Byzantine art in the Middle Ages. Byzantine architecture. Byzantine baths, Thessaloniki, Greece
Fine arts - mosaics, frescoes, iconography - this is the area in which Byzantine culture became famous first and foremost. The originality, integrity and harmony of artistic principles, the depth of images, semantic richness, the richest variety of forms and colors, the perfection of technology - the combination of these features makes Byzantine art one of the highest achievements of human culture. Byzantine masters preserved, on the one hand, the most complex technique of the fine arts of antiquity, and on the other hand, filled it with new symbolic content. In Byzantium, a whole aesthetic theory of the image and symbol was developed, and painting acquired a previously unheard-of significance: after all, it helped a person to comprehend God himself, to be saved.
The Byzantine style of painting was characterized by a combination of flat silhouettes with a smooth rhythm of lines, a noble range of colors with a predominance of purple, lilac, blue, olive green and gold tones. In the IV-VI centuries. Byzantine painting is still dominated by ancient traditions, which, in particular, is reflected in the floor mosaics of the Grand Imperial Palace in Constantinople. They depicted genre scenes from the life of the people in a realistic manner. In the future, a strict iconographic canon is formed. In the IX-X centuries. an integral system of decoration of the temple is taking shape: the arrangement of biblical scenes on its walls and vaults. One of its peaks of this time is the mosaics of the church of St. Sophia in Constantinople. In the XI-XII centuries. in Byzantine painting, the features of conventionality and stylization are increasingly manifested, images become more and more ascetic and abstract, colors become darker. Only at the end of the XIII - the middle of the XIV century. Byzantine is again experiencing another, the last period of prosperity - it was associated with the spread of humanistic tendencies in the culture of that time. Painters strive to go beyond the established canons of church art, to turn to the image of not an abstract, but a living person. Remarkable monuments of this time are the mosaics and frescoes of the monastery of Chora (now the Kahrie-Jami mosque) in Constantinople. However, attempts to free the human person from the fetters of dogmatic thinking in Byzantium were relatively timid and inconsistent. Byzantine art of the XIV-XV centuries. could not rise to the realism of the Italian Renaissance and was still clothed in the form of strictly canonized iconography, which was largely facilitated by the victory of the Hesychasts.
Significant contribution of Byzantium to the development of medieval architecture. Byzantine architects already in the V-VI centuries. move on to the creation of a new layout of cities, characteristic of all subsequent medieval architecture. In the center of cities of a new type, there is a main square with a cathedral, from where, intricately intertwining, the streets diverge. Since that time, multi-storey buildings with arcades appeared, and then fortified residences of the nobility and wealthy citizens were built. Church architecture reaches the highest development in Byzantium. Its most outstanding example is the church of St. Sophia in Constantinople, built in 532-537. by order of Justinian. The temple is crowned with a huge dome with a diameter of more than 30 m, as if floating in the sky. A complex system of gradually rising semi-domes adjoins the dome on both sides. The walls and numerous columns inside the temple were lined with multi-colored marble and decorated with wonderful mosaics. In the VI-X centuries. in Byzantium, a type of cross-domed church was formed, which became the basis of all subsequent Byzantine architecture.
After the Ottoman conquest, the Byzantine cultural heritage, albeit sometimes in a simplified form, was preserved by the Greek and other Balkan peoples. It was transmitted and accepted by the neighboring countries, connected with Byzantium by the unity of cultural tradition, countries, including Russia.
Interior design
In contrast to the ancient style, the Byzantine style of ancient buildings is perhaps too much showmanship and, at the same time, this style was considered deeply religious. Having created the Byzantine style, the ancient masters created a kind of artistic principle, in which unearthly, divine beauty predominates, overthrowing the beauty of the surrounding being.
In the way the Byzantines transferred almost all the decoration inside the building, one can see a tendency to withdraw into oneself, almost the eastern primacy of the inner life over the outer one. It was then that the first great experience of the meaningful use of decorative elements was obtained.
This system of structurally specified decoration is formed by four main components:
- mosaics or frescoes painted in tempera. The ancient masters preferred to insert mosaic elements into the vaults of arches, inside domes, and often used curved wall surfaces to apply mosaics;
- various marble facings, columns, carved capitals, carved or inlaid friezes, panels, etc.;
- architectural forms with their own plastic expressiveness, to which the first two moments are subordinate;
- carefully considered use of light as an active element in creating an overall decorative effect.
All four decorative elements are so closely intertwined that the analysis of each of them separately cannot give a general picture. The floors were covered with marble slabs that formed geometric patterns. The lower part of the interior walls was often faced with thin slabs of multicolored marble, sawn in such a way as to reveal the rich texture of the material. Rows of these slabs alternated with blocks of marble of a different color, flat or carved, so that everything together formed a single whole. Sometimes inset carved panels were used, on which linearly stylized ornaments were depicted in the technique of bas-relief, such as vines and peacocks. Marble-lined walls were separated from curvilinear or vaulted surfaces, usually along the vault-to-wall interface, with marble profiled belts, cornices or friezes - flat, stucco, carved or inlaid. These surfaces were reserved for the placement of mosaics, and in a later period, tempera replaced the mosaic.
Mosaics were assembled from small pieces of smalt - colored glass with chipped edges that enhanced the refraction of light. Gold and silver mosaic pebbles were made by fusing thin sheets of precious metal between two glasses. The sizes of the smalt pieces varied, and the surface of the image was specially made slightly uneven so that the light was reflected from different points at different angles.
Preparing the surface for the mosaic, the first layer of relatively coarse-grained plaster was applied to it, and the second, with finer grains, was applied over it. When the second layer dried up, a pattern was scratched over it, after which that part of the surface that was immediately supposed to be covered with a mosaic was covered with a layer of a special solution. Pieces of smalt were pressed into it, following the lines of the scratched drawing.
The background of the mosaic was usually filled with pieces of sparkling gold smalt, between which silver inserts were made here and there. In early mosaics, the background was sometimes green or blue. Figurative motifs (biblical scenes, saints, figures of emperors and their attendants, symbols, floral ornaments and borders) were placed in the middle, in the most spectacularly advantageous places.
The frescoes are emphatically symbolic. Images of people have lost the realism inherent in Roman fine art. Since the basis of the Byzantine style and culture was the Christian religion, it is not the physical beauty and attractiveness of the body that comes to the fore, but the beauty of the soul. Thus, in the image of a person, the emphasis is on the eyes as a “mirror of the soul”, while the flesh ceases to look realistic due to the fact that the masters deliberately avoided the use of pictorial elements to give it volume.
The most striking examples of this art are the mosaics of the mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna, the monasteries of St. Luke in Phocis (1st half of the 11th century), Daphne near Athens (11th century), Chorus in Constantinople (beginning of the 14th century), San Marco Cathedral in Venice (11th-15th centuries), as well as numerous fragments elsewhere.
Construction material
In the Byzantine Empire, the favorite building material was plinth, a large and flat burnt brick measuring about 35.5x35.5x5.1 cm.
In the eastern regions of the empire, rich in limestone and tuff quarries, mortared hewn stones were used (Syria, Transcaucasia). Lime was used in the solution, to which finely crushed brick was mixed - tartar to give the solution greater strength and hydraulic resistance. In the walls, the mortar was laid in horizontal layers a few centimeters thick. Sometimes mixed masonry was used: 3-5 rows of plinths laid on a thick layer of mortar alternated with several layers of hewn stone. The outer surface of the walls was usually not plastered. Quick-setting cement mortar allowed the construction of vaults and domes. To reinforce the structure or enhance the decorative effect, three or four rows of brickwork were often interspersed with a row of hewn stone or marble.
During the construction of domes, masonry was carried out in separate rings with inclined rows of bricks. Continuing the building traditions of the eastern regions of the empire and neighboring countries, the construction of Byzantine arches made of brick differs sharply from the construction of Roman arches built on wooden circles. To lighten the weight, porous stones, in particular pumice, were introduced into the masonry of the vaults. A solution of special viscosity made it possible, after laying a row, not to wait for the final setting and hardening, but to start laying the next one along it. As a result, the lateral thrust was significantly reduced, and after the completion of construction, the dome acquired the character of a monolith. Domes and vaults were covered with tiles or lead sheets.
In the eastern regions of the empire, where natural stone prevailed in the masonry, vaults and domes were erected in circles. Along with hewn, rubble stone in solution was used. Stretch rings made of oak beams or strip iron were laid in the domes.
Such architectural details as columns, capitals, inset panels, gratings, wall cladding, floors were made of different types of marble and porphyry. The capitals were covered with gilding. The bases were made of profiled white marble, which contrasted with the rich colors of the column trunks, which were covered with colored marble or porphyry (often red, blue or green tones). All vaults, as well as the upper part of the walls, as a rule, were covered with luxurious colored mosaics from valuable glass smalt cubes, carefully fixed in a layer of specially prepared mortar. The most important accessories of the temple are the altar throne, the iconostasis (altar barrier), pulpit (pulpit) and the baptismal font. They vary in richness of execution, but in most cases were made of plain, inlaid or carved marble. Sometimes the listed items were distinguished by special luxury, for example, in the Cathedral of St. Sophia in Constantinople, where one could see a gold tympanum adorned with precious stones and enamel over the altar or a sculpted silver iconostasis, which are reported by ancient sources.
architectural elements
Byzantine architects abandoned the classical orders, and in return they developed columnar supports, capitals, cornices, friezes and architectural profiles. Unlike classical examples, in Byzantine works the heels of raised arches were often placed directly on the capitals. To give this new practice form, the architects redesigned the Ionic and Corinthian capitals: in order to increase their constructiveness, they made them more compact and solid, cutting back on the size of the ledges and insets. In addition, between the fifth arch and the capital, they introduced an additional powerful trapezoidal block, designed to transfer the load from the wider arch to the thin capital and the column shaft. Combining this block and the capital into one functional form, the architects created the so-called. pillow-shaped capital (pulvan or pulvino), which was distinguished by great expressiveness and a variety of options.
Unlike Roman temples, the column here is not one of the main decorations of the entire room along with the frescoes, but only a modest addition to the main decorative elements - the walls and the dome, so richly decorated with frescoes, colored glass mosaics, bright tiles, marble, gold, silver that they take all the attention. Columns were used as auxiliary elements, for example, in arcades connecting support pillars. The combination of pillar, arch, vault and dome is a constructive feature of the "arched" style. The feet of the arches rested not directly on the capitals of the columns, but on intermediate elements laid on them - pillows, the so-called pulvans, similar to a cube with side faces beveled downwards, also decorated with ornaments.
A characteristic feature of the Byzantine style can also be considered windows, made, as a rule, in the form of a vertical high arch. The use of colored glass mosaics on such windows can also be attributed to one of the characteristic elements of the Byzantine style. Window openings are most often crowned with an arch (or arches) and equipped with bars or stone slabs with large holes. Doors were often made of bronze, decorated with overlaid reliefs, ornamental rosettes and borders, which gave them massiveness.
The result is an impression of power and strength, in contrast to the soaring lightness of the Gothic cathedral, whose flying buttresses and entire stained glass "walls" are so sharply different from the solid, impenetrable walls of Byzantine temples made of a combination of brick and stone (or completely stone - where there was plenty of building stone). ).
In the early stages of Byzantine architecture, there was little use of exterior decoration, and domes were usually erected low, merging with the volume of the building. Later, the dome was often mounted on a drum with windows around the perimeter, but the windows could also cut through the base of the dome itself. Later, higher temples were built, the vertical in them increased, more decorations appeared on the outside - patterned brickwork, marble cladding, deaf and through arcades, pilasters, groups of complex windows, niches, profiled belts and cornices. In later buildings, smaller in size, but excellent in the skill of plastic and rhythmic development of the project, protruding porticos and attached aisles are not uncommon.
The most important contribution of Byzantium to the history of world architecture is the development of domed compositions of temples, expressed in the emergence of new types of structures - a domed basilica, a centric church with a dome on eight pillars and a cross-domed system. The development of the first two types falls on the early Byzantine period. The cross-domed system of temples became widespread during the period of Middle Byzantine architecture. In resting the dome on a square base, an oriental technique was often used - tromps. Cross vaults, widely used in Byzantium, most often had a flattened shape, which appeared as a result of the abandonment of the elliptical outline of the diagonal ribs of the usual vault and the transition to a simpler semicircular outline, easily outlined with the help of a box. The next step in the evolution of the vault was the rejection of diagonal ribs and the transformation of the vaulted vault into a sail. This is a system for supporting the dome on four separate supports using a sail vault. Initially, the dome rested directly on the sails and girth arches; later, between the dome and the supporting structure, they began to arrange a cylindrical volume - a drum, in the walls of which openings were left to illuminate the under-dome space. The dome towered over the massive volume of the church itself, which ends on the east side with one or more apses crowned with semi-domes and has naves covered by vaults in one or two tiers on the sides.
This constructive system made it possible to free the interior of buildings from bulky walls and further expand the interior space. The same idea of the spatiality of the interior was served by the method of propping up the supporting arches with semi-domes, creating, together with the dome, a single space, sometimes reaching very large sizes. Mutual balancing of vaults is one of the outstanding achievements of Byzantine architecture. The use of spatial forms, which, due to their geometric structure, have rigidity and stability, made it possible to minimize the massiveness of supporting structures, rationally distribute building materials in them, and obtain significant savings in labor and material costs. Among the vaulted forms made of stone, it should be noted closed and cross vaults, as well as arches and vaults with lancet outline that appeared in Syria and Transcaucasia.
Building types
There are five main types of Byzantine churches.
basilica
In the era of early Christianity, the basilicas had a high central nave that could accommodate a significant number of parishioners. In the apse there was an altar and everything necessary for performing the liturgy. In the side naves - there were four in large basilicas - the flock gathered, there were relics, various ceremonies were performed, for example, the rite of baptism. The central nave, whose height exceeded the height of the side aisles, was illuminated by the upper windows. The walls were built of stone, and the floors were wooden. The naves were separated from each other by rows of columns. We entered the temple through the atrium and the narthex. This simple design became the basis of the temple architecture of Europe. In the early Christian era, the floor in the temple was decorated with patterns laid out of stones. The columns are most often of the Corinthian, sometimes Ionic, order. Temples were built mainly of stone, sometimes colored marble was used. The walls above the colonnade were painted, and the conch above the apse had frescoes or mosaics. In the construction of temples, columns from Roman temples were often used. Thus, the Roman style was included in the architecture of Christian basilicas. However, unlike the Roman-type basilicas, here the side aisles had a second tier (a gallery for women, or gynaikonit), and the apse became emphatically polygonal from the outside.
The grandiose temples of San Paulo Fuori le Mura (386 AD) and Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome, despite the rebuilding of subsequent eras, are examples of early Christian basilicas. The appearance of the more modest churches of Santa Maria in Cosmedin in Rome (772-795) or Sant'Apollinare in Classe (c. 500) in Ravenna did not change so radically. In the church of Santa Maria in Cosmedin, in the western part of the temple, there is a choir, an element that has gradually become an important part of the temple. Of great importance for the development of Byzantine architecture were the basilicas built in the eastern regions - in Syria, Asia Minor, Transcaucasia.
The basilica variety of the church appeared in Constantinople quite early, as evidenced by the descriptions of the original church on the site of the Cathedral of St. Sophia, and the church of St. John the Baptist, which was preserved in the Studion Monastery, the construction of which began in 463. It should be noted that in terms of design features, these are rather works of the early Christian Roman school, since this type was not used in the capital later than the 5th century.
In contrast to the region of Constantinople, in Greece itself the basilica type continued to be used for a long time - both in a simplified and in a more developed form, with the use of barrel vaults in the main and side naves and with small service rooms (sacristy and deaconry) on the sides of the apse. An example is the church of St. Philip in Athens (only the foundation has been preserved) and the church in Kalambaka (both 6th century, with wooden rafters as ceilings), St. Anargyra and St. Stephen in Kastoria (both 11th century, with barrel vaults) and the Cathedral of St. Sophia in Ohrid, Macedonia (founded in the 9th century, rebuilt around 1037-1050) with barrel vaults and three apses on the east side.
Simple centric type
The development of Byzantine centric buildings was also greatly influenced by the domed structures that had developed in these areas (the church in Esra in 515, the church "outside the walls" in Rusaph in Mesopotamia, 569-586). Of particular importance is the dome on four or eight pillars. One of the earliest examples of this type in Syria is the church in Bosra (513), in which the dome rested on four pillars. In the center was placed a font, an altar or a tomb. The Church of Sergius and Bacchus in Constantinople (527) is a centric composition on eight pillars, the basis of which is a highly developed domed space. The stepped structure and rich plasticity are formed mainly by structural elements: a dome, semicircular arches, diagonal exedras, abutments, arches on columns, etc. The church resembles the Minerva Medica and San Stefano Rotondo in Rome, as well as the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem (consecrated in 335). The Church of San Vitale in Ravenna (526-547), with its apse and seven exedras radiating from the center, played a significant role in the formation of the predominantly domed character of Byzantine architecture, although neither in it, nor in the church of St. Sergius and Bacchus did not use sails. In both churches, half-domes were used to compensate for the expansion of the main dome, which contributed to the subsequent widespread use of this constructive principle in the Cathedral of St. Sophia in Constantinople and in later buildings with a plan in the form of a quatrefoil (quadrifolia). According to Choisy, the octagonal church of St. Sergius and Bacchus influenced the type of monastic churches, examples of which are the church in the monastery of Daphne near Athens or in the monastery of St. Luke in Phocis, Greece (both 11th century). A centric layout with radial symmetry was used in many Christian churches; but preference is given to the basilica with its mirror symmetry.
cross dome type
Being a recognized Byzantine type, cross-domed churches, however, were not widely used. They are characterized by a clear cruciform plan formed by the nave and a wide transept crossing it. The crossroads and all four branches of the cross are crowned with domes, which rest on pillars standing in groups, between which the side aisles pass (the Cathedral of San Marco in Venice). So, in the Cathedral of San Marco in Venice (X-XI centuries) there are five domes on sails. In plan, the cathedral is an equal-ended Greek cross. Inside, the pre-altar barrier and mosaics have been preserved. In all likelihood, the interior of this Byzantine temple is the best preserved.
The interior and exterior of temples of this type are distinguished by a special plastic beauty. They can be easily expanded laterally and inwardly without losing their organic unity, so that in this sense they represent the only major departure from the Byzantine concept of the temple, which proceeds from a closed structure with a fixed volume. Since the back corners of the cross remain unfilled, the dome thrust is weakly balanced. There are references to a church of this type in Gaza (destroyed in 402). An example of a building of the same type was the famous church of St. Apostles in Constantinople, as it was expanded by Emperor Justinian in the 6th century. It served as a prototype for the rebuilding of the Cathedral of San Marco, which remains an outstanding example of a Byzantine cruciform domed church that has survived to this day. His influence is felt in a number of Romanesque churches, such as the cathedral in Périgueux (France).
Square dome type
Mainly used in small churches, this type was widespread. Its distinctive features: a cross inscribed in a square in plan and five domes, one above the middle cross and four at the opposite corners of the cross. Accordingly, in a completely different way than in the cross-domed church, vertically growing masses are placed and the effects of the symmetry of forms relative to the vertical and horizontal axes of the plan are shown. Undoubtedly, this scheme developed from the type of domed basilica.
The first known example of this type is the church of Nea in Constantinople. Other examples: the Church of Our Lady of the Deaconess (9th century) and St. Peter and Mark (9th century), both in Constantinople, a small church of the monastery of St. Luke in Phokis (11th century), the church of St. Fedor in Kostantinople (12th century) and a church in the town of Feredzhik in Macedonia (13th century). Among the many variants of this type, there are complex ones, with a three-lobed completion on the eastern side, as, for example, in several monastery churches on Athos (Vatoped, 11th century, and Hilandar, 13th century).
Type of domed basilica
Its main feature is the use of a dome to cover the middle part of the building (central-dome system). The dome was already known in pagan Rome, as well as in the East (for example, in Syria), but in most cases it was placed on a round base; if the base was square or multifaceted, then there was no proper organic connection between it and the dome. The Byzantines were the first to successfully solve the problem of placing a dome over the base of a square and generally quadrangular plan, namely by means of the so-called sails or pandantivs. The sail is a spherical triangle that fills the space between the arches connecting the pillars of the domed square. The bases of the sails in total form a circle and distribute the load of the dome along the perimeter of the arches.
Saint Sophie Cathedral
The Cathedral of St. Sophia (532-537) in Constantinople is the most outstanding creation of Byzantine architecture.
The cathedral was built by Justinian in 532-537. in memory of the suppression of the rebellion, during which this sovereign almost lost his throne. 10,000 workers daily worked on the cathedral. He invited well-known architects - Anthemius from Thrall and Isidore from Miletus - and entrusted them with the construction of the temple. Its laying took place on February 23, 533. The emperor, warmly taking the enterprise to heart, wished that the church being erected would surpass in size and luxury all the temples that had ever existed, and did not stop at any expenses for it: gold, silver, ivory and expensive types of stone were used to decorate it in a huge amount; columns and blocks of rare marble were brought from all over the Empire, going to its decoration. The unprecedented and unheard-of splendor of the temple amazed the people's imagination to such an extent that legends arose about the direct participation of heavenly forces in its construction. 20 years later, after the solemn consecration of St. Sophia, the earthquake damaged the creation of Anthemius and Isidore, especially the dome; the building was propped up with buttresses, from which it lost its former appearance, but the dome was folded again, and made it more elevated.
During the construction of the Cathedral of St. Sophia in Constantinople, the Byzantines were able to perfect the design with a predominance of arched elements. In terms of plan, the cathedral is elongated, forming three naves, bounded on one or both longitudinal sides by a row of columns or pillars separating it from neighboring naves: the middle one is wide, covered with a dome without a transept, the side ones are narrower and have a second tier for women. The temple, in which the size of the main nave grew significantly, created ideal conditions for worship. This is a basilica with a quadrangular cross, crowned with a dome. The giant domed system of the cathedral became a masterpiece of architectural thought of its time. The architects developed an original design, which gave them the opportunity to cover a very large space. The grandiose dome of Hagia Sophia with a diameter of 31.9 meters and 51 meters in height from the floor is connected to four pillars with the help of sails: arches are thrown between the pillars, on the tops of which the base of the dome rests, and in between the weight of the arch is taken over by the sails. The enormous pressure on the pillars is transmitted through arches to the side walls. The task of strengthening the dome from the eastern and western sides was solved with particular precision and strikingly effectively. Each of the semi-domes rests on three arches, behind which are two-storey semi-circular colonnades covered with domes. This whole consistent system, which made it possible to achieve the organic unity of the three naves and the dome, becomes visible only from the inside. And on the north and south sides, the domed space communicates with the side aisles with the help of arches supported by columns; under these arches it goes even along a tier of similar arches, which open into the dome space the galleries of the gynoecium arranged in the side aisles, and even higher - the huge arches supporting the dome are sealed with a straight wall with windows arranged in three rows. At the base of the dome, 40 arched windows are cut through which light streams. This diffuse lighting around the base gives the impression that the dome is floating in the air.
When the temple was turned into a mosque, the mosaics were destroyed, because. In Islam, there is a ban on images of people and animals. In 1935, layers of plaster covering them were removed from the frescoes and mosaics. Thus, at present, on the walls of the temple, one can see both images of Jesus Christ and the Mother of God, and quotes from the Koran on four large oval shields. The images in the vaulted room in the southwestern corner above the southern vestibule of the cathedral belong to the first period of the creation of mosaic decoration. The entrance wall was decorated with a deesis. 12 figures were placed on the vault, of which only the prophet Ezekiel, the first martyr Stephen and the emperor Constantine have survived and can be identified. In the lunettes (a wall field bounded by an arch and its supports in the form of a semicircle or segment of a circle and a horizontal from below, located above doors or windows.) on the side walls are placed half-figures of the twelve apostles and four holy patriarchs of Constantinople during the iconoclasm period: Herman, Tarasius, Nicephorus and Methodius . Around 878, mosaics depicting sixteen Old Testament prophets and fourteen saints were created in the north tympanum of the cathedral. Of these, mosaics depicting John Chrysostom, Ignatius the God-bearer and four other saints have been preserved.
During the reign of Emperor Leo VI (886-912), the lunette of the narficus was decorated with a mosaic depicting Jesus Christ sitting on a throne with the Gospel, opened with the words “Peace be with you. I am the light of the world”, in the left hand and blessing with the right. On either side of it in medallions are depicted half-figures of the Virgin Mary and the Archangel Michael. To the left of Jesus is the kneeling Emperor Leo VI.
The sights of Hagia Sophia include the “weeping column”, covered with copper (there is a belief that if you put your hand in the hole and, feeling wet, make a wish, it will surely come true), as well as the “cold window”, where even on the hottest day blows cool breeze.
Other types of structures
Like church architecture, secular buildings up to the era of Justinian are extremely close in spirit to Roman ones. Differences associated with a different climate, different building materials and the presence of closer ties with Asia Minor, appeared only gradually. Unlike the palace of Diocletian in Salona (modern Split) or the palaces in Antioch, the Byzantine palace is a complex complex of more or less isolated, one- and two-story buildings, distinguished by extraordinary splendor, located in a vast park. From the residential houses of ordinary Byzantines, only minor traces remained. These houses have several floors; each floor has a large hall. Light comes in from nearby smaller rooms.
Monasteries arose in places of solitude of hermits, where on the basis of relatively scattered buildings a monastery was gradually born - the place of residence of a religious community. In the end, a developed plan of the monastery complex appeared, with walls enclosing the territory, with a church in the center, the abbot's chambers, cell buildings, a refectory, as can be seen in the Hilandar monastery on Athos. Buildings and fortifications, most often located asymmetrically on an elevated place, were harmoniously coordinated spatial compositions - ensembles.
In the planning of cities, the influence of Roman urban planning is revealed: the main thoroughfares were decorated with triumphal arches, columns and statues. Standpipes played an important role, and the streets often had arcades on both sides, into which merchants' shops opened. The forum was the center of public life.
Byzantium was distinguished by a high level of fortification development, cities were sometimes protected by triple walls or a system of forts on the approaches. Bridges, highways, aqueducts, reservoirs and covered multi-tiered underground cisterns for water and other purposes - the Byzantines achieved remarkable results in the construction of all these structures.
The insane luxury and pretentiousness of Roman interiors fade before the ponderous pomposity of Byzantium. True, we can judge the decoration of the palaces of the Byzantine emperors only from the memoirs of contemporaries, fragments of mosaic panels that have survived to this day and individual examples of Byzantine-style interiors that have been preserved in Venice, Sicily, and Spain.
The heart of Byzantium was Constantinople - the largest city of the medieval world, literally a city of palaces and luxurious villas. About twenty thousand people lived in the complex of the Grand Palace alone.
The Grand Imperial Palace was located in the eastern part of the city, between the Bosphorus and the Golden Horn. Its architecture and decoration served as an absolute role model for the nobility. The walls and columns of the building were finished with plates of various types of marble and onyx, and in some halls - with glass painted with flowers and fruits. The famous Byzantine mosaics that adorned the imperial bedchamber gave it a ceremonial rather than a practical character. The golden shimmer of glass tesser cubes, from which the ceiling and wall panels were assembled, gave rise to an atmosphere of divine presence. Floor mosaics were made primarily from colored marble, although semi-precious stones such as lapis lazuli, various types of agate, and even rock crystal were sometimes used.
Separately, it is worth mentioning decorative materials. The famous Byzantine silks with woven patterns, even in surviving fragments that have passed the test of time, amaze with the subtlety of work. Silk panels adorned the walls, strengthened in the arched openings. If it was necessary to open the openings, the curtains were tied or wrapped around the columns. From Persia and the countries of the Middle East, carpets and precious fabrics were abundantly imported, which were used to decorate beds, stools and thrones.
Byzantine art is often (and not unreasonably) perceived as a bridge between the art of Imperial Rome and the Middle Ages. Continuing the ancient traditions, Byzantium also inherited the cultural achievements of the conquered peoples. A deep synthesis of ancient and oriental elements is a characteristic feature of Byzantine culture.
Byzantine style in a modern interior.
In modern design, the Byzantine style is more accessible for understanding and does not provide for unnecessary plasticity and overload with decorations. Typical colors for the modern Byzantine style are considered to be brown, gold and white shades. The lines of the modern Byzantine style are distinguished by the presence of straight lines using an arc. The main figures of the Byzantine style are considered to be spherical and cylindrical statues. Often in the Byzantine style, the plane is taken as the basis.
History and development of style
The history of Byzantine architecture falls into seven periods: maturation (395–527), early Byzantine architectural experimentation in Italy, Egypt, Syria, Asia Minor and Macedonia; the first heyday (527–726), the era of political power and active construction; iconoclasm (726–867), a time of internal unrest, political instability and a decline in construction; the second heyday (867-1204), a new phase of the power of power and the scope of construction; Latin Empire (1204-1261), a period of national catastrophe, loss of independence, a complete halt in construction; revival (1261-1453), a time of decline in external power and a majestic cultural flourishing, when construction was carried out mainly in the Balkans; the era of derivative styles (from 1453 to the present), which came with the fall of the Byzantine Empire, after which, however, the influence of its architectural style remained in Russia, the Balkans and regions with strong Islamic influence.
By 400 AD The Roman Empire was weakened. The empire split into two parts - eastern and western - each with its own capital and emperor. The Western Empire disappeared under the pressure of the conquerors from Northern Europe, whom the Romans called the Vandals. Of several competing religions, Christianity proved to be the strongest, centered on Constantinople (now Istanbul). When in 313 AD. Emperor Constantine proclaimed Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire and there was a need for new buildings.
Pagan temples were not designed for large gatherings of people, and Christians needed a large hall where they could perform religious rites. Most suitable for the needs of Christians was the basilica, the hall of public meetings where the Romans held court sessions.
Byzantine art experienced an upsurge until the beginning of the 13th century. and only after the occupation of Constantinople by the Latins did it begin to decline. During this long period of time, it created many remarkable monuments, both in the capital and in the regions of the Eastern Empire, had a significant impact on the development of the art of Armenia, Russia, Italy itself and distant France; both in Arabic and Turkish art, Byzantine echoes and motifs are heard. During the dark times of the Middle Ages, Byzantium preserved ancient traditions and techniques, which later facilitated the first steps of the art of the Renaissance.
Byzantine and Romanesque styles are close in time, in some ways they have something in common and at the same time differ, therefore, the period starting from the fall of Rome (420) and up to 1000 or 1100 can be called a period of confusion and disorder.
During the period of early Christianity and by the time of the formation of Byzantine architecture, all its main elements were already present in the Mediterranean. The basilica type was widespread everywhere - both in multi-columned, with wooden ceilings early Christian churches, and in various examples of the Roman basilica proper, the vaults of which rested on widely spaced massive pillars and were supported by the transverse cylindrical vaults of the side aisles, as in the Basilica of Maxentius - Constantine in Rome ( 307-312). There are also various variants of buildings of the centric type, such as, for example, the temple of Minerva Medica (or, otherwise, the nymphaeum of the Licinian gardens, the beginning of the 4th century) or the mausoleum of Constantine (326-329, in 1256 it was renamed the church of Santa Costanza), both in Rome; Orthodox baptistery in Ravenna (c. 450); church of San Stefano Rotondo in Rome (468-483). We meet a simple cross-shaped form in the mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna (c. 440). Sails, which opened up new constructive possibilities for Byzantine architecture, were known in Rome at least from the 2nd century. In one Roman tomb of the 2nd century discovered in Palestine, the project was a cross inscribed in a rectangle, the central part of which was covered by a dome that turned into sails and supported by barrel vaults along the branches of the cross; in each of the reverse corners of the cross there was a small room. However, Byzantine builders used all these elements mainly as a starting point.
Byzantine architecture is a term coined by modern historians to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire. Unfortunately, many of the most impressive buildings and monuments have been torn down or destroyed. Most of the structures that survived the fall of the Byzantine Empire underwent numerous changes and modifications. Only a few pure examples have survived, which we will discuss in this article.
Byzantine style in architecture
Centered on the new capital of Constantinople (modern Istanbul) rather than the city of Rome and its environs, Byzantium developed as a distinct artistic and cultural entity. Although early Byzantine architecture is stylistically and structurally indistinguishable from Roman architecture.
One can only observe the desire to surpass the old Rome in terms of luxury and elegance. We see:
- complication of the geometry of buildings;
- more free use of classical elements;
- the use of brick and plaster for the decoration of buildings;
- conspicuous contrast in the decoration of interiors and exteriors of buildings.
This style spread between the 4th and 15th centuries not only in the Byzantine-held territories, but also far beyond the imperial borders.
Periods of development of Byzantine architecture
Byzantine architecture and art is generally divided into three historical periods:
- early from 330 to 730,
- average approx. 843-1204 and
- late from 1261 to 1453.
It must be taken into account that the artistic continuity of the empire (as well as political and social) was violated
- first with the iconoclastic dispute of 730-843,
- and then, the period of the Latin occupation (conquest by the crusaders) of 1204-1261.
Features of the Byzantine style in architecture
- The Byzantine style in the architecture of temples is characterized by the plan of a uniform cross, sometimes called Greek.
- A distinctive feature of religious structures was the combination of a basilica and symmetrical central volumes (circular or polygonal).
- A special feature is the domed roof.
Byzantine structures were distinguished by a sense of floating space and luxurious decoration: marble columns and inlay, mosaic vaults, mosaic floors and sometimes golden coffered ceilings. Byzantine architecture spread throughout the Christian East, and in some places, especially in Russia, it survived after the fall of Constantinople (1453).
Early period (330-730)
Creating frescoes, mosaics and panels, early Christian or Byzantine art relied on the styles and motifs of Roman art, transferring them to Christian subjects. The heyday of Byzantine architecture and art occurred during the reign of Emperor Justinian I in 527-565.
During this period, he began a building campaign in Constantinople and later in Ravenna, Italy. His most notable monument was Saint Sophie Cathedral(537 g), whose name means "Divine Wisdom".
Hippodrome of Constantinople, Istanbul, Türkiye
Today it is a square called Sultanahmet Meydani (Sultan Ahmet Square) in the Turkish city of Istanbul, with a few remaining fragments of the original structure.
Although the Hippodrome is usually associated with the glory days of Constantinople as an imperial capital, it actually predates that era. It was originally built in the provincial city of the Roman Empire - Byzantium, which became the capital only in 324.
Emperor Constantine the Great decided to move the seat of government from Rome to the city of Byzantium, which he renamed New Rome. This name did not stick, and soon the city became known as Constantinople. The emperor significantly expanded the boundaries of the city, and one of his main undertakings was the reconstruction of the hippodrome.
Ruins of the Hippodrome, from an engraving by Onofrio Panvinio in his De Ludis Circensibus (Venice, 1600). An engraving dated 1580 may be based on a drawing from the late 15th century. Вy nieznani, rycina z XVI/XVII w — internet, Public Domain, Link
The Hippodrome of Constantine is thought to have been about 450 m (1,476 ft) long and 130 m (427 ft) wide. Its stands could accommodate about 100,000 spectators. It was the venue for chariot races and related events.
Unfortunately, most of the once richly decorated hippodrome has long since disappeared, but a few statues, obelisks and other decorations have partially survived: the Serpent Column, the Obelisk-fortress, the Obelisk of Thutmose III and the statues of Porphyrios.
Quadriga from the Hippodrome of Constantinople. By Tteske - Own work , CC BY 3.0 , LinkThe famous quadriga that once adorned the hippodrome was taken to Venice in 1204 by the Venets. Now it is exhibited in the museum of the Cathedral of San Marco, made in the Byzantine style. And its copy adorns the loggia of the basilica.
Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna, Italy
The Ostrogoth king Theodoric the Great, (475-526) built an Arian church in the early 6th century. When the Byzantines conquered Italy during the Gothic War of 535-554, Justinian I converted it into an Orthodox church and dedicated it to Saint Martin of Tours, one of the active fighters against the Arians.
Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna, Italy Di Pufui Pc Pifpef I - Opera propria, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=15351464 The basilica received its real name in the middle of the 9th century, when it became home to the relics of St. Apollinaris. The splendid early Byzantine mosaics that adorn the temple led to the inclusion of the basilica in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1996.
Experts note: "...both the exterior and the interior of the basilica clearly illustrate the fusion between Western and Eastern styles characteristic of the late 5th - early 6th century."
Some art historians claim that one of the mosaics contains the first depiction of Satan in Western art.
Basilica of San Vitale, Ravena, Italy
One of the most important surviving examples of early Christian Byzantine architecture and art in Europe. The Catholic Church has awarded this building the honorary title of "basilica", although it does not have the desired architectural form. This title is given to church buildings of exceptional historical and ecclesiastical significance.
Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna, ItalyLike Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, it was built by the Ostrogoths, but completed by the Byzantines. The simple plan of a regular octagon does not yet represent the elements of the central-dome system.
It is adorned with impressive mosaics, considered to be the finest and best preserved example of Byzantine mosaic art outside of Constantinople. Presumably, the basilica was built on the site of the martyrdom of St. Vitalis.
However, there is some confusion as to whether this saint is Vitalis of Milan or Saint Vitale, whose body was discovered with that of Saint Agricola in Bologna in 393. The basilica was consecrated in 547.
This building is of great importance in Byzantine art, as the only large church from the period of Emperor Justinian I, which has survived almost unchanged to this day. In addition, it is believed that it reflects the design of the audience hall of the Byzantine imperial palace, of which nothing remains at all.
Church of St. Irina or Ayia Irina (Ayia Airen, Agia Irena), Istanbul, Turkey
One of the very first churches built in the Byzantine capital. It was ordered by the founder of Constantinople, the Roman emperor Constantine the Great (r. 324-337). But, unfortunately, the original church was destroyed during the Nika uprising in 532. Emperor Justinian I restored it in the middle of the 6th century, but two centuries later, it was seriously damaged during an earthquake.
Church of Hagia Irene in Istanbul (Hagia Eirene) By Gryffindor — own work, public domain, linkSome restorations of that time have survived to this day. Thus it is dated to the 8th century. Hagia Irene has the typical shape of a Roman basilica, consisting of a nave and two aisles, which are separated by three pairs of piers.
Church of St. Irina is currently a museum, but various musical events are also held here. One of the few churches in Istanbul that has not been converted into a mosque.
Hagia Sophia (Hagia Sophia, Santa Sophia, Divine Wisdom)
The best-known and most impressive example of early Byzantine architecture was built in a surprisingly short time, between 532 and 537, on the site of a burnt-out early 5th-century basilica. The names of the architects of the building are well known - Tramlsky Anthemius and Isidore of Miletus - two major mathematicians of their time.
Hagia Sophia combines a longitudinal basilica and a central nave in a completely original way with a huge 32-meter main dome. It is supported by spherical triangles called sails and girth arches. Two colossal semi-domes, one on each side of the longitudinal axis, in the east - above the altar and in the west - above the main entrance, embodied the ingenious solution of the architects, thanks to which the impression of an expanding space was created.
The main volume of the Cathedral of St. Sophia has three naves: wide middle and side - narrower. An equilateral cross formed by the main and additional halls became mandatory for the construction of Christian churches. The walls above the galleries and the base of the dome are pierced with windows that, in bright sunlight, darken the pillars and give the impression of a dome floating in the air.
When completed, the church was the largest and most imposing religious building in Christendom until the Ottoman conquest of the Byzantine capital. After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the basilica was turned into a mosque and was used for worship until 1931. Hagia Sophia has been open to the public as a museum since 1935.
Hagia Sophia in Istanbul (Constantinople) But for many visitors, the exterior of Istanbul's Hagia Sophia is disappointing. .
Middle period of development of Byzantine architecture (843-1204)
Osios Loukas (monastery of St. Lukas), Greece
A 10th century monastery in the Greek city of Distomo (near Delphi) and one of the finest examples of Byzantine architecture from the so-called second golden age or middle Byzantine period. This roughly corresponds to the rule of the Macedonian dynasty, from the middle of the 9th to the beginning of the 11th century.
View of the altar part of the temples of the monastery of St. Luke. — own work, transferred from el.wikipedia ; transferred to Commons by User:MARKELLOS using CommonsHelper ., Attribution, LinkInscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1990, this monastery became famous throughout the empire for its magnificent decorations, including sumptuous mosaics, frescoes and marble work. They, like the plan of the church in the form of a cross in a square, were typical of the middle Byzantine period, surviving iconoclasm.
Monastery of Daphni, Greece
One of the masterpieces of Byzantine architecture, the Daphni Monastery is also included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. The main church is another prime example of the "cross" plan. The current monastery and church was built in the 11th century on the site of an earlier monastery abandoned in the 7th and 8th centuries due to the invasion of the Slavs.
Author: Dimkoa — own work, public domain, link
And that, in turn, was built on the site of an ancient Greek temple dedicated to Apollo, which was destroyed at the end of the 4th century. The monastery complex is currently under reconstruction and is closed to visitors.
The cross-domed temple of the monastery is one of the well-preserved examples of architecture from the era of the Macedonian dynasty and the Middle Byzantine period as a whole.
Fortress of Angelokastro, Greece
Perched atop a 305 meter high hill on the island of Corfu, Greece, Angelokastro Castle was one of the most important Byzantine strongholds in the Ionian Sea. He played a key role in the defense of the island and successfully withstood three sieges by the Ottoman Turks.
View of Angelokastro emerging from the village of Krini on the way. You can see the remains of the battlements (on the right side) of the castle, the Church of the Archangel Michael on the Acropolis (upper left corner of the castle), a round defensive tower in front of the main gate. By Dr.K. — Own work , CC BY-SA 3.0 , LinkWhen it was built is still unknown. But they call it the 13th century. Probably during the reign of Michael I Komnenos Doukas, founder and first ruler of the Despotate of Epirus from 1205. Although some date it to the end of the 12th century.
The Late Period of the Development of Byzantine Architecture (1261-1453)
Church of St. Catherine, Greece
Church of St. Catherine in the old city of Thessaloniki, is one of the best preserved Byzantine churches of the late period. The exact time of construction and consecration is unknown. But they dated to the period of the reign of the Palaiologos dynasty from 1261 until the collapse of the Byzantine Empire in 1453.
Church of Saint Catherine. Author: Macedon-40 — own work, CC BY-SA 4.0 , LinkMost of the time it acted as a mosque. In 1988, the church was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site as part of the "Paleochristian and Byzantine Monuments of Thessaloniki".
Byzantine baths, Thessaloniki, Greece
Another masterpiece of Byzantine architecture, which was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List "Paleo-Christian and Byzantine monuments in Thessaloniki", was built at the end of the 13th and beginning of the 14th century.
Baths before restoration. The original architecture follows the typical rules of the Roman baths. By Marijan - Own work , Public Domain, LinkThe only surviving Byzantine bath in Greece was used by both men and women. Moreover, it operated both in the Byzantine era and in the later Ottoman period. Only the Ottomans divided the building into two separate sections, one for men and one for women. During the Byzantine period, men and women used the bath alternately.
Neo-Byzantine architecture
Neo-Byzantine architecture had a small following following the 19th-century Gothic revival, resulting in such masterpieces as Westminster Cathedral in London and Bristol from about 1850 to 1880.
A related style known as Bristol Byzantine was popular for industrial buildings that combined elements of the Byzantine style with Moorish architecture.
Russian-Byzantine style in architecture
It was widely developed in Russia during the reign of Alexander II (1818-1881) by Grigory Gagarin and his followers. They designed
- Vladimir Cathedral in Kyiv,
- Nikolsky Naval Cathedral in Kronstadt,
- Alexander Nevsky Cathedral in Sofia,
- Church of Saint Mark in Belgrade and
- New Athos Monastery in New Athos near Sukhumi.
- The largest neo-Byzantine project of the 20th century was the Temple of Saint Sava in Belgrade.
Post-Byzantine architecture in Orthodox countries
In Bulgaria, Russia, Romania, Serbia, Belarus, Georgia, Armenia, Ukraine, Macedonia and other Orthodox countries, Byzantine architecture survived after the fall of the empire. From the 16th to the 18th century, it gave rise to local post-Byzantine schools of architecture.
In medieval Bulgaria, these were the Preslav and Tarnovo architectural schools.
In medieval Serbia: Rashka School of Architecture, Vardar School of Architecture and Moravian School of Architecture.
The architecture of Byzantium also achieved remarkable results in the construction of bridges, roads, aqueducts, reservoirs and covered multi-tiered underground cisterns for water and other purposes.
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On the innovative ideas of architects Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (now Istanbul) read on the Architecture Zen channel.
In 395, the Roman Empire was divided into two parts - Western and Eastern, where Constantine moved the capital of the Empire. The Byzantine Empire included the Balkan Peninsula, the island of Cyprus, the islands of the Aegean Sea, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, part of Mesopotamia, Armenia and Arabia. Byzantium escaped the attack of the barbarians, there were about a thousand cities in it. The ethnic and linguistic composition of Byzantium was heterogeneous, but Christian art was unified. By the beginning of the VI century. the features of the Byzantine artistic and figurative system are formed. The favorite technique of monumental painting of Byzantium was mosaic. If in antiquity the floor of the building was mainly decorated with mosaics, now the composition was placed on the walls. Cubes of smalt, a vitreous mass dyed with metal oxide in different colors and then fired, made up bright compositions. The cubes were somewhat different in size and shape, they did not form a perfectly smooth surface. The roughness of the surface emphasized the shade of the color, creating a shimmering tone.
Initially, as in the mausoleum of St. Constantine in Rome, the mosaic was mostly ornamental, it used Christian symbols: grapes, a vine - symbols of the blood of Christ, a peacock - a symbol of eternal life. The most valuable in the artistic sense, the interior ensemble was created in the church of St. Vitale in Ravenna. The mosaics were concentrated mainly in the altar. The figures obeyed the structure of architectural articulations. The painting is based on a symbolic program united by the idea of Christ's sacrifice. The mosaics of the lower tier of the apse depict the solemn entrance of Emperor Justinian and his wife Theodora. The proportions of the figures are elongated, the volume of the body is not felt under the clothes. The whole image is given on a shimmering gold background.
Habakkuk, prophet (7th–6th centuries BC), from 12 minor prophets — Mosaic
Byzantium is the birthplace of icon painting.
The icon is written on a board, in Byzantium cypress boards were most often used, and in Rus' lime and pine boards. A shield was knocked down from separate boards, which was strengthened on the reverse side with special spikes (veneers) from possible warping.
The board was tapped, a small depression was hollowed out in it - an ark surrounded by fields. Then they scratched the centerpiece with something sharp, glued it, glued the canvas, i.e. canvas, and glue was put on top again. A day later, white was applied to it - a well-mixed liquid of glue and chalk. When the whitened dried up, the board was gessoed for three or four days, the gesso was applied 6-7 times, then it was polished with wet pumice.
pavoloka - a piece of fabric glued to the surface of the mullion.
Levkas - ground of powdered chalk or alabaster mixed with animal or fish glue.
Then a preliminary drawing was made with charcoal and black paint; the contours of halos and heads, figures and buildings were often scratched out in order to facilitate the subsequent overlay of gold and paint. Paints were mainly used from mineral pigments. The icon is painted in tempera. Tempera is a method of mixing paint - a dry pigment obtained from rubbing stones, metals, residues of organic origin, a yolk emulsion serves as a connecting element. Among the pigments are cinnabar, red ocher, minium, light ocher, sienna - for yellow, natural ultramarine obtained from lapis lazuli, lapis lazuli, indigo - for blue, copper resinate (yar - verdigris) - for green, white lead - for white, woody coal - for black. The richness of shades was obtained by mixing several pigments with a binder or by applying layers on top of each other. A feature of icon painting is the application of one paint layer only on top of the completely dried previous one.
Glaze - one of the methods of painting technique, which consists in applying very thin layers of transparent and translucent paints.
Sankir
-
the dark tone of the base from which the performance of the open parts of the body began.
The artist applied paints in a certain sequence. First, the background was covered, then mountains, buildings, then clothes, only then the face.
At first, the clothes were written in the main tone, then the ever-decreasing surface was covered with an increasingly whitened tone. Then a thin layer of dark glazing paint was applied in the shadows - tint.
After completing work on draperies, the artist painted parts of the body that were free from clothing - “personal”. The previously applied sankir was re-drawn with brown or olive paint. Then came the “fucking faces”. The flesh color scheme was even lighter; it was placed locally, in small islands on the most protruding parts of the form. White strokes of lights were applied over the flesh color scheme. Blush from a mixture of cinnabar with a small amount of ocher or white covered the cheeks, shady parts of the forehead and neck, lips and nose ridge. Faces were painted by sequential imposition of light tones in small strokes, and the border between the colorful layers was shaded with ocher - this was called “painting with melts”. The most convex parts of the face were emphasized with strokes of pure white, called "sliders" or "animations".
The original of the icon - special guides for the icon painter, subdivided into "front" and "explanatory" ».
Explanatory originals contained a verbal description. Numerous compositions of one plot - "translations".
Facial originals
-
collection of drawings (samples).
After completion of the work, gold or silver was often used for decoration, which was glued with glue. From above, the icon was covered with drying oil or linseed or hemp oil to enhance the sonority of the color.
The task of icon painting is the incarnation of God in a bodily image. The icons that have come down to us date back to the 6th century. Among the icons, a special role is played by the image of Christ, with his right hand raised in a gesture of blessing, and with the Gospel in his left hand.
Fuck faces - the technique of gradually highlighting the details of the face and open parts of the body with multiple registrations according to the sankir, according to an even basic tone.
Staffage - background images.
Personal letter - image of faces and other exposed parts of the body.
To convey the divinity of images, a special, strictly defined type of images is formed. The obligatory appearance of the saint was recorded. Dionysius the Areopagite developed the doctrine of the symbolism of color, according to which the cherry blossom, combining red and purple, symbolized Christ, blue meant purity, red - divine fire, purple - a symbol of royalty, green - the color of youth, white - a symbol of God, because it is similar to light and combines all the colors of the rainbow. Christ began to be depicted in a cherry chiton and a blue cloak - himation, the Mother of God - in a dark blue chiton and a cherry veil - maphoria. The principles of “reverse perspective” have been developed, according to which the vanishing point of visual lines is not behind objects, but in front of them.
Assist - strokes, rays, filled with sheet gold over a dried paint layer, a symbol of spiritual light.
Mortyrius (gr. martyr - witness, martyr - type of memorial building.
Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo - Ravenna - Italy.
The background of Byzantine icons is most often golden. Sometimes the contours of the figures and the folds of the robes were drawn with gold, sometimes the entire clothes were covered with a grid of golden lines. In Christianity, gold symbolized the miraculous light. The presence of gold gave the image a mystical character.
The iconography of the murals of temples and individual icons had a certain system, most often based on the symbolism of the liturgy and hymnography. At the same time, artistic images are created that never repeat each other.
temple architecture
Byzantine art experienced its first flowering during the reign of Justinian, who took the throne in 527. During the reign of Justinian, thirty churches were erected in the capital of the Empire alone. Isidore of Miletus and Anthimius of Thrall erected the temple of Hagia Sophia, which, according to a contemporary, reigned over the capital, like a ship over the waves of the sea. The length of the temple is more than 70 m. The dome was raised by 50 m, its diameter is more than 31 m. The dome overlapped the three-nave basilica in the middle and was erected on four pillars with the help of triangular curved vaults. Forty windows, cut into the base of the dome, were illuminated from the inside by silver chandeliers, lamps in the form of ships. Ten thousand workers worked on the construction of this church for five years.
Jewelry Art - Byzantium
Conha (Greek Konhe - shell) - dome-shaped ceiling.
Tympanum is a recessed part of a wall of a triangular, semicircular or lancet shape.
At the end of the VI-VII centuries. in connection with the subordination of the architectural appearance of the temple to the requirements of the cult, cross-domed churches come to the fore.
The crisis of Byzantine art is associated with the edict of 730, which forbids the worship of icons. The end of the iconoclasm period was the church council of 843, which branded iconoclasm as a heresy. During the iconoclasm, mosaics and frescoes were knocked off the walls, and icons were burned. The iconoclastic period was of great importance for the development of secular themes in art.
Hodegetria (gr. hodegetria - from hodos - path) - iconographic type of the image of the Mother of God with the Child on the left (sometimes on the right) hand.
In the 8th century the art of decor flourished, ornamentalism was developed. At the same time, great damage was done to art. A new flowering of Byzantine art came under the representatives of the Macedonian dynasty, the founder of which was Basil I.
Macedonian period (867 - 1056)
The traditions of icon painting, lost during the period of iconoclasm, are restored during the period of the Macedonian dynasty, and the main semantic and artistic canons that form the basis of religious art are affirmed.
Icons can combine several perspectives:
- linear, converging to one point;
— axonometric, in which diverging lines mean non-horizontal parallels , and distant objects are not reduced;
- the reverse, in which the one who looks is the object of the convergence of lines:
— curved, as in a concave mirror.
Art of the first half of the X century. It is customary to call the "Macedonian Renaissance" because of the commitment to antiquity in the courtly educated circles of Constantinople. The decoration with mosaics of the church of St. Sophia in Constantinople. In the art of the second half of the X century. love for classicism is preserved, but at the same time, the desire to create spiritualized images is growing. In the first half of the XI century. in Byzantine art, a turning point is planned. The images become strict and ascetic, looking far from the bustle of the world. The faces are frozen, the figures are motionless, faces with large features, huge eyes, distant gaze, heavy, powerful proportions. Such ascetic-oriented art arose, perhaps, under the influence of a powerful spiritual attraction exerted on the era by the personality of Simeon the New Theologian, a supporter of mystical theology. In Byzantine art of the XI-XII centuries. mosaics are given only a curved surface: vaults, apses. Smalt cubes have become smaller.
Development of the architecture of Constantinople IX-XI centuries. characterized by a desire to increase openings, replace walls with a frame of pillars, and move to brickwork.
Icons show events in their cosmic meaning, being a reflection of eternity, they do not take into account the transience of the human appearance.
Komninovsky Renaissance (1059-1204)
The period from the second half of the XI to the XII century. called "Komninovsky Renaissance" by the name of the ruling dynasty. This is the heyday of art. In the second half of the XI century. Byzantine art moves away from asceticism and powerful monumentalism of forms. A new type of images appears, full of subtle spirituality, grace, embodied in the miniatures of numerous manuscripts, as well as on the walls of temples. At this time, a new type of icon appears - an icon depicting the Holidays and saints revered according to the church calendar during a given month. The surface of such icons was divided by horizontal stripes into rows, in which small figures of saints and Feasts were placed, arranged in accordance with the church calendar.
V. was rich in many new trends. At the beginning of the century, a number of large majestic mosaic icons appeared - “The Mother of God Hodegetria”, “John the Baptist”, created for the monastery of Our Lady Pammakaristos in Constantinople, and “The Mother of God Hodegetria” from the Hilandar Monastery on Athos. The artistic language of these icons is distinguished by lapidarity, symmetry of construction, powerful necks, a rounded shape of the head, the drawing of all lines, and the absence of any movement. In another direction of art of this time, classical poise was combined with subtle spirituality. The most famous icon of this type is the Our Lady of Vladimir, created in Constantinople in the first third of the 12th century, transported to Rus' around 1132, transferred to Vladimir, which explains its name.
She belongs to the type "Our Lady of Eleusa", i.e. "Tenderness" (the baby Christ in the arms of the Virgin Mary presses his cheek to the cheek of the Virgin). In the second half of the XII century. Byzantine art was distinguished by a rare diversity. In addition to the classical direction, there was also one in which artists began to emphasize the enhanced expressiveness of the image. The power of inner experience and external expressiveness became topical. The strong spiritualization of the image gave rise to a particular "expressive" or "dynamic" style. Among the icons of this style are the "Descent into Hell" and "Assumption" of the monastery of St. Catherine on Mount Sinai. Restless movements, broken lines, excitement and dynamics distinguish these icons. Another trend, narrower and chamber, is conventionally designated as "late Comninian mannerism." It is characterized by forms, angles, gestures, distinguished by elegance and utmost sophistication.
The main building of Constantinople of the XII century. became a complex of three merged volumes of the churches of the Pantokratorau monastery
Palaiologan Renaissance (1261-1453)
The art of the late period of the life of Byzantium is called "Paleologian", after the name of the last ruling dynasty of the Palaiologos. It was the time of the loss of the former power of Byzantium, when the threat of a Turkish invasion became real. And for art, it was a time of prosperity, ingenuity of iconography, a plurality of stylistic interpretations, and the highest artistic skill.
In 1204, the knights of the IV Crusade plundered and burned Constantinople, occupied Byzantine territory. This situation continued until 1261, when the emperor of the new dynasty, Michael VIII Palaiologos, retook Constantinople. Under conditions of national humiliation, interest in Hellenic culture increased, the importance of local art schools and local centers increased, and culture shifted from the capital to the regions, which led to the flourishing of national schools. At the end of the XIII in art, the enlargement of images, clarity, simplicity, laconism is growing.
The monumentalism and generalization of the style of such painting are akin to the old Byzantine art of the first half of the 11th century, but the ascetic content was lost, replaced by the assertion of the majestic tranquility and splendor of the triumphant church as an image of the Kingdom of Heaven.
The main core of art III. became an updated classic ideal. This art is most fully expressed in frescoes. A special type of so-called hagiographic icons arises, in which the image of the saint in the center is surrounded by a frame consisting of small scenes - hallmarks depicting the events of his life and the miracles he performed. Their plots were usually based on liturgical chants. Moments of literature and narrative appeared in the icons. So, on the icon of St. Nicholas of Myra (Wonderworker) at the top left and at the end are scenes of the birth of the Saint and his repose. The sequence of events in the saint's life is not always followed.
At the end of the XIII century. in Byzantine art, powerful images full of heroic enthusiasm began to be created.
Byzantine art of the beginning of the 14th century, subtle and refined, was a branch of the chamber court culture that arose at the court of Andronicus II Palaiologos. One of his characteristic features is his love for the ancient past, the study of all kinds of works of antiquity. The themes of art were ecclesiastical, the attraction to antiquity manifested itself only in style and forms, for which the classical model became an indispensable model. Ensembles of mosaics and frescoes featured previously unknown theatrics, plot details, the iconographic program expanded, they included many symbols and allegories, echoes with the liturgical texts of hymns. At that time, small portable mosaic icons were made in the capital's court workshop, which are characterized by delicate color combinations, tenderness of shades, shining gold cubes in backgrounds, contours and light lines. All the icons have calm, classically beautiful and indifferent faces. Most of the icons were painted in tempera technique. The images of these icons do not repeat each other, they are always individual. The proportions of the figures are correct, the movements are flexible, the postures are stable. The icons of "Paleologian classicism" are beautiful in execution. Artists like to show columns with Corinthian capitals, decorative masks, spacious porticos.
By the 30s of the XIV century. power struggles and civil war have replaced relative stability.
In the 50s of the XIV century. the political and ecclesiastical situation in Byzantium changed. State power stabilized, church disputes ended. The Council of 1351 was won by Gregory Palamas, whose doctrine of Hesychia received recognition. The essence of Palamas' teaching is to bring the soul to a special state in which the Divine energies can be perceived by a person. In artistic images, tension and excitement increase, harmony and calmness disappear, and the sharpness of emotional experiences appears. Questions of faith have become the main ones, the monastic way of existence is understood as an ideal. Small exquisite icons disappear, icons increase in size, large images are easy to read in the interior of the church.
Due to the general weakening of the state, the lack of funds led at that time to the reconstruction of old buildings. The monumental architectural solution is being replaced by a chamber picturesque one.
Late Byzantine architecture is distinguished by decorativeness and picturesque masonry walls. An outstanding monument of late Byzantine metropolitan architecture is the church of Chora Monastery, the construction of which began at the end of the 13th century.
In 1453, the conquest of Byzantium by Turkey ended the thousand-year history of the development of Byzantine art, which had a significant impact on the art of Western Europe and Ancient Rus'.
Byzantine architecture
After the emperor Constantine transferred the capital from Rome to Byzantium (at the end of the 4th century), later called Constantinople, the great Byzantine culture, including architecture, flourished. After the conquest of Greece, the countries of Asia Minor and Asia Minor, Italy, the Mediterranean, Byzantium becomes a huge state. The traditions of the peoples of the new territories had a huge impact on its culture. Of course, ancient ancient traditions were also observed.Main Features of Byzantine Architecture
. The use of the dome in the central part of the building. Although similar structural elements were used earlier in Rome and in the East, the Byzantines were the first to come up with the idea of placing them on the so-called sails, which made it possible to arrange less bulky walls, and, consequently, to expand the room. The domes were placed on a parallelepiped, the walls of which had an arched shape in the upper part.Inside the temple, in the under-dome space, a gallery resembling a choir is being created. Columns supported it from below. In the dome itself, a window is arranged for lighting.
The columns were made in the form of a tetrahedral truncated pyramid and were located with the smaller base down. These elements were decorated with ornaments, most often floral.
A minimum of architectural details in the interior and a maximum of rich design. The walls were faced with marble and covered with gilding, smalt mosaics and frescoes.
The windows were usually arranged narrow and with a rounded top. Often, ancient architects grouped them in twos or threes. Such compositions were decorated with a fake arch and separated by a small column. Often the windows were covered with bars or stone structures with holes.
All these basic architectural elements developed gradually and were not always fully applied. In the construction of buildings, plinth, brick and stone were usually used. They were sealed with lime mortar. Often crushed brick was added to it for strength. Sometimes in the masonry brick and stone alternated in the masonry. In those areas where limestone lay near the cities, it was he who was used to build temples. The influence of Byzantine architectural traditions has spread to almost the entire territory of modern Europe. Temples built in this style are still preserved in many countries. In Rus', in Kyiv, Sophia of Kiev was built in the Byzantine traditions of architecture. Sophia Cathedral in Constantinople can be considered the most typical building for the Byzantine style. In addition to it, one can recall the Sumel Monastery and the Church of St. Irene in the same place, in Constantinople, which today is called Istanbul.
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