By the level of scientific and technical developments Russian nuclear power is one of the best in the world. Businesses have tremendous opportunities to tackle day-to-day or large-scale tasks. Experts predict a promising future in this area, since the Russian Federation has large reserves of ores for energy production.

A brief history of the development of nuclear power in Russia

The nuclear industry dates back to the times of the USSR, when it was planned to implement one of the author's projects on the creation of explosives from uranium matter. In the summer, in 1945, atomic weapons were successfully tested in the United States, and in 1949 the RDS-1 nuclear bomb was used for the first time at the Semipalatinsk test site. Further development of nuclear energy in Russia was as follows:


Research and production teams have been working for many years to achieve a high level in atomic weapons, and they are not going to stop there. Later, you will learn about the prospects in this area until 2035.

Operating NPPs in Russia: a brief description

There are currently 10 operating nuclear power plants. The features of each of them will be discussed below.


  • No. 1 and No. 2 with the AMB reactor;
  • No. 3 with the BN-600 reactor.

Generates up to 10% of the total electricity. At present, many systems in Sverdlovsk are in a long-term conservation mode, and only the BN-600 power unit is in operation. Beloyarsk NPP is located in the town of Zarechny.

  1. Bilibino NPP is the only source of heat supply to Bilbino and has a capacity of 48 MW. The station generates about 80% of the energy and meets all the requirements for the installation of equipment:
  • maximum ease of use;
  • increased reliability of work;
  • protection against mechanical damage;
  • the minimum amount of installation work.

The system has an important advantage: if the unit is interrupted unexpectedly, it is not harmed. The station is located in the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, 4.5 km away, the distance to Anadyr is 610 km.


What is the state of nuclear power today?

Today there are more than 200 enterprises whose specialists work tirelessly to improve nuclear energy of Russia... Therefore, we are confidently moving forward in this direction: we are developing new reactor models and gradually expanding production. According to the members of the World Nuclear Association, Russia's strong point is the development of technologies based on fast neurons.

Russian technologies, many of which were developed by Rosatom, are highly regarded abroad for their relatively low cost and safety. Consequently, we have a fairly high potential in the nuclear industry.

The Russian Federation provides foreign partners with many services related to the activity in question. These include:

  • construction of nuclear power units taking into account safety rules;
  • supply of nuclear fuel;
  • display of used objects;
  • training of international personnel;
  • assistance in the development of scientific work and nuclear medicine.

Russia is building a large number of power units abroad. Projects such as "Bushehr" or "Kudankulam", created for the Iranian and Indian nuclear power plants, have been successful. They have created clean, safe and efficient energy sources.

What problems related to the nuclear industry have arisen in Russia?

In 2011, a collapse of metal structures (weight about 1200 tons) occurred at the Leningrad NPP-2 under construction. During the course of the supervisory commission, the supply of uncertified fittings was discovered, in connection with which the following measures were taken:

  • imposition of a fine on CJSC GMZ-Khimmash in the amount of RUB 30 thousand;
  • performing calculations and carrying out work aimed at strengthening the reinforcement.

According to Rostekhnadzor, the main reason for the violation is the insufficient level of qualifications of GMZ-Khimmash specialists. Poor knowledge of the requirements of federal norms, technologies for the manufacture of such equipment and design documentation has led to the fact that many such organizations have lost their licenses.

At the Kalinin NPP, the level of thermal power of the reactors has increased. Such an event is highly undesirable, since there is a likelihood of an accident with serious radiation consequences.

Long-term studies carried out in foreign countries have shown that the proximity to nuclear power plants leads to an increase in leukemia diseases. For this reason, there have been many refusals from effective, but very dangerous projects in Russia.

Prospects for nuclear power plants in Russia

The forecasts for the further use of atomic energy are contradictory and ambiguous. Most of them agree that by the middle of the 21st century the demand will increase due to the inevitable increase in the population.

The Ministry of Energy of the Russian Federation announced the energy strategy of Russia for the period up to 2035 (information received in 2014). The strategic goal of nuclear energy includes:


Taking into account the established strategy, in the future it is planned to solve the following tasks:

  • to improve the scheme of production, circulation and disposal of fuel and raw materials;
  • develop targeted programs to ensure the renewal, sustainability and efficiency of the existing fuel base;
  • implement the most effective projects with a high level of safety and reliability;
  • to increase the export of nuclear technology.

State support for the mass production of nuclear power units is the basis for the successful promotion of goods abroad and a high reputation of Russia on the international market.

What hinders the development of nuclear energy in Russia?

The development of nuclear energy in the Russian Federation faces certain difficulties. Here are the main ones:


In Russia, nuclear energy is one of the most important sectors of the economy. The successful implementation of the projects being developed can help develop other industries, but this requires a lot of effort.

Over the next 50 years, humanity will consume more energy than was consumed in all previous history. Earlier forecasts about the growth rate of energy consumption and the development of new energy technologies did not come true: the level of consumption is growing much faster, and new energy sources will start working on an industrial scale and at competitive prices no earlier than 2030. The problem of the lack of fossil energy resources is becoming more and more acute. The possibilities for the construction of new hydroelectric power plants are also very limited.

Do not forget about the fight against the "greenhouse effect", which imposes restrictions on the combustion of oil, gas and coal at thermal power plants (TPP). The solution to the problem can be the active development of nuclear energy, one of the youngest and fastest growing sectors of the global economy. An increasing number of countries today come to the need to start developing the peaceful atom.

What are the benefits of nuclear power?

Huge energy intensity

1 kilogram of uranium used in nuclear fuel, when completely burned up, releases energy equivalent to burning 100 tons of high-quality coal.

Reuse

Uranium-235 does not completely burn out in nuclear fuel and can be used again after regeneration. In the future, a complete transition to a closed fuel cycle is possible, which means a complete absence of waste.

Reducing the greenhouse effect

Nuclear power plants in Europe avoid the emission of 700 million tons of CO2 every year. Operating nuclear power plants in Russia annually prevent the emission of 210 million tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

Those. in those industrialized countries where natural energy resources are insufficient. These countries produce between a quarter and half of their electricity from nuclear power plants. The United States produces only one-eighth of its electricity at nuclear power plants, but this is about one-fifth of its global production.

Nuclear power remains a subject of heated debate. Supporters and opponents of nuclear power differ sharply in assessments of its safety, reliability and economic efficiency. In addition, there is widespread opinion about the possible leakage of nuclear fuel from the production of electricity and its use for the production of nuclear weapons.

Nuclear fuel cycle.

Nuclear power is a complex industry that includes many industrial processes that together form a fuel cycle. There are different types of fuel cycles, depending on the type of reactor and how the final stage of the cycle proceeds.

Typically, the fuel cycle consists of the following processes. Uranium ore is mined in the mines. The ore is crushed to separate the uranium dioxide, and the radioactive waste is dumped. The resulting uranium oxide (yellow cake) is converted to uranium hexafluoride, a gaseous compound. To increase the concentration of uranium-235, uranium hexafluoride is enriched at isotope separation plants. The enriched uranium is then converted back into solid uranium dioxide, from which fuel pellets are made. Fuel elements (fuel rods) are collected from the pellets, which are combined into assemblies for insertion into the core of a nuclear reactor of a nuclear power plant. The spent fuel extracted from the reactor has a high level of radiation and, after cooling on the territory of the power plant, is sent to a special storage facility. It also provides for the disposal of low-radiation waste that accumulates during the operation and maintenance of the station. At the end of its service life, the reactor itself must be decommissioned (with decontamination and disposal of the reactor units as waste). Each stage of the fuel cycle is regulated to ensure the safety of people and the protection of the environment.

Nuclear reactors.

Industrial nuclear reactors were originally developed only in countries with nuclear weapons. The USA, USSR, Great Britain and France were actively exploring different versions of nuclear reactors. However, later in the nuclear power industry, three main types of reactors began to dominate, differing mainly in the fuel, the coolant used to maintain the required core temperature, and the moderator used to reduce the speed of neutrons released during the decay process and necessary to maintain a chain reaction.

Among them, the first (and most widespread) type is an enriched uranium reactor, in which both the coolant and the moderator are ordinary, or "light" water (light water reactor). There are two main types of light-water reactors: a reactor in which steam rotating turbines is generated directly in the core (boiling-water reactor), and a reactor in which steam is generated in an external, or - water power reactor - VVER). The development of a light water reactor began under the programs of the US armed forces. For example, in the 1950s, General Electric and Westinghouse developed light water reactors for submarines and aircraft carriers in the US Navy. These firms were also involved in the implementation of military programs for the development of technologies for the regeneration and enrichment of nuclear fuel. In the same decade, a boiling graphite-moderated reactor was developed in the Soviet Union.

The second type of reactor that has found practical application is a gas-cooled reactor (with a graphite moderator). Its creation was also closely related to early nuclear weapons programs. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, Great Britain and France, striving to create their own atomic bombs, focused on the development of gas-cooled reactors that produce weapons-grade plutonium quite efficiently and, moreover, can run on natural uranium.

The third type of reactor that has had commercial success is a reactor in which both the coolant and the moderator are heavy water, and the fuel is also natural uranium. In the early nuclear age, the potential benefits of a heavy water reactor were explored in a number of countries. However, the production of such reactors was then concentrated mainly in Canada, in part because of its vast uranium reserves.

Development of the nuclear industry.

After World War II, tens of billions of dollars were invested in the electricity sector around the world. This construction boom was fueled by the rapid growth in electricity demand, at a rate that far outstripped population and national income growth. The main emphasis was placed on thermal power plants (TPPs) using coal and, to a lesser extent, oil and gas, as well as hydroelectric power plants. There was no industrial-type nuclear power plant until 1969. By 1973, virtually all industrialized countries had exhausted the resources of large-scale hydropower. The jump in energy prices after 1973, the rapid increase in the need for electricity, and growing concern about the possibility of losing the independence of the national energy - all this contributed to the approval of the view of nuclear energy as the only viable alternative source of energy in the foreseeable future. The 1973-1974 Arab oil embargo generated an additional wave of orders and optimistic forecasts for the development of nuclear energy.

But each following year made its own adjustments to these forecasts. On the one hand, nuclear power has had its supporters in governments, in the uranium industry, research laboratories, and among influential energy companies. On the other hand, a strong opposition has arisen, in which groups have united to defend the interests of the population, the cleanliness of the environment and the rights of consumers. The disputes, which continue to this day, have focused mainly on the harmful effects of various stages of the fuel cycle on the environment, the likelihood of reactor accidents and their possible consequences, the organization of the construction and operation of reactors, acceptable options for the disposal of nuclear waste, the potential for sabotage and terrorist attacks. at nuclear power plants, as well as issues of increasing national and international efforts in the field of nuclear nonproliferation.

Security concerns.

The Chernobyl disaster and other nuclear reactor accidents in the 1970s and 1980s, among other things, made it clear that such accidents are often unpredictable. For example, in Chernobyl, the reactor of Unit 4 was seriously damaged as a result of a sharp power surge that occurred during its planned shutdown. The reactor was in a concrete shell and was equipped with an emergency cooling system and other modern safety systems. But it never occurred to anyone that when the reactor was turned off, a sharp power jump could occur and the gaseous hydrogen formed in the reactor after such a jump, mixed with air, would explode so that it would destroy the reactor building. As a result of the accident, more than 30 people died, more than 200,000 people in Kiev and neighboring regions received large doses of radiation, and the water supply source of Kiev was contaminated. To the north of the crash site - right in the path of the radiation cloud - are the vast Pripyat bogs, which are vital to the ecology of Belarus, Ukraine and western Russia.

In the United States, nuclear reactor builders and operators also faced a variety of safety issues that slowed down construction, forced numerous design and operational changes, and increased energy costs and costs. There appear to have been two main sources of these difficulties. One is the lack of knowledge and experience in this new energy industry. Another is the development of nuclear reactor technology, in the course of which new problems arise. But old ones also remain, such as corrosion of steam generator pipes and cracking of pipelines of boiling reactors. Other safety problems have not been fully resolved, for example, damage caused by sudden changes in the flow rate of the coolant.

Nuclear Energy Economics.

Investments in nuclear energy, like investments in other areas of power generation, are economically viable if two conditions are met: the cost of a kilowatt-hour is no more than the cheapest alternative method of production, and the expected demand for electricity is high enough for the produced energy to be sold at a price that exceeds its cost. In the early 1970s, the global economic outlook looked very favorable for nuclear power: both the demand for electricity and the prices of the main fuels - coal and oil - grew rapidly. As for the cost of building a nuclear power plant, almost all experts were convinced that it would be stable or even begin to decline. However, in the early 1980s, it became clear that these estimates were erroneous: the growth in demand for electricity had stopped, the prices for natural fuel not only did not grow, but even began to decline, and the construction of a nuclear power plant was significantly more expensive than the most pessimistic forecast suggested. As a result, the nuclear power industry everywhere entered a period of serious economic difficulties, the most serious of which were in the country where it emerged and developed most intensively - in the United States.

If we carry out a comparative analysis of the economy of nuclear energy in the United States, it becomes clear why this industry has lost its competitiveness. Since the early 1970s, nuclear power plant costs have skyrocketed. The cost of a conventional thermal power plant consists of direct and indirect capital expenditures, fuel costs, operating costs and maintenance costs. Over the lifetime of a coal-fired TPP, fuel costs average 50–60% of all costs. In the case of nuclear power plants, capital investments dominate, accounting for about 70% of all costs. The capital costs of new nuclear reactors, on average, are significantly higher than the fuel costs of coal-fired power plants over their entire service life, thereby negating the fuel savings advantage in the case of nuclear power plants.

Nuclear energy prospects.

Among those who insist on the need to continue the search for safe and economical ways to develop nuclear energy, two main areas can be distinguished. Proponents of the former believe that all efforts should be focused on eliminating public distrust in the safety of nuclear technologies. For this, it is necessary to develop new reactors that are safer than the existing light-water reactors. Two types of reactors are of interest here: a “technologically extremely safe” reactor and a “modular” high-temperature gas-cooled reactor.

The prototype of the modular gas-cooled reactor was developed in Germany, as well as in the USA and Japan. Unlike a light-water reactor, the design of a modular gas-cooled reactor is such that the safety of its operation is ensured passively - without direct actions of operators or an electrical or mechanical protection system. In technologically extremely safe reactors, a passive protection system is also used. Such a reactor, the idea of ​​which was proposed in Sweden, does not appear to have advanced beyond the design stage. But he has received strong support in the United States among those who see him as a potential advantage over a modular gas-cooled reactor. But the future of both options is vague due to their uncertain cost, development difficulties, as well as the controversial future of nuclear power itself.

Proponents of the other direction believe that until the moment when developed countries need new power plants, there is little time left for the development of new reactor technologies. In their opinion, the first priority is to stimulate investment in nuclear energy.

But in addition to these two prospects for the development of nuclear energy, a completely different point of view has been formed. It is pinning its hopes on more complete utilization of supplied energy, renewable energy resources (solar panels, etc.) and energy saving. According to supporters of this point of view, if advanced countries switch to the development of more economical light sources, household electrical appliances, heating equipment and air conditioners, then the saved electricity will be enough to do without all existing nuclear power plants. The observed significant decrease in electricity consumption indicates that economy can be an important factor in limiting electricity demand.

Thus, the nuclear power industry has not yet passed the tests for efficiency, safety and public disposition. Its future now depends on how efficiently and reliably control over the construction and operation of nuclear power plants will be carried out, as well as how successfully a number of other problems, such as the problem of radioactive waste disposal, will be solved. The future of nuclear energy also depends on the viability and expansion of its strong competitors - coal-fired thermal power plants, new energy-saving technologies and renewable energy resources.

The energy of a nuclear reaction is concentrated in the nucleus of an atom. An atom is a tiny particle that makes up all matter in the universe.

The amount of energy in nuclear fission is enormous and it can be used to create electricity, but it must first be freed from the atom.

Getting energy

The use of the energy of a nuclear reaction occurs with equipment that can control nuclear fission to generate electricity.

The fuel used for reactors and energy production is most often pellets of the element uranium. In a nuclear reactor, uranium atoms are forced to fall apart. When they separate, the atoms release tiny particles called fission products. Fission products act on other uranium atoms to separate - a chain reaction begins. Nuclear energy released from this chain reaction creates heat. The heat from a nuclear reactor heats it up a lot, so it must be cooled.

The technologically superior refrigerant is usually water, but some nuclear reactors use liquid metal or molten salts. The coolant heated from the core produces steam. The steam acts on the steam turbine by turning it. The turbine is connected through a mechanical transmission to a generator that generates electricity.
The reactors are controlled by control rods that can be adjusted to the amount of heat generated. The control rods are made from a material like cadmium, hafnium or boron to absorb some of the products created by nuclear fission. Rods are present during the chain reaction to control the reaction. Removing the rods will allow the chain reaction to develop more and create more electricity.

About 15 percent of the world's electricity is generated by nuclear power plants.

The United States has more than 100 reactors, although the United States generates most of its electricity from fossil fuels and hydropower.

There are 33 power units in Russia at 10 nuclear power plants - 15% of the country's energy balance.

Lithuania, France and Slovakia consume most of their electricity from nuclear power plants.

Nuclear fuel used for energy production

Uranium is the most widely used fuel for generating nuclear energy. This is because uranium atoms are relatively easily fragmented. The specific type of uranium for production, called U-235, is rare. U-235 makes up less than one percent of the world's uranium.

Uranium is mined in Australia, Canada, Kazakhstan, Russia, Uzbekistan and must be processed before it can be used.

Since nuclear fuel can be used to create weapons, the production belongs to the treaty on the non-proliferation of such weapons on the import of uranium or plutonium or other nuclear fuel. The treaty promotes the peaceful use of fuel, as well as limiting the proliferation of these types of weapons.

A typical reactor uses about 200 tons of uranium every year.... Complex processes allow some of the uranium and plutonium to be re-enriched or reprocessed. This reduces the amount of mining, extraction and processing.

Nuclear energy and people

Nuclear nuclear power produces electricity that can be used to power homes, schools, businesses and hospitals.

The first reactor to generate electricity was built in Idaho, USA and experimentally began to power itself in 1951.

In 1954, the first nuclear power plant was created in Obninsk, Russia, designed to provide energy to people.

The construction of reactors with the extraction of nuclear energy requires a high level of technology and only countries that have signed a nonproliferation treaty can receive the uranium or plutonium that is required. For these reasons, most nuclear power plants are located in the developed countries of the world.

Nuclear power plants produce renewable, environmentally friendly resources. They do not pollute the air or emit greenhouse gases. They can be built in urban or rural areas and do not radically change the environment around them.

Radioactive material from power plants

Radioactive material in r The reactor is safe as it is cooled in a separate structure called a cooling tower. The steam is converted back to water and can be used again to generate electricity. Excess steam is simply recycled to the atmosphere, where it does not harm like clean water.

However, the energy of a nuclear reaction has a by-product in the form of radioactive material. Radioactive material is a collection of unstable nuclei. These nuclei lose their energy and can affect many materials around them, including living organisms and the environment. Radioactive material can be extremely toxic, causing disease, increasing the risk for cancer, blood disease, and bone decay.

Radioactive waste is what is left from the operation of a nuclear reactor.

Radioactive waste covers the protective clothing worn by workers, tools and fabrics that have been in contact with radioactive dust. Radioactive waste is durable. Materials like clothing and tools can be radioactive for thousands of years. The state regulates how these materials are removed so as not to contaminate anything else.

The fuel and rods used are extremely radioactive. Used uranium pellets must be stored in special containers that look like large pools; some factories store used fuel in dry storage tanks above ground.

The water cooling the fuel does not come into contact with radioactivity, therefore it is safe.

Also known for which the principle of operation is somewhat different.

The use of atomic energy and radiation safety

Critics of nuclear fusion energy use worry that nuclear waste storage facilities will leak, crack, or collapse. The radioactive material could then contaminate soil and groundwater near the site. This can lead to serious health problems for people and organisms in the area. All people would have to evacuate.

This is what happened in Chernobyl, Ukraine in 1986. A steam explosion in one of the power plants of the fourth nuclear reactor destroyed it and a fire broke out. A cloud of radioactive particles was formed, which fell to the ground or drifted with the wind, and the particles entered the water cycle in nature like rain. Most of the radioactive fallout fell in Belarus.

The environmental consequences of the Chernobyl disaster occurred immediately. In kilometers around the site, the pine forest has dried up, and the red color of the dead pines has been nicknamed the Red Forest in the area. Fish from the nearby Pripyat River received radioactivity and people will no longer be able to consume it. Cattle and horses died. More than 100,000 people have been evacuated after the disaster, but the number of human victims of Chernobyl is difficult to determine.

The consequences of radiation poisoning appear only after many years. In diseases such as cancer, it is difficult to determine the source.

The future of nuclear energy

Reactors use the fission or fission of atoms to produce energy.

Nuclear reaction energy can also be produced by fusing or attaching atoms together. Manufactured. The sun, for example, is constantly undergoing nuclear fusion of hydrogen atoms to form helium. Since life on our planet depends on the Sun, it can be said that splitting makes life on Earth possible.

Nuclear power plants do not yet have the ability to safely and reliably produce energy through nuclear fusion (combining), but scientists are researching nuclear fusion because the process is likely to be safer and more cost effective as an alternative form of energy.

The energy of a nuclear reaction is enormous and must be used by humans. The difficulty in obtaining this energy is the many competing designs with different refrigerants, operating temperatures and pressures of the heating medium, moderators, etc., in addition to the range of design power outputs. Thus, manufacturing and operating experience will play a key role.

The dependence of the binding energy per nucleon on the number of nucleons in the nucleus is shown in the graph.

The energy it takes to split a nucleus into individual nucleons is called binding energy. The binding energy per nucleon is not the same for different chemical elements and even isotopes of the same chemical element. The specific binding energy of a nucleon in a nucleus fluctuates, on average, in the range from 1 MeV for light nuclei (deuterium) to 8.6 MeV for nuclei of average weight (A≈100). In heavy nuclei (A≈200), the specific binding energy of a nucleon is less than that of nuclei of average weight, by approximately 1 MeV, so that their transformation into nuclei of average weight (division into 2 parts) is accompanied by the release of energy in an amount of about 1 MeV per nucleon, or about 200 MeV per nucleus. The transformation of light nuclei into heavier nuclei gives an even greater energy gain per nucleon. So, for example, the reaction of the combination of deuterium and tritium

1 D² + 1 T³ → 2 He 4 + 0 n 1

accompanied by the release of energy 17.6 MeV, that is, 3.5 MeV per nucleon.

Release of nuclear energy

Exothermic nuclear reactions are known that release nuclear energy.

Usually, to obtain nuclear energy, a nuclear chain reaction of fission of uranium-235 or plutonium nuclei is used. Nuclei fission when a neutron hits them, and new neutrons and fission fragments are produced. Fission neutrons and fission fragments have high kinetic energy. As a result of collisions of fragments with other atoms, this kinetic energy is quickly converted into heat.

Another way to release nuclear energy is thermonuclear fusion. In this case, two nuclei of light elements are combined into one heavy one. Such processes take place on the Sun.

Many atomic nuclei are unstable. Over time, some of these nuclei spontaneously transform into other nuclei, releasing energy. This phenomenon is called radioactive decay.

The use of nuclear energy

The energy of fusion is used in a hydrogen bomb.

Notes (edit)

see also

Links

International agreements

  • Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (Vienna, 1986)
  • Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material (Vienna, 1979)
  • Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage
  • Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management

Literature

  • Clarfield, Gerald H. and William M. Wiecek (1984). Nuclear America: Military and Civilian Nuclear Power in the United States 1940-1980, Harper & Row.
  • Cooke, Stephanie (2009). In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age, Black Inc.
  • Cravens gwyneth Power to Save the World: the Truth about Nuclear Energy. - New York: Knopf, 2007 .-- ISBN 0-307-26656-7
  • Elliott, David (2007). Nuclear or Not? Does Nuclear Power Have a Place in a Sustainable Energy Future?, Palgrave.
  • Falk, Jim (1982). Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power, Oxford University Press.
  • Ferguson, Charles D., (2007). Nuclear Energy: Balancing Benefits and Risks Council on Foreign Relations.
  • Herbst, Alan M. and George W. Hopley (2007). Nuclear Energy Now: Why the Time has come for the World's Most Misunderstood Energy Source, Wiley.
  • Schneider, Mycle, Steve Thomas, Antony Froggatt, Doug Koplow (August 2009). The World Nuclear Industry Status Report, German Federal Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation and Reactor Safety.
  • Walker, J. Samuel (1992). Containing the Atom: Nuclear Regulation in a Changing Environment, 1993-1971
  • Walker, J. Samuel (2004). Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective, Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Weart, Spencer R. The Rise of Nuclear Fear... Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012. ISBN 0-674-05233-1

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.

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  • Zimmermann, Albert Karl Heinrich

See what "Nuclear energy" is in other dictionaries:

    NUCLEAR POWER- (atomic energy) internal energy of atomic nuclei released during nuclear transformations (nuclear reactions). the binding energy of the nucleus. mass defect Nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the nucleus are firmly held by nuclear forces. To remove a nucleon from the nucleus, ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

    NUCLEAR POWER- (atomic energy), int. energy at. nuclei released during nuclear transformations. The energy to which it is necessary to spend for the splitting of the nucleus into its constituent nucleons is called. the binding energy of the nucleus? This is max. energy, to paradise can be released. ... ... Physical encyclopedia

    NUCLEAR POWER- NUCLEAR ENERGY, ENERGY released during a nuclear reaction as a result of the transition of MASS to energy as described in the equation: E = mc2 (where E is energy, m is mass, with the speed of light); it was deduced by A. Einstein in his THEORY OF RELATIVITY. ... ... Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary

    NUCLEAR POWER- (atomic energy) see () () ... Big Polytechnic Encyclopedia

    NUCLEAR POWER- (atomic energy), the internal energy of atomic nuclei, released during some nuclear reactions. The use of nuclear energy is based on the implementation of chain reactions of fission of heavy nuclei and reactions of thermonuclear fusion of light nuclei (see ... ... Modern encyclopedia