Historical essay. USE. Historical essay 1682 1725 historical
1682 - 1725 - the period of the reign of Peter the Great (until 1696 with Ivan V). Until 1689, instead of him and his brother Ivan, his sister Sophia, their regent, was in fact in power. The king was a bright and extraordinary personality. He often helped build ships, participated in hostilities. Thanks to his activity, decisive reforms began that radically changed Russia. The old orders and original Russian traditions were destroyed, European standards were taken as a model. In addition, a foreign policy was actively pursued, which increased international prestige and brought new territories.
The most striking event in the external relations of Peter I can be considered the Northern War (1700-1721). It all started with the “great embassy” to Europe, where the ruler went for support to fight Turkey.
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However, not finding allies, he changed course to Sweden, the victory over which promised the acquisition of coastal territories, which became the cause of the war. The first battle (near Narva in 1700) turned out to be a failure, but after analyzing the reasons for the defeat, Peter I carried out a military reform, and the following battles were successful (the capture of Noteburg in 1703, Grodno in 1705, the battle of Lesnaya, 1708) The turning point of the war was the Battle of Poltava in 1709, which undermined the strength of the Swedes. An important role in this battle was played by the approximate ruler A. D. Menshikov. He commanded the vanguard, the left flank, defeated the Schlippenbach detachment and the Raos corps, weakening the army. He pursued the enemy troops and forced them to capitulate. Thus, he played a big role in the radical turning point of hostilities. He also distinguished himself in the battle of Good, at Lesnaya and at Baturin (1708). Events of 1710-1721. became successful for the country (the battles of Gangut and Grengam), she became the winner. The result was the strengthening of international prestige, the transformation of Russia into an Empire and gaining access to the Baltic, which helped develop the country's economy.
The emperor paid much attention to the development of education. The reason for this was the lag of domestic science and education from European countries, the need to train qualified personnel. To solve the tasks set, associates were needed who would carry out the plans of Peter I. One of them was J. V. Bruce, one of the most educated people of his time. His contribution to the development of education and science was enormous: in 1701, at the direction of the emperor, he organized the Navigation School, supervised the first observatory in Russia and its opening, in 1706 compiled the first calendar in Russia, collected outlandish things, which later became exhibits of the Kunstkamera, wrote the first Russian textbook on geometry, created a map of the starry sky. This figure brought a lot of new things to Russian science, helped the development of education and the transformations of Peter I in the cultural and scientific spheres. The consequence of these events was an increase in the number of qualified specialists in military affairs, the further development of science and the opening of educational institutions.
Peter I not only changed Russia, but also turned it into a great power. The emperor carried out cultural reforms according to the European model, which changed the course and pace of development of the country, contributed to the transformation of the country into an industrial one by building factories, and, finally, gave ground for the development of absolutism, subjugating the church and the Senate. However, most innovations were carried out by force. The attitude towards Peter was different: the Slavophiles accused him of destroying the true Russia, while the Westerners defended him, noting the rapprochement with Europe. The historian Solovyov believed that the genius of the ruler is in understanding the position of the people and his duty to bring them out of poverty through civilization.
Updated: 2018-02-19
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1682 - 1725 - this is the period of the reign of Peter I, nicknamed the Great. From 1721 he becomes emperor. This is a period of great transformation. I will name the most important of them.
In 1697-1698, Peter went with the Great Embassy to Europe. The reason for the Grand Embassy was the need for allies against Turkey. The purpose of the embassy was to hire officers, soldiers and sailors for the Russian service, and to purchase weapons. Peter wanted to learn shipbuilding from foreign masters and went with the embassy himself. It was the first trip of the tsar abroad in the history of Russia. The result of this event was the alliance of Russia against Sweden (allies in the fight against Turkey could not be found). Also, Peter I, having visited Holland, learned carpentry skills, met with Newton, visited the Greenwich Observatory, visited the Parliament of England.
Another significant event of this period is the Northern War, which began in 1700 and ended in 1721 with the signing of the Treaty of Nystadt. At the beginning of the war, the Swedish king Charles XII managed to win allies from Russia and win a number of victories. Peter I, calling the Swedes "his teachers", began to take measures that made the army strong and combat-ready. A regular army began to be created, navigation schools were opened, St. Petersburg was founded, and intensive construction of ships was going on. All this strengthened the Russian army and allowed it to snatch victory in the Battle of Poltava and in a number of other battles on land and at sea (in 1714 at Gangut, and in 1720 near Grengam Island). The result of this event was the victory of Russia in the war. Under the terms of the Treaty of Nystad, Livonia, Estland, Ingremanland, part of Karelia with Vyborg, the islands of Ezel and Dago went to Russia.
The outstanding personalities of the first event, that is, the Great Embassy, are the head of the Ambassadorial Order Fyodor Golovin and General Admiral Franz Lefort. Golovin was the main leader of Russian foreign policy from 1699. He personally oversaw and supervised the recruitment of 800 engineers, doctors, and officers for the Russian service. With his participation, tens of thousands of rifles with bayonets were purchased, which at that time were not in Russia. Golovin after Menshikov became the second citizen of Russia, elevated to the title of count of the Holy Roman Empire. Franz Lefort was the chief official of the embassy. He conducted active political negotiations, arranged receptions, corresponded with European politicians, talked with those who wanted to enter the Russian service.
The central figures during the Northern War were Field Marshal B.P. Sheremetiev, A.D. Menshikov, V.V. Golitsyn. Sheremetyev led the offensive in Livonia and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Swedes. Menshikov captured Mazepa's headquarters - the fortress city of Baturin, commanded the Russian cavalry and participated in all the main battles with the Swedes. In the Battle of Poltava, Menshikov captured 16 thousand Swedes, while under his command at that time there were 9 thousand soldiers. As you can see, the role of the named personalities of the era is great.
Let us consider what cause-and-effect relationships exist between these events. Both events - both the Great Embassy and the Northern War - were dictated by common reasons, including the need for the country to reach the European level, the expansion of trade relations and diplomacy, Peter's desire to put Russia on a new international level. The consequence was the growth of Russia's international prestige, access to the Baltic Sea ("window to Europe") and the strengthening of Russia as a whole.
The reign of Peter I cannot be unambiguously assessed. On the one hand, thanks to Peter's reforms, Russia became a great power and joined the European civilization. These changes were progressive. So think Tatishchev, Lomonosov, Solovyov. On the other hand, protecting the Fatherland from enemies, Peter I devastated it more than any enemy. After Peter the state became stronger, but the people were poorer. This is according to Klyuchevsky. Karamzin emphasized that Russian national foundations were destroyed.
But in general, the era of Peter the Great raised Russia to a new level of development and strengthened the authority of the country among other states.
History teacher MKOU "Myureginskaya secondary school" Abidova P.G.
The period from 1689 to 1725 is the time of the formation of the Russian Empire. It is characterized first by political instability, expressed in the uprising of the archers, and then by strengthening the power of the monarch, reforming all spheres of public life and bringing the country to a qualitatively new level.
During this period, it is worth noting the Northern War between Russia and Sweden. The reason for this military conflict was Russia's desire to have access to the Baltic Sea, which she lost during the Livonian War. The result of the war, in which the Russian state won, was the strengthening of the country's defense capability, the increase in Russia's international prestige and access to the Baltic Sea, which opens up spaces for trade with Europe.
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It should be noted the activity of A. D. Menshikov. He was a commander during the Great Northern War and in many respects contributed to the success of the Battle of Poltava. He also dealt with issues of domestic politics and was a faithful close associate of the king.
One of the transformations carried out in this period in the social life of the state is the adoption of a decree on single inheritance. The reason for its adoption was the desire of the government to limit the division of the noble estate into many parts, erase the difference between the estate and hereditary land ownership, and also force the rest of the heirs of the noble and boyar families to serve in the army. The result of the decree on single inheritance was the final merger of the estate and the estate, the strengthening of the noble estates and the protection of the nobles from impoverishment, which led to the formation of a strong estate, on which the autocratic ruler could rely. It is worth noting the bright personality of Peter I. He brought Russia to a new level of development, was the initiator of many reforms that affected all spheres of public life. In addition, he strengthened the country's defense capability, under him and on his initiative, the Russian navy was created. He became the first tsar in Russia to proclaim the country an empire, and himself the emperor.
Thus, the period from 1689 to 1725 is of great importance for the history of Russia. At this time, there were changes that affected the future development of the country. A fundamental difference between the culture of the nobility and other classes took shape: some were equal to the European model, others to the original Russian traditions, which influenced the relationship between landowners and peasants. Also during this period, Russia became a powerful military power, declared its interests to the whole world, defeating the Baltic enemy.
Updated: 2017-11-12
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Peter I the Great (1682-1725)
Main activities:
1. Azov campaigns in order to ensure access to the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov (1695.1696)
2. "Great Embassy" to Europe (1697-1698) in order to get acquainted with life in Europe and search for allies for the war with the Ottoman Empire
3. Northern war of Russia with Sweden (1700-1721), Prut campaign (war with the Ottoman Empire), Caspian campaign (1722-1723)
4. Military reform.
5. Reorganization of the state administration system. Creation of the Governing Senate. Creation of boards. Publication of the "Charter on the Succession to the Throne". Edition of the Table of Ranks. Creation of a new system of territorial division of the country (provinces, provinces, districts)
6. Reforming the financial and tax system to meet the needs and demands of a belligerent state. Introduction of the poll tax
7. Legislative activity to consolidate the nobility. (Decree "On Single Inheritance")
8. Church reform (Creation of the Most Holy Governing Synod, establishment of the post of Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod and publication of the "Spiritual Regulations")
9. Establishment of guilds and workshops, increase in the number and development of patrimonial and session manufactories
10. The beginning of the Europeanization of Russia in the domestic sphere and the cultural and spiritual sphere
Results:
1. Temporary approval of Russia on the Sea of Azov (until 1711)
2. Creation (1699) and activities of the Northern Union (Denmark, Saxony (Polish Commonwealth), Russia, Prussia (since 1714), which ensured the victory of Russia in the Northern War
3. The victory of Russia in the Northern War. The consolidation of the Baltic states (Lifland, Estonia, Courland) for Russia and the acquisition by Russia of access to the Baltic Sea. Acquisition of territories in the Caspian. The transformation of Russia into an empire
4. Creation of a regular army and navy. Creation of a modern Russian officer corps. Formation of a recruiting system for the formation of the Russian army and increasing its mobility. Creation of a legal framework for the functioning of the regular army and navy (“Military Charter”, “Marine Charter”)
5. Formation of a "regular state". The transformation of the will of the ruling monarch into the basis of the succession of power. The final formation of unlimited autocratic power (the acquisition by the Russian autocracy of the features of European absolutism). Turning the length of service of military and civilian ranks into a way of promotion
6. Improving the collection of taxes. Modernization of the tax system of the country. (In this regard, the strengthening of the personal dependence of the serfs on the landlords). Introduction in the country of a new monetary system "Ruble-Hryvnia-Kopeyka"
7. Consolidation of the nobility and its transformation into a pillar of the state
8. Establishment of full control of the state over the Church
9. Creation of a domestic military and civil industry base.
10. Increased exploitation of the main sections of the population. Deepening the religious and cultural division of the country
*Compare the assessments given to the state activities of Peter I by Westerners and Slavophiles.
Indicate what was common (at least two common characteristics) and what was different (at least three
differences).
ANSWER:
1. The following general characteristics can be named:
Peter I - the largest statesman of Russia in the XVIII century, one of the most prominent figures in Russian
stories.
Peter I is a reformer tsar, whose name is associated with large-scale transformations that engulfed
all spheres of Russian society.
Under Peter I, the most important foreign policy task was solved - Russia received access to the Baltic
sea.
2.Differences:
Westerners:
The reforms of Peter I are a turning point in Russian history, thanks to which Russia is moving along
European way of development.
The foundations of secular culture and education were laid.
In the shortest possible time, Peter I brought Russia to a new level of development, turning it into a powerful
power.
Major successes have been achieved in all spheres of Russian society.
Slavophiles:
The reforms of Peter I forced Russia to turn off the "true path of development": they were forcibly destroyed
traditional orders, way of life of Russians.
Forced imposition of Western culture to the detriment of national identity.
The strengthening of serfdom and despotic power is the main result of the reforms of Peter I
1). Name at least three directions of the transformations carried out by Peter I. Bring at least
three examples of transformations in public administration.
ANSWER:
The directions of the transformations carried out by Peter I can be named: state-administrative,
socio-economic, military, church, in the sphere of culture and life.
Examples of transformations in the field of public administration can be given:
1. abolition of the Boyar Duma;
2. the establishment of the Senate;
3. Creation of collegiums instead of the abolished order system;
4. formation of provinces;
5. the abolition of the patriarchate and the creation of the Holy Synod;
6.changes in the order of succession to the throne;
7. Creation of new local authorities.
2). In what areas of the life of society did Peter I carry out transformations in the first quarter of the XVIII
in.? Name at least three areas. What are the main reforms in the field of public
management (at least three).
ANSWER:
1. Spheres of life of society can be indicated:
Political (public administration), financial, military, social, cultural and spiritual life;
household.
2. In the field of public administration, reforms can be named:
The establishment of colleges, the establishment of the Senate and the Synod, the implementation of the provincial reform, the establishment of city
magistrates, the adoption of the "Decree on succession to the throne", the introduction of the "Table of Ranks", the proclamation of Russia
empire, etc.
3). What are the reasons for the reforms of the public administration system in the first quarter of the 18th century (not
less than two reasons). What new governing bodies were created during this period? (name not
less than three such organs).
ANSWER:
1. Reasons for reforms: in order to better collect taxes, a centralized system of government was needed and
control system; maximum centralization of management and strengthening the personal power of the monarch (for victory in
Northern War).
2. New governing bodies: 1711 - creation of the Senate; 1717-1721 - creation of collegiums; 1721 - creation
Synod;
4). What changes have occurred in the position of social groups in Russian society in the first
quarter of the 18th century? Name at least three changes. List at least three pieces of legislation
social policy of Peter I.
ANSWER:
1. In 1714, a Decree on uniform inheritance was issued, according to which the noble estate was equalized in rights with the boyar
fiefdom. The decree marked the final merger of the two estates of feudal lords into a single class (nobles)
2. In 1722, the publication of the Table of Ranks, dividing the military, civil and court service. So
the ruling stratum was strengthened by the inclusion of the most talented representatives
other estates.
3.1718-1724 - capitation census of the male population. (The population of Russia was 15 million people, 3% -
city dwellers.
4.1721 the Chief Magistrate was created (the townspeople were divided into separate categories, remained
class groups of feudal society).
5.1724 - a decree forbidding peasants to leave the landowners to work without their written
permits (the beginning of the passport system in Russia).
5). Compare the position of noble landowners and boyars-patrimonials. Record your answer in the form of a table.
ANSWER:
General: both the boyars and the nobles were landowners, on whose lands the peasants worked; they were
service people "in the fatherland" and were supposed to serve in the royal army.
Differences: boyars: owned estates - large hereditary land holdings. occupied
leadership positions in the state. Nobles: owned relatively small estates, which
received from the king for service. In the event of termination of service, the nobles lost their estates. They couldn't
sell, donate or inherit their estates. Could occupy some important
positions.
6). Below are two points of view on the significance of the transformations of Peter I:
1.Slavophiles in the middle of the XIX century. They sharply negatively assessed the transformations of Peter I, laying on
they are responsible for the omnipotence of the bureaucracy and the horrors of serfdom.
2. Many researchers believe that the transformations of Peter I were prepared by everyone
previous development, they contributed to overcoming the backlog of Russia from the developed
countries, turning it into a great European power.
Please indicate which of these points of view you prefer. Bring no
less than three facts, provisions that can serve as arguments confirming the chosen
you point of view.
ANSWER:
When choosing the first point of view:
During the reign of Peter in Russia, absolutism finally took shape, inextricably linked with the formation
bureaucracy, the bureaucratic apparatus of governing the country.
During the reforms, serfdom intensified, the lack of freedom of all classes, including
nobility.
One of the consequences of the reforms of Peter I was the cultural split of Russian society into a Europeanized one.
the elite and the mass of the population, alien to the new European values.
The main method of carrying out the transformations was violence, applied against all strata
society, relying on the punitive power of the state.
When choosing the second point of view:
The reforms of Peter I were based on those changes in all spheres of the country's life that occurred in the middle and
second half of the 17th century. In the reign of his father Alexei Mikhailovich.
As a result of the Petrine reforms, a significant step was taken in the development of the economy
(manufactory, protectionist policy, development of national production, etc.). state
management (proclamation of the empire, collegium, Senate, etc.).
Russian culture was enriched by the latest for that time achievements of European science, art,
education (the opening of schools. The publication of the first printed newspaper, the creation of the Academy of Sciences, etc.).
Peter's reforms in the field of military affairs created an army that managed to win access to
the Baltic Sea and turn Russia into one of the strongest powers.
The transformations of Peter I were prepared by all the previous development, they contributed to overcoming the backlog of Russia from different countries of Europe, turning it into a great European power. The reforms of Peter I were based on the changes in all spheres of the country's life that took place in the middle and second half of the 17th century. during the reign of his father Alexei Mikhailovich; 2. Petrine transformations in the field of military affairs created an army that managed to win access to the Baltic Sea and turn Russia into one of the strongest powers in Europe; 3. as a result of Peter's reforms, a significant step was taken in the development of public administration (the Senate, collegiums, the proclamation of the empire, etc.), the economy (manufactory, the development of national production, the policy of protectionism, etc.) 4. thanks to the reforms of Peter I, Russian culture enriched with the latest for the XVIII century. achievements of European science, education, art. (opening of schools, publication of the first printed newspaper, creation of the Academy of Sciences, etc.)
The significance of the transformations of the era of Peter I has a sharply negative character, since the reforms of Peter I are all responsible for the omnipotence of the bureaucracy and the horrors of serfdom. The main method of carrying out the transformations was violence, applied against all sectors of society, reliance on the punitive power of the state; 2. During the reign of Peter I, absolutism finally took shape in Russia, inextricably linked with the formation of the bureaucracy (the bureaucratic apparatus of government); 3. during the reforms, serfdom intensified, as well as the lack of freedom of all classes, including the nobility; 4. The consequence of the reforms of Peter I was the cultural split of Russian society into a Europeanized elite and the masses of the population, to whom the new European values were alien.
Abrupt reform methods are not justified by anything, many
reforms were fruitless, were of a negative nature, contributed to the formation in the public
development of contradictions fraught with a powerful explosion. Arguments.
1. Peter destroyed the traditional national foundations;
2. Borrowing the Western way of life was selective, superficial, the differences between Russia and
Western countries in the political and socio-economic system were preserved and even deepened;
3. Stana suffered huge human and material losses during the reforms;
4. Peter did not carry out the most important reform: he did not abolish serfdom, exploitation intensifies
own population by traditional methods;
5. Capitalist tendencies in the economy were curtailed;
6. Production based on state coercion retains an extensive feudal
character;
7. There is a nationalization of public life. A system of total control of the king over
population, autocracy, centralization and bureaucratization of management is increasing, not regulated
only public life, but also personal life, the state is opposed to society;
8. Cultural isolation of the educated minority from the majority, who remained faithful to the covenants
antiquity, Peter's transformations caused damage to culture, the tradition, without which culture can live, was interrupted
can not.
Arguments for the assessment set out in the assignment: In historical science, there is an opinion that the cruel measures of the Peter the Great reforms
justified by their progressive nature.
1.reforms accelerated the development of Russia. Attracted to the economic recovery;
2. reforms in the field of culture (in particular, trips to study abroad) contributed to the initiation
Russians to the achievements of Western culture;
3. Russia's access to the shores of the Baltic Sea contributed to the development of industry and trade. promotion
defense capability and international prestige of the country;
4. Creation of the army and navy contributed to the strengthening of the country's defense capability.
Activities
1. Domestic policy
Activities | results |
Strengthening royal power. | Further centralization of power. The king's control over all spheres of life. 1721 - the king became known as the emperor, which significantly increased his role in the country. 1722 - Decree on succession to the throne: the emperor himself appointed the heir, based on the interests of the state. |
Improving the system of state and local government. | 1. Central government reforms: instead of the Boyar Duma, the Near Office was first created, and then in 1711 it was createdGoverning Senate; instead of 44 orders - 11 (then 14) colleges in 1717-1721; 1720- General Regulations, a document that consolidated the principles of collegiality and determined the functions of colleges.
1714 - the appearance of fiscals - officials exercising control over the activities of institutions and persons in financial and judicial activities. 1718 - The Secret Chancellery (political investigation) was established. 1720 - the Chief Magistrate was created, the main institution over the magistrates of other cities (these are self-government bodies in cities) |
Formation of a bureaucratic apparatus capable of solving the assigned tasks. | 1714 - Decree "On single inheritance", according to which the estate was inherited by the eldest son. The rest should serve the country. 1722 - Table of ranks, allowing you to support talented people from different classes. According to him, the 8th rank gave the right to hereditary nobility. The emergence of colleges, the administrative division of the country significantly increased the bureaucracy. |
Deterioration of the condition of the peasants. | Forced work at enterprises (affiliated and possessive peasants). 1724 - a ban on peasants to go to work without the permission of the landlords. A passport system was introduced. 100 km. The result was numerous performances of the people, the most significant: the Astrakhan uprising in 1705-1706 and the uprising led by K. Bulavin in 1708-1709. |
Carrying out church reform. | 1721 - the creation of the Synod, leading the church. The liquidation of the patriarchate, at the head of the Synod - a secular person, chief prosecutor. |
Strengthening the defense capability and military power of the country, carrying out military reform. | 1696 - creation of the navy. 1705 - creationregular army. The introduction of recruiting sets. Lifelong service of peasant recruits. 1725 - the consciousness of an irregular army at the same time. The emergence of many educational institutions that train army officers (1701 - the first artillery school in Moscow, 1712 - in St. Petersburg, 1698 - the first nautical school in Azov. mathematical sciences, where they trained personnel for the army, etc.) For the nobles, the service became lifelong. 1716-"Military Regulations"about the order in the army. Especially the moral - moral qualities of soldiers and officers. 1718-1722 - "Marine Charter" and "Admiralty Regulations". 1707 - the first military hospital appeared in Moscow. |
Improving the financial system. | Accumulation of the country's gold reserves. 1704 - monetary reform. Reducing the content of precious metals in coins. Copper money appeared. 1711 - monetary reform, minting of gold, silver and copper coins. 1718-1724 - census of the population, introduction of a new type of tax -poll tax. |
Further development of industry | Created new industrial centers, new industries (shipbuilding, glassmaking, paper production). 1699 - the first ironworks in the Urals Vinius. |
Support for domestic trade. | The policy wasmercantilism and protectionism1703 - the first exchange of merchants appeared in St. Petersburg. 1721 - trade charter 1724 - the first protectionist customs tariff. Canals and communication routes were built to allow active trade. |
The state policy in the field of education is beginning to take shape, contributing to its further development. | A system of vocational education is being formed. However, only children of the nobility could enter the educational institutions where future officers were trained. Education for the nobility became mandatory. Without a diploma of education, priests could not give the right to marry. Strengthening secular principles in education. 1696- Decree on sending noble children abroad for study. |
Support for scientific discoveries, creation of conditions for scientific activity in Russia. | The opening of the Russian Academy of Sciences has been prepared. However, Peter did not have time to do this, the Academy was opened in the year of the death of the emperor - in 1725 - by Catherine 1.1699 - the opening of the navigation school by an associate of Peter 1 P. Bruce - astronomy was studied there. 1702 - the first observatory in Russia was equipped on the Sukharev Tower Russia map of the starry sky. And since 1725, regular meteorological observations began in St. Petersburg. 1703 - the release of L. Magnitsky's Arithmetic, M. Lomonosov will call this book "the gates of learning." 1712-1725 - A. Martov was the first in the world to invent and build a lathe. 1724 - the first Russian submarine (mechanic Nikonov) Since 1722, the collection of materials on the history of Russia began. |
Further discovery of mineral deposits and their processing | 1700 - a mining exploration service was created, the purpose of which is to search for minerals. 1703 - a copper ore deposit was discovered in the Urals by a peasant Shilov. 1714 - mineral waters were discovered in Petrozavodsk by a master Ryabov. discovered by the explorer Grigory Kapustin. At the same time, brown coal was found in the Moscow region. |
Further development of culture. | Forced imposition of a way of life according to the Western model. 1700 - transition to a new chronology. 1708 - introduction of a civil, more lightweight font. 1719 - creation of the first museum - the Kunstkamera. 1702 - the first printed periodical newspaper "Vedomosti" is published. (a public theater was opened in Moscow) 1714 - the first public library was opened. 1717 - a set of rules for behavior at the table and other public places appeared - “An honest mirror of youth”. high society, for the first time women were invited. Innovation in architecture: for the first time St. Petersburg is being built according to plan, palace and park ensembles appeared in Peterhof. The heyday of painting, especially portraiture (A. Matveev, I. Nikitin) |
2. Foreign policy
Activities | results |
Southern direction. Purpose: to achieve access to the Black Sea, to annex territories. | 1695 - the first Azov campaign , unsuccessful, since there was no fleet.1696-second Azov campaign. Successful. During the winter, a fleet was created. Azov was taken, the Taganrog fortress was built. 1697-1698-Grand Embassyto Europe in order to find allies to fight against Turkey. Didn't solve problems. The embassy consisted of 250 people, among them Lefort, Golovin, Voznitsyn; Peter I under the name of constable Peter Mikhailov. 1699-Karlovitsky Congress, peace was signed with Turkey for two years. 1700-Constantinopletruce for 30 years.1710-1713-Russian-Turkish war. Turkey demands the return of Azov.1711- Prut campaign. The Russian army is surrounded by the Turks on the Prut River, near Yass.Truce of Jassy, according to which Russia leaves Moldova, returns Azov, destroys the Azov fleet, the Taganrog fortress and others. 1724-Treaty of Constantinoplewith Turkey. Russia recognized Turkey's conquests in Transcaucasia, and Turkey recognized Russia's conquests in the Caspian region. |
Northern direction. Purpose: to achieve access to the Baltic Sea, to annex territories. | 1699- Northern Union (Russia, Denmark, Saxony) 1700-1721- North War with Sweden. November 1700 - defeat near Narva. 1702 - Capture of Mirenburg and Noteburg (Schlisselburg) 1703 - capture of Nienschanz 1704 - capture of Navra and Derpt 1706 -Altranstadt peacebetween Sweden and Poland, according to which Poland broke off relations with Russia and pledged to help Sweden. September 28, 1708 - battle near the village Forest, a major victory for Russia. June 27, 1709-Poltava battle. Russian victory. 1710-capture of Riga, Vyborg, Revel. 1710 - first naval victory - Gangut fight. 1718-1719- Åland Congress,according to which Sweden and Russia wanted to end the war. However, the death of Charles 12 and the coming to power of new people did not allow the signing of a peace treaty, although it was much softer for the Swedes than the Nishtad peace. 1720- Grenham battle, the victory of Russia. 1721 - Peace of Nystad with Sweden. According to it, Russia gained a foothold in the Baltic Sea from Vyborg to Riga (this is part of Karelia, Ingria, Estonia - Estonia, Livonia - Latvia, Russia paid 1.5 million rubles for the western territories. Finland returned to Sweden. |
Southern direction. The goal is to consolidate on the shores of the Caspian Sea. | 1722-1723 - Russian-Persian war.Persia recognized Russia's right to the western and southern coasts of the Caspian Sea. 1722- Caspian (Persian) campaign of Peter 1. Derbent was taken. 1723 - the campaign was resumed, the southern and western coasts of the Caspian Sea were conquered (Baku, Rasht, Salyan) 1723-Petersburg Treatywith Persia, according to which Russia secures the conquered territories. |
Eastern direction: the desire to secure a trade route with India, | 1716-1717 - expedition of Prince A. Bekovich-Cherkassky to Central Asia ( Khiva campaign ). Unsuccessful, the death of the prince. End of the hike. The eastern direction was not very interested in Peter, since the main thing for him was to achieve access to the Baltic and Black Seas. |
Federal Agency for Education of the Russian Federation
Tula State University
Essay on history on the topic:
Russia in the era of Perth I
(1682-1725)
Fulfilled st-ka group 720151
Chernyshova D.V.
checked Hoffman S.Kh.
1. Prerequisites for Peter's reforms.
2. The contradictory nature of the reforms of Peter I.
3. Russia's foreign policy in the first quarter of the 18th century.
No. 1. Prerequisites for Peter's reforms.
During the 17th century, Russia made significant progress in its development. However, according to some important indicators of the economy, it lagged far behind the advanced countries of Western Europe, where the formation of bourgeois society was going on.
Bourgeois revolutions took place in the Netherlands and England, industry, trade, and navigation were on the rise. Western states were actively sacking colonies in different parts of the world, which brought them precious metals, cheap labor - slaves, and opened up opportunities for enrichment. Even those countries where the changes were not so significant had advantages over Russia. Thus, Sweden had a merchant fleet of up to 800 ships, in addition to warships. The smelting of iron there reached 30,000 tons per year, the metal entered the foreign market thanks to convenient access to the seas.
Russia had neither a merchant nor a navy. As early as the beginning of the 17th century. the Swedish king said that Russia could not launch a single ship, since the sea was "taken away from it." Russia was also cut off from the seas in the south. Metal smelting in our country was many times inferior to Sweden. Natural resources were still poorly explored, which is not surprising given the low population density, especially on the outskirts, where the main mineral deposits were located. Silver and gold were not mined - the material for making coins. I had to rely on it coming from other countries. Only at the end of the 17th century. development of silver ore began in Siberia near Nerchinsk. Yes, and copper was mainly imported from abroad.
Insufficient was the domestic industry for the production of weapons. During the war years, large purchases of weapons were carried out in other states. As before, poorly equipped and untrained noble militia were convened, although regiments of the “new system” were created - the forerunners of the regular army.
Serious shortcomings were revealed in the activities of state institutions - orders. There was no coordination between them, the scope of their duties was not clearly defined. There were many courts for different groups of the population, taxes were collected by various orders, money expenses were also not controlled by a single body. The country did not have an annual budget.
The needs of Russia's further development put forward the task of intensifying state policy in the field of education, culture, and science. The original and rich culture of our people has created the prerequisites for the perception of the achievements of other states in technology, science and everyday life.
However, the opinion about the almost catastrophic situation in Russia at the end of the 17th century is a delusion. Then there was no threat of losing state independence. At the same time, transformations could accelerate the development of the country. Inevitably, the question arose of mastering the sea coasts for closer economic, political and cultural ties with Western Europe. It was impossible to expect that any power would peacefully and voluntarily let Russia go to the seas. The harsh reality testified that a stubborn struggle lay ahead, that it was necessary to prepare for war.
On April 27, 1682 Fedor Alekseevich died. His younger brother Peter was placed on the throne. Some researchers believed that this was the will of the deceased, since he understood that his middle brother Ivan, who had reached the age of 16, was not able to rule (he had scurvy, had poor eyesight and stuttered). Peter was 10 years old, but with his inquisitive mind, liveliness and excellent health, he differed sharply from Ivan. Under pressure from the Miloslavskys, Tsarevich Ivan was proclaimed the second tsar. On June 25, 1682, both tsars were married in the Dormition Cathedral. Since both kings were minors, Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina was considered the ruler under them. However, she failed to form around herself a true circle of people capable of firmly holding power in their hands.
As a result of the Streltsy uprising on May 15, 1682, the elder sister of the princes Sofya Alekseevna became the de facto ruler.
Reshuffles in the government immediately began, V.V. became its head. Golitsyn. Streltsy became known as the Naval Infantry. In 1686, an “Eternal Peace” was concluded with Poland, under the terms of which the Left-Bank Ukraine and Kiev were forever assigned to the Russian state. In return, Russia joined the "Holy League" against Turkey. In 1687 and 1689 - Crimean campaigns led by Golitsyn, which ended in failure.
Sophia tried in every possible way to strengthen her position. She participated in official ceremonies, received ambassadors, from 1684 her image began to be minted on coins, in 1686. Showing herself to be the patroness of science and knowledge, in 1687 she opened the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy - the first institution of higher education in the country .
All this time, Peter and his mother lived in the village of Preobrazhensky near Moscow, in the Kremlin he visited only at receptions of foreign ambassadors and at other solemn ceremonies. His favorite pastime was war games with "amusing regiments", which consisted of children of the same age. He eagerly began to comprehend geometry and navigation. In 1688, Peter went to Lake Pereslavl and, with the help of Dutch craftsmen, built ships there.
In January 1689, Natalya Kirillovna married her son to Evdokia Fedorovna Lopukhina. From that time on, he began to be considered an adult and independent person, capable of ruling the country. In the summer of that year, she summoned her son to Moscow in order for him to present his rights to power. In August, Peter left for Preobrazhenskoye. Sophia was informed that he was collecting his amusing regiments there to go to the Kremlin. In fear, she began to collect faithful archers. Upon learning of this, Peter left for the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. From August 8, his supporters began to come to him. Soon the number of the ruler's friends dropped sharply. She had to give the head of the Streltsy order F.L. Shaklovity, who was later executed. She herself was arrested and imprisoned in the Novodevichy Convent.
Since 1689, the mother of the king, N.K., actually began to rule the country. Naryshkina, and her closest relatives. They were opponents of innovations, poorly educated people. Places in the Boyar Duma, in orders, voivodship positions were divided between the Naryshkins, Lopukhins and their friends.
In the first years of his reign, Peter almost did not deal with public affairs. Increasingly, Peter arranges maneuvers, reviews, improves the weapons of his soldiers, attracts foreign officers to their training. Several warships are being built on Pereyaslavsky Lake near Moscow by decree of the tsar.
Left to himself for many years in the village of Preobrazhensky, Peter never received a systematic education. By nature, inquisitive, capable, grasping everything new literally on the fly, he now casually continues to fill in the gaps in knowledge, uses every opportunity to learn something new useful. Increasingly, he spends time in the German Quarter. At the same time, Peter quickly learns languages - German and Dutch.
In the summer of 1693, with his associates, he went to Arkhangelsk. There he orders the construction of a ship from Dutch specialists, and lays down the first two Russian frigates at a local shipyard. Since then, the sea, maritime affairs have captured him even more.
In 1694 Natalya Kirillovna died. Peter was very upset by the death of his mother. He locked himself in the wards and did not go out to people for several days. When he left, he was already an independent ruler, behind his back there was no longer a mother - his long-term protection and support.
March 9, 1697 Peter as part of the "Great Embassy" went to European countries. The purpose of the embassy was to once again push the countries of the "Holy League" to war with the Turks. In addition, it was necessary to get acquainted with Western technical innovations, purchase weapons, hire specialists of various profiles and, if possible, master various sciences. For a year and a half, the Russian ambassadors, and with them Peter, traveled around Europe. The impressions received were enormous. The future emperor realized that his country needed fundamental reforms and modernization. When he returned, he rolled up his sleeves and set to work.
No. 2. The contradictory nature of Peter's reforms I .
The period of the reign of Peter I in Russian historiography is usually regarded as the beginning of a new era in the history of Russia. More Klyuchevsky V.O. noted: "... according to a simplified systematization, our entire history was divided into two periods: ancient Russia, pre-Petrine, and new Russia, Peter the Great and post-Petrine." For all the conventionality of such periodization, it reflects the main thing - the enormous historical significance of Peter's reforms for the fate of Russia. No wonder S.M. Soloviev characterized this period as a terrible upheaval, a painful turning point in the life of the people, a revolution of the beginning of the 18th century. A.I. Herzen called Peter I a revolutionary on the throne. *
The defeat near Narva in 1700 revealed not only the weaknesses of the country's armed forces - the unpreparedness of new regiments, the lack of large-scale combat experience, the unreliability of foreign commanders - but also the insufficient
* Meanwhile, whether it was a “revolution” or not is indicated differently in different sources. In some, Peter's activity is regarded as revolutionary, because. he broke with the old orders in Russia. Others say that Peter continued the policy of his predecessors, but more progressively and sharply, which differed from the calm and measured rule of the first tsars of Russia. But everyone agrees only that Peter in a short time advanced Russia in its development to the level of European powers.
military and economic base of the country, poor organization of business, archaic management. All the ulcers and shortcomings of old Russia seemed to be focused in this instructive lesson that Charles XII gave Russia. After Narva, Peter took up reforms more decisively (but according to some historians, the first reforms did not have a strategy, they were carried out inconsistently, even Peter's reform began to receive legislative registration only at the end of his reign).
administrative reform.
It was designed to ensure the unlimited power of the autocrat in resolving all issues of public life. From now on, the latter was characterized by strict centralization, bureaucratization of the state administration apparatus, a regular army, the inclusion of the Church in the general system of state administration, and the streamlining of the financial sphere.
The restructuring of the state administration apparatus was carried out within the framework of administrative reforms carried out at all levels of power. The Swedish central government models had a significant impact on administrative reforms, and at the level of the regional government, Estland and Livonia conquered by Russia. The Governing Senate, which replaced the former Boyar Duma, in 1711 became the highest institution of the Petrine administration. Since 1722, the Senate was headed by the Prosecutor General (before that, the chief secretary).
Instead of orders that functioned on the basis of a personal principle, colleges were established that acted on the principles of collegiality. In 1717 - 1718. in Russia, 12 colleges were established, which functioned on the basis of special regulations (charters). The presidents of the colleges were Russians, and the vice-presidents were in most cases foreigners. The foreigner had to be one of the advisers or assessors of the college. The introduction of foreigners into the boards was supposed to increase the efficiency of the work of the new governing bodies. In practice, however, the collegiate form of government was not as effective as its creator hoped.
The transformation of local government is characterized by a set of independent reforms: city government (1699 and 1721), local government (1708 - 1711, 1719), an attempt to grant the nobility the right to elect their representatives to local government (1702 - 1705, 1713, 1714). The first was an attempt to establish in Moscow in 1699 the Chamber of Burmisters, and in other cities - the post of Burmese. However, urban self-government in Russia did not have a solid foundation. And in 1721, the Chief Magistrate was established in St. Petersburg, who was in charge of the affairs of the entire urban class in Russia. City magistrates appeared in large cities. In 1708 - 1709. The country was divided into 8 provinces. At the head of the provinces was a governor appointed by the king. The executive and judicial powers were concentrated in his hands. In 1719, they were divided into 50 provinces, which were divided into counties, headed by governors. At the same time, another trend can be traced in the activities to improve local legislation - Peter's desire to involve the local nobility in management affairs. But here Peter was faced with the formidable rigidity of the nobility. The intensification of the role of the nobility in the field led to the expansion of its official duties, which caused discontent, and sometimes even hostility, of the nobility itself.*
military reform.
In the reorganization of the armed forces of Russia, Peter relied both on domestic traditions, a deep knowledge of the national character of the Russian soldier, and on the European experience of military development and military art. The recruitment system was put in the basis of manning the army and navy. Every year, the taxable population gave one recruit from a certain number of souls. Combat training was carried out in accordance with the charters. The main ones were the Military Regulations of 1716 and the Marine Regulations of 1720. Peter was directly involved in their development. They also consolidated the absolutism of Russia: “His Majesty is an autocratic monarch who should not give an answer to anyone in the world about his affairs, but has his own states and lands, like a Christian sovereign, by will and goodwill, govern” (Military Regulations 1716). Several special schools were established for the training of officers. By a decree of February 26, 1714, Peter decisively forbade the production of officers of the nobles who had not completed the soldier's service in the guards and "they don't know from the foundation of the soldier's business." The effectiveness of Peter's military reform was evidenced not only by the victories of the Russian army and navy in the Northern War, but also by the viability of many principles.**
Economic reform.
An important place in the complex of Peter's transformations is occupied by economic reforms, which were distinguished by their practical orientation. The greatest successes were achieved in the development of industry, which was determined primarily by the need to first meet the needs of the army. The role of the state and directly the monarch himself in the development of industry was literally overwhelming. Only the state itself, with its enormous resources, with the strong power of the monarch, was able to solve these problems. But still the government stimulated the development of private capital in every possible way. For the construction of new manufactories, industrialists were provided with loans, various benefits and monopolies. The creation of industrial companies was encouraged, and often this happened under direct pressure from the state. To weaken competition from foreign producers, the government set higher tariffs on goods imported from abroad.
Thus, the first attempt to accelerate the industrialization of the country was a matter of state. This gave grounds to V.O. Klyuchevsky to define Peter's policy in relation to manufactories as "state-owned greenhouse education of industry." It is impossible to ignore the presence by the end of the XVII century. a sufficiently developed domestic market, national private capital, which to a large extent ensured the dynamism and, in general, the success of the reforms. As for the socio-economic nature of the Petrine manufactories,
*In my opinion, this reform did not bring the expected results and only doubled the bureaucracy.
** I believe that this reform is one of the most successful reforms of Peter I.
then they intertwined elements of capitalist and serf relations (because serfs were the labor force in the manufactories).
Agricultural reform.
It was this main branch of the country's economy that was the least accessible to the state's regulatory activities, because a significant part of the peasants were wholly owned by the landowners. In relation to the landowners, who bring the peasants to ruin with their requisitions, the government limited itself to measures of control and suggestion. Peter was perhaps the first to draw attention to the need to disseminate agricultural knowledge among the people. In 1721, a Decree was issued on the use of scythes and rakes (instead of sickles) when harvesting grain. The first vineyards were planted on the Don. Animal husbandry was under the special patronage of the state: measures were taken to improve the breeds of horses, cattle, sheep, for which thoroughbred cattle were purchased abroad.
social reform.
Social reforms based on Peter's idea of the "common good" were carried out in the interests of the ruling class. Transformations in the social sphere did not shake the structural basis of society, but made class boundaries even clearer, while at the same time increasing the level of social mobility of certain categories of the population. The adoption in 1722 of the Table of Ranks divided the entire mass of government officials into 14 ranks. It established the procedure for promotion to rank in the civil and military service not by nobility, but by personal merit and ability. However, the real opportunities for ordinary people to rise through the ranks were very limited.
Peter's transformations gave impetus to the emergence and development of new social strata of Russian society - the bureaucracy and the bourgeoisie.
The peasants were considered by Peter primarily as the main source of taxes to the treasury and soldiers to the army. This approach led to those significant changes that took place in the system of feudal property, peasant duties, and in the tax mechanism. In particular, in accordance with the decree of uniform inheritance of 1714, the estates of the nobles were turned into estates. The land and the peasants became the full property of the landowners. The legal difference between peasants and serfs has finally disappeared. The strengthening of serfdom went hand in hand with the strengthening of the economic oppression of the landowners and the state against the peasantry. The sharply increased needs of the nobility in money were satisfied by increasing the size of feudal rent. The state tax burden on the peasant class also increased significantly.
The power of the landowners over the peasants expanded simultaneously with the even greater restriction of the civil rights of the latter. In 1724, a passport system was introduced in Russia, which deprived the peasants of the opportunity to leave their place of permanent residence without the permission of the landowner. The decree of 1713 ordered, at the request of the landowner, to punish the peasants who resented against his power with a whip.
financial reform.
The reform began in 1718 with a census of the entire taxable male population of Russia, regardless of age. After the poll tax was introduced. By changing the object of taxation, the state managed to almost double the amount of taxes levied on the population. Various kinds of state duties were also introduced (travel, parking, construction, etc.)
The inconsistency of the reforms of Peter I can be viewed from various sides and aspects of his activities, but they are all interconnected and come from each other.
The Russian tsar did not like everything in the West - he either hostilely or indifferently met European democratic traditions: the parliament, the system of popular representation, elections. He never realized that it was precisely such fundamental political changes in England and Holland that put these countries in the ranks of the leading industrial powers of Europe. Freedom of the individual, civil liberties, freedom of enterprise - these concepts remained alien to him. Returning to Russia, he remained the Russian autocrat, an absolute monarch, towering over his subjects - serfs, who trembled at one of his formidable glances. None of Peter's entourage entertained illusions about monarchist democracy. He really could easily visit his comrades-in-arms and ordinary people, zealously perform the duties of a “volunteer”, “scorer”, “general”, “rear admiral”, bow and follow the orders of a higher military “chief”. He allowed objections and even heated arguments - but only for the time being and up to a certain limit. If a subject transgressed this limit, designated by the king himself, then a formidable cry followed, a cruel punishment, and sometimes a scaffold. And all the "chicks of Petrov's nest" knew this very well.
A rapid leap in development stands on the bones of the serfs. It has already been indicated above that the last strength and hopes for survival were literally sucked out of the peasants, this was required by the time and the monarch.
There was a violent mobilization of the population for the settlement of the captured Azov and the construction of the Taganrog harbor. Thousands of peasants are driven into the Voronezh forests to build a fleet. Those who fled are brought back in chains and branded with red-hot iron on their faces.
The lower classes of society, the "vile people", as Peter said, are for him only an instrument in the implementation of great deeds. He began to work for Russia, for his own Russia, as he saw and understood it, but in this Russia there was no place for humanistic views and goals, concerns about human rights, i.e. those ideas and practices that were beginning to make their way in the West. In Russia, shackles were still rattling, and people were driven to great deeds with wooden blocks around their necks.
But Peter was cruel not only to the peasants, any disobedience led to punishment. So, a few days before leaving for Europe in 1697, a streltsy conspiracy against Peter was uncovered in Moscow. The king took an active part in the interrogations of the accused. Interrogations were accompanied by brutal torture. Peter spent long hours in the dungeon, personally developed a savage ritual for the execution of conspirators. No less cruelly he dealt with other conspirators upon his return from Europe.
Another contradiction is noticeable in social reform. In the Table of Ranks, the order of promotion to the rank was established according to personal merits and abilities. In my opinion, this is only opened up access to the nobility for people from the lower strata, because the lower strata were uneducated, downtrodden serfs.
The only and main goal of Peter I was the good for Russia, its greatness. He achieved this goal and the results stunned everyone then and still stun, but Russia's means of welfare are no less staggering - many thousands of ruined souls of their people, not slaves, as it was in Europe, but compatriots .
No. 3. Russia's foreign policy in the first quarter XVIII century.
While in Europe, Peter clearly understood that the European powers did not intend to fulfill their allied obligations in the fight against Turkey. Negotiations between the powers and Turkey were carried on in full swing secretly from Peter. The Russian Tsar got his bearings quickly. He himself took a course of non-peaceful settlement of affairs with Turkey and turned his eyes to the North. Access to the Baltic Sea, a breakthrough to the sea in the northern direction, have always been in the sphere of Russian politics since the time of Ivan III. Now Poland, Brandenburg, Denmark, Saxony could become Russia's allies here. They experienced the strongest pressure from powerful Sweden, which seized vast territories along the shores of the Baltic, including from Russia. So, instead of an anti-Turkish alliance, Peter took with him from Europe a secret agreement with a number of northern countries to fight against Sweden. It was a bold and prudent turn in Russia's entire foreign policy.
On August 8, 1700, Peter received news of the conclusion of a thirty-year peace with Turkey, according to which Azov and the coast of the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov up to the Mius River remained with Russia. And the very next day, the king moved his troops to the Swedish fortress of Narva. The long Northern War began, which became the second life of Peter and subjugated the country for a long twenty years. Peter acted covertly and unexpectedly. Russian diplomats did their best to conceal the turn in Russian foreign policy that had taken place. They pretended that Russia still wanted to go to war with Turkey. The Swedes, wanting to divert Russian forces to the south, even gave Peter 300 new guns for the Azov fleet and the Taganrog fortress. In the days when the Russian army was already moving to Narva, the Russian ambassador in Sweden presented Peter's letter with assurances of friendship to King Charles XII in Stockholm. The lessons of European diplomacy clearly went to the Russian tsar for the future.
Russia's enemy was extremely dangerous. At the head of Sweden was the 18-year-old King Charles XII. Despite his youth, he showed bright military leadership abilities. Taking care of the army, the king increased taxes, introduced a recruiting set. All Sweden worked during these years for its army and its warlike king.
But before the Russian troops approached Narva, Charles XII dealt a swift blow to the allies. He took Denmark out of the war. He quickly dealt with the Saxons. After that, the "Swedish lion" rushed towards Russia. He landed his 15,000-strong army on the coast of present-day Estonia and moved to Narva.
By this time, the Russian units, led by Peter, had been unsuccessfully besieging the city for several weeks. Ammunition and food were sorely lacking. Soldiers suffered from cold, hunger and disease. In addition, discord began in the army. The newly assembled regiments did not yet have combat training and experience. In full measure, Peter could only rely on his guards regiments and Lefortov. The Swedes approached Narva on 18 November. Peter did not expect them to appear so quickly, and by this time he had left for Novgorod.
Charles XII did not hesitate, and the next day he led his small but determined, disciplined and well-armed army in an attack on the Russian positions. Foreign officers immediately surrendered to the Swedes, leaving the army without leadership. The Russian regiments began a disorderly retreat. The blow of the Swedes steadfastly withstood only the guards. Part of the army was captured. On the other side of the river, only the former "amusing" ones retreated in perfect order.
During the negotiations, Charles XII invited them to leave their positions. At the same time, the defeated army retained weapons, but it lost all artillery. The battered and devastated Russian regiments wandered towards Novgorod. The tsar called the defeat near Narva "great happiness", because it "driven away laziness and forced day and night to industriousness and art."
It was a sensitive blow, but it did not decide the outcome of the entire war. A connoisseur of the era of Peter I, historian N.I. Pavlenko described the years of the tsar’s life coming after Narva in the following way: “Peter rushes like a courier – day and night, in any weather and at any time of the year. An ordinary wagon or sleigh was for him a place to sleep and a dining table. He stopped only to change horses. Each movement of the king is not only a milestone in his personal life, but a certain stage in the mobilization of the country's efforts to fight the enemy. Moscow - Novgorod - the active army - again Moscow. The king is constantly on the road, in motion; he charges everyone with his indefatigable energy, determination. Already at first, Peter quickly and skillfully organized the defense of the north-west of Russia, supervised the construction of fortifications in Novgorod and Pskov. Peter instructed his "amusing" associate, Prince Anikita Repnin, to put the demoralized Russian army in order. Peter drove urgent messengers to the Urals, where the first iron foundries and ironworks were put into operation, demanded that the local craftsmen produce cannons as soon as possible. To speed up the reconstruction of the artillery lost near Narva, Peter ordered the bells to be removed from the churches and given to be melted down for guns. In a short time, the Russian army received 300 new guns of various types. They were of high quality, stronger, longer-ranged and easier to move than enemy guns made of vaunted Swedish metal. Now it was up to the army.
During this period, in the nature of Peter I, another characteristic feature is more and more clearly manifested: selfless, frantic service to Russia.
Taking advantage of the departure of the main forces of Charles XII to Poland, Field Marshal B.P. Sheremetev launched an offensive in Livonia, and already in 1701 the Russians felt the taste of the first victories. The report of the first successes led Peter to delight. He demanded from his generals to develop success, not to let the enemy come to his senses. In the Baltics, the initiative completely passed to the Russian troops.
In Ingria and Karelia, along the course of the Neva River, where powerful Swedish fortresses stood, Peter himself led the military operations. Since 1702, Russian troops have won a number of victories here. At the source of the Neva, the Noteburg fortress was besieged. She stood on the island and was considered impregnable. Peter led the siege and assault of Noteburg. After a powerful and prolonged artillery shelling and the destruction of part of the fortress walls, the Russian troops launched an assault. The city was captured.
Russian troops continued their offensive along the Neva and in the spring of 1703 captured the Nyenschanz fortress at its mouth. In the following months, Russian troops continue to build up their successes in the Baltic. The ancient Russian cities of Yam and Koporye are freed from the Swedes. Then follows the siege and assault on Dorpat. Finally, Narva's turn comes. The city was surrounded and blockaded. The fortress walls were broken on August 9, 1704, during a short and furious attack, Russian assault columns took Narva. Now in the hands of Peter was not only the entire course of the Neva, but also Karelia, a significant part of the Baltic.
But there was still a strong army under the command of Charles XII himself. Having done away with Poland, he again turned his army against Russia. By this time, Russian troops advanced into Lithuania, occupied part of the Ukrainian lands that were part of the Commonwealth. When Charles XII appeared near the Russian borders, Peter I did not tempt fate and retreated into the depths of Russian territory. He set himself the task of gathering all the main Russian forces into a fist and at the same time in every possible way "tormenting the enemy", he intended to fight in the most favorable conditions
Under the village of Raevka, for the first time, crowned rivals met face to face. Russian dragoons knocked over the Swedish cavalry here. After that, Charles XII decided to move south. By this time, news had come to the Swedish camp that the Ukrainian hetman Ivan Mazera had defected to their side.
The main part of the Russian army also moved south, accompanying Charles XII, and Peter I himself with a cavalry corps headed towards the corps of General Levenhaupt, moving from near Riga to join the main army of the Swedes, with a huge convoy of ammunition and food.
On September 28, 1708, near the village of Lesnoy in a wooded and swampy area, Peter with 11,000 cavalry attacked a 16,000 Swedish corps moving along a forest road. Only about 7,000 Swedes broke through to Charles XII, losing all the baggage and artillery.
Throughout the autumn and winter of 1707 - 1709. Charles XII rushed around Ukraine. Encountering Russian barriers and fierce resistance of the population everywhere.
By April, the significantly thinned, but still quite strong Swedish army laid siege to Poltava. The capture of Poltava opened the way to Moscow, in addition, from here the roads led to the Crimea, with which Charles XII negotiated mutual actions against Russia. Swedish reserves hurried to Poltava, and the army of the new Polish king, a Swedish ally, was sent here. Thus, the capture of this small fortress could significantly change the entire course of the war. But Poltava fought off all the furious assaults of the Swedes. A small garrison and armed urban population fought to the death, organized sorties, inflicted damage on the Swedes.
Spring ended, hot June days came, and the army of Charles XII was never able to capture Poltava. In early June, Peter arrived at the camp of the Russian troops. It was near Poltava that he decided to give a general battle to Charles XII. The tsar himself chose the place of the battle: the Russians stood in a military fortified camp, having behind the right bank of the Vorskla River, across which bridges were built. Ahead was a small plain, closed on the left flank by dense forest; ahead, where the attack of the Swedes was expected, there was also a forest. Next came the Swedish positions, followed by Poltava. The Swedes thus found themselves squeezed into a narrow stretch of rough terrain, where it was difficult for them to carry out their favorite wide maneuver. Ahead of them was the Russian army. Behind - Poltava. Developed Peter and the battle plan. Peter assigned special importance to artillery, which more than doubled the number of artillery pieces from the Swedes.
On June 26, in his speech addressed to the soldiers, Charles XII recalled the glorious victories, called to stand up for his king, promised to defeat the "Russian barbarians" and arrange a feast in their captured tents. In the predawn twilight on June 27, 1709, the Swedes went on the attack. They suffered huge losses, and yet they broke through. At 9 o’clock in the morning, Peter gave the order to withdraw the main part of the army from the camp and delivered the famous speech: “And they would not think ... to be for Peter, but for the state handed over to Peter, for their kind, for the people of all Russia. It would be known about Peter that his life is inexpensive for him, if only Russia and Russian piety would live. Peter personally led the infantry in the counteroffensive. The Swedish breakthrough was stopped, and along the entire front, the Russian regiments, at the signal of the tsar himself, launched a counteroffensive. The Swedish army crumbled. Charles XII and Mazepa fled.
The fleeing Swedes hid in the surrounding forests, but there they were pursued by Russian dragoons. Part of the Swedes reached their camp near Poltava. But here, too, a blow awaited them. The gates of the fortress opened, the Poltava garrison went on the attack; the Swedes began to throw their weapons on the ground and surrender.
Soon the battle died down. Almost 3 thousand Swedes were taken prisoner. In the hands of the Russians was the entire treasury of the king, 264 Swedish banners and standards, including the royal one.
In pursuit of the king, cavalry was sent with an order to capture the sworn enemy of Russia at all costs. But Karl and Mazepa managed to hide in Turkish territory. The Swedish army ceased to exist. Peter was beside himself with happiness. He ordered to build a church on the site of the Poltava battle and erect a monument in his honor. Letters of glorious victory were sent to the European governments. The peak of the celebrations was the triumphal entry of Peter into Moscow, accompanied by guards regiments, trophies, captured Swedes led by their generals.
But even in the midst of celebrations and feasts, Peter did not forget that the enemy, although broken, was not completely defeated. Russian troops are transferred to the Baltic. Peter helps August II to recover. The protege of the Swedes, Stanislav Leshchinsky, flees Poland. The troops led by Sheremetev begin successful operations in the Baltic states, the corps under the command of Menshikov invades Poland. Saxony and Denmark return to the Northern Union again. Russian troops capture Vyborg, Revel, Riga, other cities and fortresses. By the autumn of 1709 Estonia, Livonia, Karelia were completely liberated from the Swedish troops. Russian prestige in Europe was growing rapidly, and with it, the fear of growing Russian power was growing. It was after Poltava in European capitals, primarily in London, Paris, Vienna, that they seriously thought about how to prevent the strengthening of Russia, prevent it from establishing itself in the Baltic Sea, and save Sweden from complete defeat. The primordial confrontation between Europe and Russia has revived again.
During the period of these highest military and diplomatic successes, Peter received a deafening blow. In 1710 Turkey declared war on Russia. Charles XII and Mazepa, who took refuge in Turkey, achieved their goal - they pushed it against Russia. The first clashes with the enemy were successful: the raid of the Crimean Khan on Kharkov was repulsed, the forces of the Cossacks of the Right-Bank Ukraine, as well as the Polish troops and Tatars hostile to Russia, were defeated. In the outbreak of the war with Turkey, Peter enlisted the support of the Wallachian and Moldavian rulers, and also counted on the support of the Serbian detachments and the help of Augustus II. With a swift rush, Sheremetev's army rushed south and in May was already on the Dniester. The king himself was with this army.
But the successfully launched war suddenly abruptly changed its course. The Wallachian ruler betrayed Russia and gave the Russian military plans to the Turks. The Moldavian ruler was unable to provide food support due to a crop failure in the country. Augustus II sent no help, and the Serbs were detained on the Wallachian frontier. In addition, Sheremetev hesitated and allowed the 120,000th Turkish army to be the first to reach the Danube and build bridges. Time has been lost. Now the Russians could not count on the help of the Slavs of the Balkan Peninsula. The terrible June heat has begun. As a result, the Russian troops in their campaign from the Dniester to the Prut to meet the main Turkish forces were forced to go through a scorched, deserted and waterless steppe. Soon there was a shortage of food. The soldiers suffered greatly.
In early July, the Turks managed to surround the 38,000th exhausted and tired Russian army on the banks of the Prut. The Turkish army numbered 125 thousand people, not counting the Crimean cavalry. A desperate battle broke out on 9 July. The three-hour battle ended with the retreat of the Turks. And yet the position of the Russian army remained desperate. There was no food and water, the soldiers could barely stand on their feet. The ring of encirclement tightened ever tighter. The tsar, his generals, and the entire army were threatened with captivity.
Peter decided to ask the Turks for peace. An experienced diplomat, Pyotr Shafirov, was sent to their camp. At the same time, it was decided to break out of the encirclement in case of failure of peace negotiations: there could be no question of surrender.
For a long time there was no answer from the Turkish camp. Peter and his associates did not know that heated debates were going on in the Turkish military leadership. The Russians also did not know that, having received an order to attack the Russian camp, the Janissaries refused to go on the offensive, because. already experienced the strength of Russian resistance. It was not known in the Russian camp that the cavalry corps, sent earlier by Peter towards the Danube, went to the rear of the Turks and was ready to attack them. All this inclined the Turkish command to peace negotiations.
Without waiting for an answer from his truce, Peter ordered the regiments to be deployed for the last desperate battle. They moved forward. This was the last signal to intimidate the Turks. Their representative immediately appeared in the Russian camp.
The peace conditions were difficult: Russia returned Azov to Turkey, had to tear down the Taganrog fortifications, and was obliged to withdraw troops from Poland. But all the conquests in the Baltic States were preserved. The army was given a free return home with weapons, artillery, banners.
After returning from the Prut, Peter deployed military operations in the Baltic with new energy. Russian troops appear in Pomerania - on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea. In 1712, in the battle near Friedrichstadt, Peter himself led the battalions into the attack, during which the Swedish corps was utterly defeated, dispersed and captured.
In 1713, Peter transferred the main military operations to Finland. From here, Charles XII received food. Here were his military bases. In the summer, the Russians, with the help of the galley fleet, landed troops on the Finnish coast. The main cities of the region opened their gates to the Russians without a fight.
Realizing that it is impossible to finally crush Sweden without destroying her fleet, Peter decides to transfer the war to the sea. In the summer of 1714, near Cape Gangut, the Swedish fleet was completely defeated.
In European capitals, the news of the victory of the Russian fleet shocked politicians. Panic began in Sweden, the royal court hastily left Stockholm.
When Peter transferred maritime trade from Arkhangelsk to St. Petersburg, Charles XII ordered to sink all non-Swedish ships that appeared in the waters of the Baltic. In response, Russia stepped up its military pressure on Sweden. This finally scared the European countries. Augustus II began peace negotiations with Sweden. England is pushing Denmark to attack Russia. The English king concludes a military alliance with Sweden and orders his squadron to enter the Baltic waters and attack the Russian fleet. Austria also takes an anti-Russian position.
In 1716-1717. Peter again goes to Europe to strengthen the international position of Russia. He manages to achieve the support of Russia from Holland, France and Prussia. And yet, by the end of the second decade of the XVIII century. Russia, in a state of war, as at the beginning of the century, remains one on one with Sweden. After returning from abroad, Peter is actively preparing for the landing on the territory of Sweden.
The threat of a Russian invasion, the mediation of France, in the end, force Charles XII to start peace negotiations. But during the siege of one of the Norwegian fortresses, he dies, and the new government intended to continue the war. At this time, the English squadron entered the Baltic waters.
After the breakdown of negotiations, Peter himself led the landing operation. Russian vanguards appeared near the capital of Sweden, Stockholm. The Swedish garrisons of a number of cities either surrendered or were defeated. These new threats from the Russian troops forced the Swedes back to the negotiating table, but they dragged on in every possible way.
The last point in this war was the second naval battle between the Russian fleet and the fleet of Sweden, on June 27, 1720. The Russians were the first to attack the heavy frigates of the enemy and, in a fierce battle, boarded four of them. Part of the enemy ships were sunk, the rest fled from the battlefield.
Only a year later, after the landing of the Russian 5,000th corps on the Swedish coast, the Swedes agreed to sign peace. It was concluded in the city of Nystadt on August 30, 1721, according to which Russia received Livonia, Estland, Ingermanland, part of Karelia with Vyborg, the cities of Riga, Revel, Derpt, Pernov, a number of islands in the Baltic Sea in perpetual possession. After that, Russia became one of the strongest European countries, a major maritime power.
List of used literature:
1. "History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the XVIII century." ed. A.N. Sakharova
2. Platonov "Lectures on Russian history"
3. Encyclopedia "History of Russia" V.5, part 2, ed. Aksenova
4. "The fate of reforms and reformers in Russia" ed. R.G. Pikhoi, P.T. Timofeeva
5. National History magazine No. 2004-6.
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