of technical devices in the course of economic activity) can also be technical barriers; the barrier of ignorance (ignorance). The consumer does not know that the information he needs really exists; communication barrier. The consumer knows that the information he needs exists, but he is not able to get it. The reasons can be different: from lack of communication between specialists, institutions, countries to explicit or implicit reluctance to widely disseminate information, delay and concealment of information by ministries, departments and other organizations; interlingual and intralingual barriers. The information is available, but written in a language unfamiliar to the consumer. Information may not be perceived due to inconsistency in terminology and sign systems used by different disciplines.

In the field of information dissemination, there is an objective law of information redundancy. Positive redundancy of information aims to optimize the entire communication process. Positive redundancy is actively used in the learning process, when repeated repetitions of typical situations lead to better assimilation by the audience.

Positive redundancy is often used by the legislator as a method of increasing the efficiency of the perception of normative acts. Thus, many provisions of the Constitution of the Russian Federation are repeated in federal laws and the legislation of the constituent entities of the Federation.

Negative redundancy disrupts the normal flow of the information process. It represents a kind of "noise" or "interference". These are, for example, declarative norms and provisions that are not provided with an implementation mechanism. Without performing the functions of regulation and self-regulation, such laws are negatively redundant. A means of overcoming negative redundancy is a high level of preparation of regulatory legal acts.

Another objective law in force in the dissemination of information is the law of information distortion as it moves. This law is associated with the different ability and readiness of subjects to perceive it. That is why, in cases where the reliability and completeness of information is important, the question arises of fixing information on a tangible medium and observing certain requirements for the procedure and method of fixing. So, for example, in order for information to have probative value in the course of legal proceedings, it must be documented in compliance with strictly established procedural requirements.

By the method of distribution, direct and indirect distribution can be distinguished. With direct dissemination, the creator of an information product directly affects the consumer (communication itself, the transmission of ideas in the educational and educational environment: lectures, other collective activities, conferences, seminars, meetings, theatrical performances, cultural events). Legal regulation here provides for the establishment of prohibitions on the dissemination of confidential and "harmful" information, including false information and libel, and liability for this, as well as legal protection and protection of copyright and related rights.

In the case of indirect dissemination between the creator of information and the consumer, there is an intermediary - a means of fixing and transmitting information, the presence of which predetermines the mass character of such information relations. With the historical development of means and technologies for disseminating information, the mass character of information exchange and the importance of information in society grew, which predetermined a high degree of legal regulation here.

According to the Law on Information in the Russian Federation, the dissemination of information is carried out freely subject to the requirements established by the legislation of the Russian Federation.

Information disseminated without using the mass media must include reliable information about its owner or about another person disseminating information, in a form and in an amount sufficient to identify such a person.

When using for the dissemination of information means allowing to determine the recipients of information, including mail and electronic messages, the person disseminating the information is obliged to provide the recipient of information with the opportunity to refuse such information.

It is prohibited to disseminate information that is aimed at propaganda of war, incitement to national, racial or religious hatred and enmity, as well as other information, for the dissemination of which criminal or administrative liability is provided.

Golobov Artyom, Anisimov Nikita

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Information processes in systems The work was carried out by the 10th grade pupils of MBOU "Malobashchelakskaya secondary school" Batanina Yulia, Kudryavtseva Alexandra

What is a system Concept of a system Structure of a system System effect About systems and subsystems About a system in science and systems approach

System Concept Systemology is the science of systems. A system is a complex object consisting of interconnected parts and existing as a whole. Every system has a specific purpose. The first main property of the system is expediency.

System structure Structure is the order of connections between system elements. The second main property of the system is integrity. Violation of the elemental composition or structure leads to a partial or complete loss of the appropriateness of the system.

Systemic effect The essence of the systemic effect: every system has new qualities that are not inherent in its constituent parts.

About systems and subsystems A system that is part of some other, larger system is called a subsystem. Any real object is infinitely complex. The description of its composition and structure is always of a model nature, that is, it is approximate.

About the system in science and the systems approach The task of any science is to find systemic patterns in the objects and processes that it studies. The essence of the systematic approach: it is necessary to take into account all the essential systemic connections of the object with which you work. Studying or transforming nature, one must see it as a system and make efforts not to disturb its equilibrium.

Information processes in natural and artificial systems Natural and artificial systems Material connections in natural and artificial systems Information connections in natural and artificial systems Information processes in systems Control systems

Natural and artificial systems There are natural systems, or natural, i.e. created by nature, and artificial systems created by man. Natural systems: space systems, solar system, animal and plant systems, molecular and atomic systems. Artificial systems are created by people. Human society itself is also a system of interconnected individuals that form various subsystems: families, labor collectives, parties, nations, races, and others.

Material connections in natural and artificial systems The nature of connections in natural systems. Physical forces that keep the planets near the Sun in their orbits, carbon molecules in a diamond crystal; these are energy processes. All of these types of communication can be called material. Artificial systems. There are many material systems created by man: all equipment, building structures, artificial materials.

Informational connections in natural and artificial systems In living nature, there are systemic connections that can in no way be attributed to material ones. In the systems of living nature, there are both material and informational connections. Another type of artificial systems is social systems, that is, various associations of people. For public systems, information links are very important.

Information processes in systems Information communications consist of the exchange of information, and the transfer of information from one element of the system to another.

Control systems Control is understood as a systematic impact on a certain object in order to achieve a certain result. From the point of view of cybernetics, the control process is considered as the functioning of a control system. This system consists of two subsystems: a control object and a control system.

Storing information Using paper media Using magnetic media Using optical discs and flash memory

Use of paper media Media is a material medium used to record and store information. The media with the most widespread use is still paper. As for the durability of storage of documents, books and other paper products, it depends very much on the quality of the paper, the dyes used to write the text, and the storage conditions. In the early computers, paper was used to digitally represent input data. These were punched cards: cardboard cards with holes, storing the binary code of the information being entered.

Use of magnetic storage media The earliest magnetic storage media was steel wire up to 1 mm in diameter. Computer magnetic disks have been in use since the early 1960s. A computer winchester is a pack of magnetic disks fitted on a common axle. The most common type of 3.5-inch floppy disk can hold about 1.4 MB of data.

The use of optical discs and flash memory The use of optical, or laser, method of recording information began in the 1980s. Currently, optical discs are the most reliable physical media recorded digitally. Flash cards. The information volume of a flash card can be several gigabytes.

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Legal regulation in the information sphere Fulfilled by the pupils of the 10th grade MBOU "Malobashchelak secondary school" Nikita Anisimov, Artyom Golobov.

Law of the Russian Federation No. 3523-I "On the Legal Protection of Computer Programs and Databases" Gives a legally precise definition of the concepts related to authorship and distribution of computer programs and databases. It determines that copyright applies to the specified objects, which are the result of the creative activity of the author ... In this case, the author has the right to release programs and databases, their modification and use. But property rights can be transferred to another natural or legal person on a contractual basis.

Law of the Russian Federation No. 149-FZ "On Information, Information Technologies and Information Protection" Regulates relations arising from: exercising the right to search, receive, transfer and produce information; application of information technology; ensuring the protection of information. Restriction of access to information is established only by federal laws aimed at ensuring state security.

Law No. 152-OFZ "On Personal Data" Its purpose is to ensure the protection of human and civil rights and freedoms when processing his personal data, including the protection of the rights to privacy, personal and family secrets.

Section "Crimes in the field of computer information" It defined the punishment for some types of crimes that have become widespread: Illegal access to computer information Creation, use and distribution of malicious programs for computers Intentional violation of the rules of operation of computers and their networks This means that the state will not abuse information , entrusted to him by a citizen, because it is arranged in this way; that information is not stolen, not because punishment is provided for it, but because a person considers theft, in any of its manifestations, to be a low act that defames himself. It is to such a relationship between the state and the individual, as well as between individual members of society, that we should strive for.

Summing up the results Legal regulation in the information sphere is a new and difficult task for the state. In the Russian Federation, there are a number of laws in this area. Legal issues arising in the information sphere today are so complex and confusing that there is no harmonious legislation that solves all relevant problems in any country in the world.