History of English journalism in the first half of the 19th century. English Press of the 19th Century: Main Trends in Development, Leading Publicists. Half-penny leaflets and other cheap editions

English journalism 1st floor. XIX century.

Evolution of the Morning Post: Founder, Priest Henry Baire, sells 350-copy newspaper to Scots Stewarts; attracting talented journalists and writers to the staff, incl. Coleridge, whose articles made a splash in the public, Charles Lamb and Macintosh; the sale in 1804 of a newspaper with a daily issue of up to 4,500 copies, after which a repeated change of ownership; periodic reorientation to conservatism, incl. during the reign of Palmerston as a life organ; the beginning of the twentieth century. - the interests of the aristocratic circles of the capital, information about parties, balls and receptions of high society.

The history of the Times newspaper. The Times acquired the status of the largest and most influential newspaper in the world. The new mode of publication - at 5 am, large sizes (60 cm long and 45 wide), information "about all events on the globe over the past day, contains detailed reports on the meetings of the Chambers" (Salamon), editorials agreed with the latest news; the anonymous nature of the articles, strict adherence to copyright secrets, with the authorship of major public and statesmen (Benjamin Disraeli, Lord Sherbrooke, William Harcourt, John Sterling and many others). The Times founder, book publisher John Walter: the newspaper's exemplary technical organization; son, John Walter, newspaper editor since 1803 - the ideal editor and visionary politician. First practical use of typing in an improved design of Koenig and Bauer in 1814 in the Times, major success, 1847 - the annual income from the newspaper is equal to that of the average German duchy.

French journalism 1st half. XIX century.

Napoleon's decree of January 17, 1800 authorizing the existence of 13 newspapers and the prohibition of the rest as the embodiment of imperial policy, the decree of February 5, 1810, introducing the former censorship in its entirety, the establishment of a general directory for the press and book trade: director, a number of censors , among which the functions of inspiration, control and suppression were distributed. Edict of August 3, 1810, which ordered in each department of the French Empire to allow only one newspaper to be printed at the direction of the local prefect. 4 political newspapers in Paris: Gazette de France, Journal de Paris, Journal de l "Empire" (until 1805, Journal des Débats et des Décrets) and Moniteur universel History of the Journal des Débats ": 1789 G.- the appearance in the world in the form of a nondescript leaf: written reports to his voters, the deputy of Clermont (in Auvergne) on the activities of the National Assembly and events in Paris, printed and published under the title "Journal des Débats et des Décrets"; growing to the size of a newspaper; growing influence - the displeasure of Napoleon, a new title at the request of Napoleon - "Journal de l" Empire ", finally, its confiscation in favor of the state. After the collapse of the empire - the period of the greatest heyday" Journal des Débats ": one of the first places in French journalism, academic character, edited by a galaxy of outstanding scientists; "all France listened to her words" (Lamartine); the best representatives of the intellectual aristocracy in the ranks of its employees (Chateaubriand, Nordier, "king of critics" author of brilliant feuilletons Jules Jeanin). the text of fictional works - for the first time on the columns of "Débats": "Parisian Mysteries" by E. Su, "The Three Musketeers" and "Count of Monte Cristo" by A. Dumas-father and others

The Bourbon Restoration - New Press Act 1819 - Bail for the right to publish a daily newspaper or weekly; imprisonment for violating censorship rules. The ultra-royalist newspapers under Louis XVIII: Drapeau blanc, Conservateur and Quotidienne; Moniteur, ministerial Publiciste and L Etoile; liberal Censeur Eugoraeon, L Indépendant, Courrier Franzais, Constitutionnel, Aristarque under the leadership of Comte, Dune, Keratri, Benjamin Constant and others, later the liberal La Presse (1833), Siècle (1836) and Patrie (1842).

A telegraphic information service for the French press - Agence Havas, established in 1840, originally a bureau for translations from foreign languages.

French journalism - "Revue des deux Mondes" (1831) - "the leader of the entire educated world": he united around himself the literary and scientific world of France - in the middle of the 19th century Mignet, Guizot, Vilmain, Alfred de Musset, Alfred de Vigny, Augustin Thierry, Saint-Beuve, Mérimée, Cousin, Georges Sand, Jules Sardot, Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas and others are among the employees. "Revue des Revue" - at first extracts from other periodicals, later independent articles devoted to the development of the latest trends in literature and life. French illustrated magazines - Illustration (1842), Monde illustré and Magasin pittoresque, La Vie Illustrée, Le Sourire, La Polichinelle, Le Froufrou, Saus-Gêne, "Rire", "Le Tutu".

German journalism 1st floor. XIX century: press of state censorship. The precedent nature of II Herres's "Rhine Bulletin" for German journalism in the 1810s -20s. Sporadic occurrences of notable events in various regions of Germany and severe government persecution; Metternich's initiatives to unite the efforts of the governments of different states in the fight against political freedom of thought. The emergence of a new branch of journalism - the illustrated magazine in 1843 as the first illustrated history; participation of the artist I. Ya. Weber in the creation of the Illustrierte Zeitung, modeled on the Illustrated London News and the Parisian Ilustration; the purely artistic nature of the publication, the talent of its editor - the level of a world magazine with wonderful works of graphic art. Second illustrated magazine, 1845, "Fliegende Blätter" (Flying Leaves) - political satire, later harmless cartoons and ridicule of "everyday little things". The revolutionary press of the late 1840s: a decree of 1848 authorizing every union state to abolish prior censorship and introduce unrestricted freedom of the press. The free press's attitude to "populism and originality." Founding of the independent Berlin National Zeitung on April 1, 1848; the first telegraph bureau, through which the newspaper was able to deliver news from all over the world with unprecedented speed, following the example of which the telegraph agencies Reuters and Havas were soon founded. The emergence of a joint stock company - Continental Telegraph Company. Reactionary and Democratic Publications in Germany in the 1840s.

American Journalism 1st Floor. XIX century. Periodical press of the USA in 1783-1833. The Commercial Revolution in America's Newspaper Press (1830-1840)

The emergence in the United States during the XIX century. outstanding newspaper literature; characteristic features: every publishing house is considered, first of all, as a business enterprise and in accordance with this functions and is managed; when the newspaper was founded, the driving force is not a political idea, the absence of ideal goals, the interests of enrichment. Orientation to the interests of the masses, speculation on the propensity of the public to sensations and scandals; reflection of public opinion, embellishment of the political picture in accordance with individual tastes and the party they represent - “all the features inherent in public opinion ... its frivolity and mobility, almost hysterical in nature; but on the other hand, she repeats the features of his prudence and practicality, his optimistic hopes and his strict morality. She also shares with him his humor and merciless mockery ”(Salamon).

A new period for the American press - in the early 1830s - the founding of the "penny presse": the democratic "The Sun" (1833) - "cheerful tone and energetic speeches), later two issues, morning and evening. The New-York Herald - for the first time, a stock exchange section, reporting on the meetings of priests and their Sunday sermons (protest of devout Protestants); first published a report on the discovery of gold mines in California; Scots editor Bennett invented interviews, put war correspondence in a modern way, etc., in 1871 sent Stanley in search of the missing Leewin-gston; 200,000 copies in a few years.

The 19th century was the heyday of Great Britain. Here the first steam engine was created and the first rails for railway transport were laid, the first metro lines were being built in London, steamships and fast steam locomotives appeared, high bridges of iron structures were being erected. But along with this, the socio-political situation in Great Britain is also aggravating.

The growth and movement of people from provinces to cities changed the political and economic balance in the country. By this time, the state of the English economy was quite satisfactory, but in the social sphere the situation remained bleak: low wages among workers and the constant threat of unemployment did not contribute to an improvement in living conditions.

In the 1830s and 1840s, a labor movement called Chartism grew in Great Britain. In place of the legal press, an illegal press has come, therefore, it is cheaper in terms of cost. The main newspaper of the Chartist movement was the weekly The Northern Star. It was founded by one of the leaders of Chartism, orator and publicist Fergus Edward O "Connor. The newspaper had a network of its own correspondents in the main European capitals. In 1848, exclusive materials from the revolutionary movements of France, Germany, Austria were regularly published on its pages. Chartist publications such as People's Paper and The Labourer magazine. They were edited by the eminent chartist, politician and publicist Ernst Charles Jones. He was well acquainted with Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. The People's Paper [Narodnaya Gazeta] has repeatedly published political articles by Marx, and The Labourer [Worker] published the Communist Manifesto, written by Marx and Engels, on its pages.

The publications of that time, having experienced capitalization, gradually became large publishing enterprises. The publication of the newspaper was the result of the joint work of a team of employees, where each was responsible for his own area of ​​work. In addition to the editor-in-chief, heads of various departments were hired on a permanent basis, reporters ready to go to the scene at any time to cover the current news, literary staff who prepared materials sent by news agencies for publication, and artists who were involved in the preparation of illustrations. Since the attention of publications designed for a mass audience was focused on the topics of crime, scandalous chronicles and professional sports, criminal, judicial and sports reporters appeared in the editorial offices.

The appearance of the so-called half-penny sheets at the end of the 19th century dealt a strong blow to large publishing houses. Not only were they very cheap (hence the name), but their content was such as to excite as much as possible emotionally a simple audience greedy for sensations. The tone of the articles was primitive and vulgar, the subject matter did not rise above scandals, intrigue and unverified information. The originator of this type of publication in England is considered to be William Stead, and the model is his London evening newspaper, The Pall Mall Gazette, first published on February 7, 1865.

With an immense number of titles in the newspaper media space in Great Britain, magazines have been equally widely developed here. Let's name the three most popular of them.

The Gentleman's Magazine, a monthly magazine created by Edward Cave, contained news and commentary on everything from commodity prices to Latin poetry to attract educated readers. Cave was the first to use the English word "magazine." warehouse) meaning “magazine.” “The Gentleman's Magazine” was the first specialized magazine to cover a wide range of topics.

Among the numerous humorous magazines, the first place belongs to "Punch" founded at the initiative of William Thackeray. The witty articles, cartoons and the absence of offensive attacks attracted the attention of the intelligentsia. Punch became popular within a year of its founding, and was read from the middle class to the Royal House.

The Economist was founded by James Wilson, a British entrepreneur and banker. The magazine publishes articles on the elementary principles of political economy, supporting free trade, analyzes the state and prospects of the market, reports foreign news from the world of trade. It was the first publication to strive to present complex material in an accessible form for the educated layman.

Prominent British publicists of the 19th century include Charles Dickens, William Thackeray and Oscar Wilde.

Charles Dickens, from the age of twelve, tried himself in the area in which he would later make a professional career: he wrote crime chronicles, reports, and was a parliamentary reporter. Under the pseudonym "Boz" he wrote a number of stories and essays about London types, published in such well-known publications as Monthly Magazine, Bell's Weekly Magazine, The Morning Chronicle, The evening Chronicle. in fact, essays, written in a lively and simple language, spoken on the London streets by the common and middle class, whose life he directly observed.Dickens documented many of those situations and themes that would later appear in his novels.

The success of Essays by Bose drew Dickens to the attention of Edward Chapman and William Hall, renowned booksellers and publishers of periodicals. They asked Dickens to write a series of Bose Sketches to accompany illustrations by Robert Seymour. This is how the Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club appeared.

Later in the magazines "Bentley" s Miscellany "[Bentley's Almanac]," Master Humphrey's Clock "[Mr. Humphrey's Clock], he publishes nonfiction novels reflecting the social situation of Great Britain in those years.

In American Notes for General Distribution, which appeared after a trip to the United States in 1842, Dickens conducts insightful journalistic research of American institutions, comparing them with their English counterparts: his attention is paid to hospitals, factories, prisons. A civic feeling, a social temperament were organically inherent in Dickens. And all his journalism is imbued with a keen interest in what constituted the subject of greatest importance for contemporary society. In the last years of his life, he fought for the rights of women who found themselves on the panel due to the harsh socio-political conditions of nascent capitalism.

William Thackeray is well known as a satirist. During his student trip to Europe in 1833, he served as a foreign correspondent for The National Standard magazine and The Constitutional newspaper published by his stepfather. After returning to England, journalism became his real profession. Fifteen years of work in journalism was a serious school of literary skill for the writer. It is no coincidence that the story of the world of journalism is associated with the story of his novels "The Story of Pendennis" (1850) and "Newcomes" (1855), and the protagonist of "The Adventures of Philip" (1862) - Philip Ferning - a newspaperman specializing in foreign correspondence.

From the very beginning of his literary career Thackeray used a special technique - speaking on behalf of a fictional hero-mask: in the Paris Literary Gazette and in Frazer's Magazine, he is published under the pseudonyms "One of them ", Wagstaff (" August the Joker ")," Charles Yellowplash "(" Charles Yellowplush ") and" Michelangelo Titmarsh "(" Michelangelo Swamp Tit "). All his masks as intermediaries between the author and the reader embody the instability of periodicals, help to depict her claims to authority All Thackeray's characters are dilettantes, from those who write in newspapers and magazines, as they say, "for the soul."

One of the most important directions in Thackeray's journalistic work in the late 1830s - early 1840s was the awareness of the phenomenon of periodicals: print as a commodity and print as a historical document. In this regard, he has a question about the realism, veracity of this document and about the author's involvement in what he writes about. Much of what he feels on an intuitive level - the influence of the media on the consciousness of a mass person, the media as the “fourth power”, moral and professional personality traits of a person who has this power - will acquire real acuteness only in the next XX century.

Thackeray began collaborating with Punch since its inception, in 1841, and left ten years later in 1851. This magazine was, on the one hand, a typical publication for that time, on the other hand, a publication that began to exploit this typicality and laugh at it. It was conceived as a kind of parody of the newspapers and magazines that proliferated at that time, as a kind of distorting mirror in which the methods and techniques used in journalism are reflected upside down. Attention was drawn not so much to the news as such, but to the methods, to the method of presenting the material. The magazine set itself the goal of protecting the reader from unscrupulous journalists. Thackeray, already known as a mocker, wrote parodies of journalistic reports and pamphlets exposing the duplicity of politics. Among the latter, a special place is occupied by pamphlets from the cycle "English snobs in the description of one of them."

Oscar Wilde is a prominent representative of another direction in English journalism of the 19th century. Wilde will come to journalism at the age of thirty. From 1884 he began to appear in The Pall Mall Gazette. He wrote many articles, notes, reports, reviews of theater performances, concerts, exhibitions, public lectures. His closeness to the culture of Art Nouveau manifested itself in a steady interest in the aesthetic aspects of everyday life, in applied art. A number of Wilde's articles are devoted to the aesthetics of costume ("Women's Dress", "More on Radical Ideas for Reforming the Costume", "The Attitude of the Costume to Painting"), the art of book bindings, illustrations and design of publications ("Typography and Typographers", "The Beauty of Bookbinding" ), design ("The closeness of arts and crafts"). Wilde's favorite genre as a journalist is the review, to which he infused the intonation of free conversation. He often chose insignificant works for review, proceeding from the principle of the equivalence of material and topic.

In the essay "The Human Soul under Socialism" - the only example of Wilde's political essay - we are presented with Wilde's characteristic vision of the most important social conflicts and ideological currents that determined the contradictory appearance of contemporary Britain. In the pages of this essay, born of the ideas of the Russian anarchist Pyotr Kropotkin, Wilde's deep feelings about the historical tragedy of Russia are clearly manifested. But bourgeois-democratic Britain, according to Wilde, does not differ too favorably from the despotism of other European powers. The tyranny of the Mob is little better than the willfulness of monarchs; as for the British, they, with rare constancy, doomed their most talented artists to exile. Wilde had no doubts that state interference in the activities of artists must end.

Wilde the publicist does not even seek to document the described reality, he captures instant changes in his perception, reproducing through images the impressions that are born in him at one time or another. That is why it is so difficult to define the genre in which Wilde works.

Oscar Wilde's appalling convict living conditions brought him back to social journalism. He sends protest letters to the Daily Chronicle newspaper, in which he indignantly speaks about the plight of young children in prison, about the immoral laws under which a child can be imprisoned.

Wilde's world is a world of subjective, original impressions, it is decorative, overly picturesque, but it is a world of deliberate and even invented impressions that conflict with harsh reality. And Wilde is ready to fight the world of cruel abuse of the Beautiful, which is any person.

● French Press of the 19th Century: Main Trends in Development, Leading Publicists.

Bonaparte, declaring himself the first consul of France, issues a "Consular decree on newspapers." Released on January 17, 1800, it led to the closure of 60 of the 73 newspapers published in Paris, the Minister of Police was entrusted with the responsibility to ensure that no new newspaper appeared on the territory of Paris and the Seine Department, and that the remaining “newspaper editors were of incorruptible morality and patriotism ". Surprisingly, there were no protests from the newsmen.

Perfectly understanding the power of the press, Bonaparte said that "four hostile newspapers are more dangerous than a hundred thousand bayonets," and this position largely explains the further development of the situation with periodicals in France.

Bonaparte's victorious wars in Switzerland and Italy led him to the idea of ​​declaring himself consul for life, and in 1804 the Senate proclaimed him emperor of the French under the name of Napoleon.

The most notable phenomenon of the period of the Empire is Louis François Bertin's newspaper, the Journal des Débates [Journal of Debates]. It is interesting, first of all, by the introduction of new journalistic forms and genres, which later entered the practice of all European journalism. It's about a feuilleton. In 1800, Bertin began to issue supplementary sheets to his newspaper, which published information that did not fall into other headings. In the future, the term "feuilleton" was used in two meanings: the literary material of the "basement" of the newspaper and the literary work in the additional parts of the publication.

On August 3, 1810, Napoleon signed a decree according to which in each department (excluding the Seine department) it was possible to publish only one newspaper, which was to be under the authority of a local prefect, and at the end of the same 1810 a draft decree on Parisian newspapers was prepared. The decree prohibited newspapers from publishing political news and feuilletons. And the law of October 21, 1814 introduced preliminary censorship for all periodicals.

In France, guarantees of freedom of speech were achieved only after the events of July 1830, when power finally passed into the hands of the bourgeoisie, and a bourgeois monarchy was established in France.

Another important communication innovation of the 19th century was the emergence of news agencies. The world's first news agency appeared in 1835 in Paris. Charles Louis Havas became its founder. To quickly obtain information at a time when railways were still an extremely slow means of communication, and the telegraph was just beginning to enter newspaper and information practice, the Havas agency successfully used pigeon mail.

Technological innovations in the publishing process, in information technology and the introduction of primary education on a large scale in European countries have stimulated the emergence of "mass", inexpensive periodicals designed for the tastes of a poorly educated but large readership. The leader of the French cheap press was Émile de Girardin. The subscription price of his political newspaper La Presse [Print] was half that of all other similar publications. Girardin believed that "the newspaper is made not by editors, but by subscribers" - with a large number of subscribers, ads will be printed in his newspaper, and the payment for them will cover the low subscription price. The first appearance in European periodicals of "hidden advertising" is also associated with the name of Girardin.

In the French "mass" press, a curious newspaper phenomenon was born - the "novel-feuilleton". Its appearance is associated with the activities of Louis Veron, who was able to make his newspaper "Le Constitutionnel" [Constitutional] popular, offering the reader a novel with a sequel.

In parallel with the genre of the feuilleton novel in French journalism of the 1830s - 1840s, there is a flourishing of such a literary and journalistic genre as "physiology". They were written in a pseudoscientific style, with text breakdown into paragraphs and with the inclusion of various kinds of classifications, and were usually accompanied by witty illustrations, which were produced by the best artists of the time. Sometimes physiology could take the form of a satirical political pamphlet, such as, for example, the Physiology of the Pear, published in 1832, where the pear, not without the help of the brilliant cartoonist Charles Philippon, meant the “King of the French” Louis Philippe. After the publication of this physiology, playing with the likeness of the king's face with a pear became "good form" among opposition-minded journalists.

Collaboration in the publications of Charles Filipon was the first glory of the publicist Honore de Balzac. Philipon's satirical illustrated magazines La Caricature and Le Charivari were at the forefront of the opposition to the July Monarchy regime. Balzac took an active part in the work of the weekly "La Caricature" [Caricature], out of 216 of his essays, he wrote almost half as an employee of this magazine. He was published there from 1830 to 1832, and, for example, the entire text of the first seven issues of this edition for 1830 belonged exclusively to him.

The merit of Philipon's publications was a unique attempt to combine the merits of the essay with the merits of the drawing. The picture not only accompanied the text, but could replace the text, fulfilling the same political task as an editorial or a feuilleton.

The political and social essay was the most relevant genre for journalism of that time, due to its social orientation and artistic potential. Balzac manifests himself in him as a talented, prominent publicist, whose work can be interesting as a collegial product of journalistic cooperation, where both the text and the pictorial range are important.

Balzac wrote several witty things within the genre of physiology - "Physiology of the Bourgeois", "Physiology of Officials", "History and Physiology of Parisian Boulevards", "Monograph on Rentiers", "Monographs on the Parisian Press".

"Monograph on the Parisian Press" was written for the collective collection "La Grande City" [Big City] in 1842 and made up a kind of satirical gallery of types of journalists. In this pamphlet of physiology, Balzac compiles an exhaustive catalog of the characters of the newspaper and magazine world: statesman, niche scholar, publicist with a portfolio, author of one book, young blond critic, censer, etc.

The political, social and moralizing satire of the 1840s, which at this time reached an exceptional revealing power, had a great influence on Balzac. He retained the humorous parallels with scientific style, usual for a physiological essay. The clarity of the characteristics is facilitated by the brilliantly executed parodies of all kinds of publications in Parisian newspapers. Each chapter ends with an "axiom" – a short satirical maxim summarizing the author's thought. Artists Honore Daumier, Adam, Amy decorated this pamphlet with sharp caricatures, in which modern writers could easily recognize themselves.

Another prominent French publicist of the 1830s and 1840s was Gerard de Nerval. In journalistic essays, Nerval was attracted not by a wide panorama of a significant historical event or a transitional era, refracted through the fate of an average person, and not by a fascinating plot based on well-known historical facts and relationships, but mainly by an extraordinary and unique individuality, a person who did not want to obey laws, norms and representations of their time and their environment. Such are, for example, the heroes of his essay cycles "Illuminati", "Journey to the East". For more than two decades, Nerval has regularly collaborated in many Parisian newspapers and magazines, publishing there his reviews, articles, essays, stories, and essays.

But the most prominent representative of French journalism of the 19th century was Emile Zola. The value and interest of Zola's literary-critical articles lies in the fact that they consider the most important aspects of the historical, literary and artistic process of the entire 19th century and, in general, recreate one of the most interesting eras in the history of French literature. Articles about Balzac, Stendhal, Hugo, Georges Sand, Flaubert, Daudet, Goncourt, Dumas, Gaultier; reasoned and systematic polemic with Sainte-Beuve - the largest figure in French criticism; a subtle and accurate analysis of the system of the founder of the cultural-historical school in art history, Ippolit Teng - all these works reveal a realistic concept that was born in the 19th century. Zola, as an outstanding critic, introduced scientific foundations in the assessment of new literary and artistic works in his publicistic works.

In 1871, Emile Zola found himself at the center of the events of the Paris Commune. As a correspondent for the newspaper La Cloche [Bell], he went to Bordeaux, then to Versailles, where the National Assembly moved from Paris occupied by German troops, wrote and sent parliamentary reports to Paris: he was horrified by the unleashed “fratricidal war”.

On the initiative of Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev, whom Zola met in 1872 in Paris, Zola became a permanent Parisian correspondent "Bulletin of Europe". From 1875 to 1880 Zola will publish 64 materials in this Russian journal - articles, essays, essays.

But Zola's most striking speech was a series of articles devoted to the Dreyfus case - a trial that began in December 1894 in the case of espionage for the German Empire by an officer of the French General Staff, a Jew from Alsace (at that time, German territory) Captain Alfred Dreyfus, demoted by a military court and sentenced to life in exile with the help of false documents and in the wake of strong anti-Semitic sentiments in society. Having launched a campaign in defense of the innocent convict, Zola declares: "I would like to exalt this dispute, turn it into a huge cause of humanity and justice."

The campaign culminated in a letter from Emile Zola to the President of France. Published on the front page of the newspaper L "Aurore" on January 13, 1898, it caused a resounding worldwide resonance. President, the publicist's case was revised, Zola was able to return to France and achieve the release of Dreyfus.

This act was proof of the influence that the intellectual elite is able to exert on those in power.

● Socio-political conditions and technical prerequisites for the emergence of a mass press in Europe and the United States.

In the first half of the 19th century, the population of the present United States of America was predominantly rural. It was the villagers who played a major role in the country's economy. But the development of capitalist relations required the emergence of personally free people in a double sense: free personally and free from property. America still had to cope with this task, but even then the cities grew in number due to the appearance of more and more new jobs in them. Developing capitalism needed not just a worker, but a person who could confidently cope with equipment that was complex for that time. Hence a new requirement followed: the literacy of the population.

In connection with the needs of industrial production in the United States, as, indeed, in the countries of Western Europe, compulsory primary education was introduced, which contributed to overcoming mass illiteracy, the formation of a workforce adapted to working conditions with the use of machines.

Young people flooded to the United States from Northern and Western Europe: from the British Isles, Scandinavia, Germany, Italy, Poland, Russia, Austria-Hungary ... Increased competition in the labor market and tougher working conditions caused massive unrest, there was a wave of strikes demanding an eight-hour worker days, there were trade unions, bringing together mainly skilled workers.

The capitalist press of the USA moved to "new journalism" together with the enlargement and complication of the newspaper commercial business, with the increasing complexity of the newspaper's content and the isolation of the management function within the administration of the newspaper publication. Internal and external events in the United States at the turn of the new century demanded that the press develop new methods of ideological influence on readers.

A change in the fundamental function of print media has been a hallmark of the new methods of working with audiences. The predominant place in the press was no longer held by the "viewspaper" (the newspaper of the views), but by the "newspaper" (the newspaper of the news). The newspaper's policy began to find its expression not so much in editorial opinion as in tendencies and methods of selection and processing of published facts.

The American press sought to enhance its role as an ideological weapon, guided by the growing interest of the middle class in what is happening in their country and abroad. In an effort to increase its political prestige in the eyes of the general reader, the US press relied on the interests of the "common" person.

A breakthrough in the field of printing was the invention of the rotary printing press, made by the American Richard Howe in 1846. Now newspaper circulation has increased significantly, and the cost of producing one issue has become less. This put the newspapers in a tough struggle for their readers, which, in turn, influenced the content of the newspaper. The newspaper was now adapting even more to the needs of its audience, and this indicated the beginning of a new era in journalism - an era in which the main emphasis is on the tastes of the mass reader.

The technical innovations of the late 19th century include the fact that since 1867, fibers or wood waste have become the raw materials for the production of newsprint, while previously paper was made from rags. This led to a reduction in the cost of publications. A year earlier, the successful laying of a transatlantic telegraph cable linking America with Europe had been carried out. In 1868, Christopher Scholes invented the typewriter, which changed the traditional way of thinking about the work of a journalist. In 1869, the construction of the transcontinental railroad was completed, connecting the coasts of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, and in 1876 Alexander Bell invented the telephone.

In the second half of the 19th century, newspapers increasingly became part of business rather than political struggle. In the context of the formation of national markets, the role of advertising as a means of promoting goods and services has significantly increased. The sharp growth of mass industrial production, increased market competition between manufacturing and trading firms stimulated the rapid growth of the advertising business in the second half of the 19th century. Print was increasingly viewed by advertisers as a channel for displaying advertisements to a mass audience of potential consumers of goods and services. The flow of advertisements to periodicals has increased dramatically in the last quarter of a century. In just one decade, the volume of advertising published in US magazines has increased by 200-300%. Revenues from advertising activities of periodicals also increased significantly. If in the 1880s the income of newspaper publishers consisted of half of the proceeds from the sale of circulation and half of the payment for publishing commercial advertisements, then by 1910 advertising revenues accounted for 65% of the total income.

● Features of the development of North American journalism at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries.

The emergence of daily and mass newspapers has created a new situation in the media market.

The New York Sun, a daily newspaper published since 1833, was conceived as a serious, large-format news publication. New York journalist Benjamin Day acted as its founder and ideologist.

The cheapest, not only in New York, but throughout the country, Benjamin Day's newspaper was designed for the urban population and for the mass, basically illiterate reader. It was published for the first time twice a day, and the morning edition was full of political polemics, and the evening one, on the contrary, offered readers materials of an exclusively informational nature.

The New York Sun was best known in 1835 for the so-called "Great Moon Swindle" - a series of six essays on the discovery of life and civilization on the Moon. This discovery was falsely attributed to John Herschel, one of the most famous astronomers of his day. In 1844, the equally famous "air swindle" was published - an article by Edgar Allan Poe about a flight across the Atlantic in a balloon.

On September 4, an unofficial holiday is celebrated in the United States - Newspaper Delivery Day. On this day in 1833, the editor of The New York Sun, Benjamin Day, hired the ten-year-old Irishman Barney Flacherty, the first peddler in US history, for his publication. From that moment on, the boys became the main distributors of print. They stood at street corners or scampered through the blocks, retailing newspapers with catchy headlines. The newspapermen were not part of the editorial staff, but were free entrepreneurs and belonged to the poorest classes of society, often living right on the streets.

Another popular newspaper, The New York Herald, was founded by James Gordon Bennett Sr. in 1835. In 1836, the New York Herald conducted the first-ever journalistic investigation: in parallel with the judicial investigating authorities, the newspaper journalists, step by step, investigated the murder of the twenty-three-year-old New York prostitute Helen Jewitt and regularly published the relevant information in the newspaper. It soon became clear that the journalists managed to collect more information and facts than the investigation. At trial, both the attorney and the attorney appealed to materials from the New York Herald. As a result, the alleged killer of the prostitute was found completely innocent, as established by the journalists.

Not surprisingly, the newspaper soon became the most popular and profitable daily newspaper in the United States, with a circulation of 84,000 by 1861, making it the "most popular newspaper in the world."

Bennett believed that the newspaper's job was "not to teach, but to surprise." His son, James Gordon Bennett, Jr., who succeeded his father as editor in 1867, shared the same point of view. He funded the African expeditions of Henry Morton Stanley and George De Long's trip to the North Pole.

The New York Herald set up a correspondent office for its newspaper in Washington, DC, established permanent correspondents in Europe and received European press material using the invention of the telegraph. Bennett created a finance column in the newspaper, which he called the "money page", a column of letters from readers with their views on the newspaper's publications and the events it covered. He was also the first to report in his newspaper about the discovery of gold mines in California. The New York Herald was rightfully considered the most aggressive and sensational among the leading New York newspapers.

The largest figure in American journalism at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries was William Randolph Hirst, whose name in many ways became a symbol of many negative aspects of the American capitalist press. He was sure that “the reader is primarily interested in events that contain elements of his own primitive nature<...>: 1) self-preservation, 2) love and reproduction, 3) vanity. " There was no decency barrier for him in choosing the subject matter of his materials. With his submission, the American press has finally and irrevocably grown into big business, becoming an important and integral part of it.

The "mass" press quickly mastered the techniques of illustrated editions, supplementing the sensationalism with the appropriate video sequence. In Germany, the first illustrated newspaper, the Leipziger lllustrierte Zeitung [The Leipzig Illustrated Newspaper] appeared in Leipzig in 1843. In the early 1870s, the first daily illustrated newspaper, Le Journal illustré [Illustrated magazine] appears in France. In England, however, the first daily illustrated newspaper, the Daily Graphic, did not appear until 1890.

The appearance of the first advertising agencies, establishing close contacts with the press, dates back to the 1840s. Advertising is becoming an economic activity, and the financial injection of advertisements into magazines and newspapers has led to the fact that advertising and the press have become interdependent.

In May 1848, representatives of six of New York's leading newspapers formed a corporate body called the Associated Press of New York to reduce the cost of receiving news by telegraph, and later simply the Associated Press. This is how the first American news agency was born to financially benefit from the sale of news to various media outlets.

On April 12, 1861, the Civil War broke out between North and South. The fact that the honor of the first shot at Fort Sumter was given to the well-known journalist Edmund Ruffin, who wrote anti-slavery articles, became very symbolic.

An interesting phenomenon of the period of the Civil War was the appearance of army periodicals, which were largely spontaneous in nature. So, when the troops of the army of the northerners passed through the city of Macon (Missouri), they also seized the press left in the editorial office of the local newspaper. Several journalists and printers who fought in the ranks of the northerners took their press with them and began publishing an army newspaper called The Union. The role of war correspondents, who at that time did not yet have a special status and were at significant risk, was extremely high: they delivered the most operational information from the theater of operations to the audience.

● Place of visual information on print pages in the system of methods of "new journalism".

The first photograph was taken in 1839 by the French inventor Louis Daguerre, but it took more than forty years to perfect the process before the first photographic illustration was published in The New York Daily Graphic on March 4, 1880. From now on, illustrated publications acquired the character of documents, could record facts, carry information about real events, and the development of event photography led to the emergence of professional photo reporters.

This was very important for the development of the "yellow press" and publications designed for a large, low-intellectual audience. The illustrations made it possible to better understand the journalistic text, more emotionally perceive the offered information and “with our own eyes” see the details of the incidents. In the typological variety of the press, specialized publications appeared, publishing, first of all, the everyday life of police life and the intensity of sports competitions.

The technology for the production of halftone photographic clichés, which appeared in England in the 1850s, has been perfected for a long time. It first found widespread use in the newspaper business only since 1897, when it began to be used in the production of the New York newspaper "The Tribune" [Tribune]. The improved technology ensured fast and high-quality production of newspaper clichés. In addition, the production of halftone clichés was about fifteen times cheaper than the preparation of hand engraving of the same size, which provided a significant reduction in the cost of production of illustrated publications and the cost of sold newspapers.

From now on, a huge array of photo illustrations came to the pages of newspapers and magazines.

The first illustrated newspaper in the world was The Illustrated London News by Herbert Ingram. Already in the first issue, published on May 14, 1842, sixteen pages were devoted to topics such as the war in Afghanistan, a train crash in France, an overview of the programs of candidates for the presidential election in the United States, a crime report, a description of a costume ball at Buckingham Palace, theater and book reviews. All of this was accompanied by thirty-two prints that allowed illustrators' eyes to see people, places and events that until then most readers could only imagine. The publication began to present its audience with a vivid picture of British and world news.

The illustrated edition became a kind of document.

But the image has not only applied value, simply and visually presenting information and giving rise to a feeling of presence at the scene of the event. The front page of a publication can have a significant impact on readers as it reflects the publication's policies. The illustration placed on the first page emotionally sets the reader up to evaluate the "nail" material. The importance of visuals cannot be overemphasized. With the advent of new technologies in the world of the press, drawings are increasingly being replaced by photographs. This required the improvement of the skills of journalist photographers in order to be able to find a plot in real life that emotionally reflects an urgent social problem.

The priority of the visual over the text component of the issue enables the audience to visually experience emotions. Since the perception of visual images is primarily at the subconscious level, publications using this technique address their content to the unconscious instinctual attraction of a person. The sensationalism of such illustrative material redirects the reader's attention from contemplation to empathy. Here are just some of the techniques for visualizing journalistic sensationalism: depicting crime scenes and scandalous incidents, publishing portraits of criminals and victims, creating shocking illustrations for materials on taboo topics, photo reports from the theater of war, and presenting exotic information.

● Mass media in the context of the transition to the information society.

The modern information environment is a product of a mass society, in which mass culture and communication prevail, and their formation, in turn, is largely due to the spread of the media. Mass society emerges in countries that entered the late 19th - early 20th centuries on the path of modernization, that is, the accelerated development of the industrial sector of the economy. Industrial (conveyor) production automatically gives rise to a new type of consumer, unlike the person of previous eras.

Already in the 1950s, researchers paid special attention to the influence of technology on the development of media. The most prominent representative of this trend in communication science was the Canadian philosopher and culturologist, sociologist and literary critic Marshall McLuhan. His idea of ​​a "global village" logically followed from the ideas of the theorist in the field of economic theory Harold Iness, who believed that the development of mass communication and communication technology helped to overcome the previous limitations of knowledge and information - space and time, and therefore believed that the transformation of electronic media into a kind of "nervous information system" of society.

Marshall McLuhan, already in his early works, considered forms of communication as a leading factor in cultural evolution, referring to the means of communication as language, money, roads, print, broadcasting, television and computers. In his concept, the event acquires social significance not by itself, but in connection with the messages transmitted about it through communication. And the transition from printed to electronic means of communication forms a new type of perception of reality, in which a person is included in everything that happens in a holistic manner. The researcher calls this period the era of the "global village", which is characterized by "detraditionalization" - the weakening of traditional ties, hierarchies, values.

In his opinion, the society alternately dominated, first - oral, then - written and printed, and now - electrical and electronic types of communication. The proliferation of electronic means again returns society to the "tribal world" with oral forms of communication, but at the same time included in the global communication network. The coordinates of the "center" and "periphery" are removed, and the individual can simultaneously experience the state of both close and distant objects. In this sense, the process of globalization directly depends on the technical evolution of the media.

The global media have a kind of monopoly on constructing world public opinion, shaping the agenda and assessing the importance of current or planned events. Global advertising - an event broadcasted simultaneously on all the world's leading channels - compels an instant response to what is happening on-line.

The constantly ongoing ideologization of society, in which there is an active production of myths, alarms researchers focused on humanistic values ​​and de-ideologization of mass consciousness. The leaders of industrialized states and governments for the first time sounded the alarm about the negative aspects of informatization on July 23, 2000, having gathered in Okinawa (Japan) for the G8 meeting. Already in September, one hundred eighty-seven heads of state and government of the world gathered at the Millennium Summit at the UN headquarters in New York to discuss informational problems raised in Okinawa. Among the issues raised, the leading was the growing differentiation of information consumers between the poor and the rich: "There is a possibility of a dangerous new gap in literacy levels as a result of education, increasing inequality in access to opportunities provided by new communication and information technologies."

The confrontation between freedom and responsibility turned out to be associated with the theoretical and practical interpretation of the concept of "free flow of information" that arose in the United States, which asserts the right of Western powers, primarily America itself, to freely distribute an unlimited amount of information over a practically unlimited territory. The practice of "free flow of information" to entire regions of the world actually assigned the role of only a consumer of information. New forms of dependence have emerged, called "information imperialism", which, in turn, has given rise to the concept of a new international information order. This concept touched upon the problem of uneven distribution of information between countries and regions of the world, arguing that the liberation and development of national media is an integral part of the struggle for political, economic and social independence. This is how the political declaration of the non-aligned states, adopted in 1976 in Colombo, formulated the urgent tasks of our time. In 1979, at a similar conference in Warsaw, these provisions were clarified and concretized.

At the initiative of UNESCO, in 1977-1979, a study of global information processes was carried out. The report of the McBride Commission, presented to the XXI session of the UNESCO General Conference in Belgrade (1980), on a huge amount of factual material demonstrated the consequences of uneven information exchange. In particular, the negative trends caused by the dominance of transnational corporations in the press, radio and television were noted; thoughts were expressed that in expanding communication systems, preference should be given to non-commercial forms of mass communication and that, while recognizing the need of the media for profit, consideration should be given to how to help reduce the negative impact that purely commercial considerations have on the organization and content of the national and the international flow of information.

The report, directed against psychological warfare, emphasizes the need to exchange information in accordance with international law, on the basis of recognition of sovereignty, equality, non-interference in the internal affairs of other states, and recognition of their right to self-determination. The document says that freedom without responsibility leads to distortion and abuse, but in the absence of freedom it is impossible to realize responsibility.

The speech of Sean McBride, an outstanding Irish public figure and laureate of several prizes for strengthening the peace, caused heated discussion and even fierce criticism from those who sought to legitimize the "right of the strong" in the field of international information exchange. Theoretical disputes around the theory of "free flow of information" began to acquire a pronounced ideological and political orientation. The position of the opponents of the concept of a new international information order was reflected in the so-called Talloires Declaration of 1981. According to her, the more the press is removed from government and legislative bodies, the freer it is, and vice versa.

In recent years, in a post-confrontational world, UNESCO's efforts have focused on promoting the independence, freedom and pluralism of the press around the world. The entire pathos of declarations on the development of independence and pluralism in Africa (Windhoek, 1991), Asia (Alma-Ata, 1992), and Latin America (Santiago, 1994) was aimed at achieving this goal. The day of the adoption of the Windhoek Declaration - May 3 - has been declared World Press Freedom Day.

● Spiritual journalism as a type of creativity. The role of journalism in the revival of culture as a system of values.

The study of the history of the development of social thought is impossible without studying the problem of humanization of the individual and all social relations, an integral part of which is the problem of the spiritual development of society. Spiritual journalism is created by both church and secular leaders. Its most significant difference in content is that it focuses on secular issues related to the arrangement of social relations.

The role of Russian spiritual journalism consists, firstly, in establishing Orthodoxy as humanity in the mass consciousness; secondly, in the formation of an official religious ideology; thirdly, in its purpose to be a conductor of secular, socio-political ideas, first of all - state ones.

Spiritual journalism in Russia dates back to the middle of the 10th century, when the first examples of Christian preaching appeared. But it was in the XI century that the book forms of spiritual journalism became extremely popular among the urban population. Three big themes of Metropolitan Hilarion's “Words about Law and Grace” - first, the relationship between law and mercy; secondly, the significance of Baptism for the Russian land; thirdly, the problems of the further development of the Russian state, - allow the largest researcher of Ancient Russia Dmitry Sergeevich Likhachev to assert that this is a political and journalistic treatise, which reflects the most pressing topical issues of our time.

The Russian Church began its moral and educational mission among the people with a primitive pagan religion, not in the least imbued with moral principles. The main motives for serving the pagans to idols were self-interest and rough calculation. The replacement of the principle of ruthlessness with philanthropy has become the main leitmotif of the works of spiritual journalism for many centuries.

The main goal of spiritual journalism is the moral transformation of society as a whole and each of its members individually. Destroying polygamy and laying the foundation for the position of women as a wife and mother, as well as weakening slave bondage, Christian publicists actively took up the reorganization of the political structure of Russia.

The peacekeeping activity of the Russian church hierarchy and the mediating and representative duties combined with it, which it first assumed on its own initiative, very soon created a special position for spiritual publicists in the sphere of state life - the position of envoys. Clergymen actively preaching philanthropy became the most common ambassadors among the princes, both in internal inter-princely relations and in international mediation.

The main theme of the spiritual journalism of Russia comes down to the following: the preaching of Christian love for man and society; a Christian as a free person, responsible for what is happening; the inner dispensation of a Christian as the education of high moral principles: to respect history, to behave modestly at the table, to help others imperceptibly, to protect nature, not to litter around oneself with household waste, words, or bad ideas.

● N.I. Novikov is the pioneer of satirical journalism in Russia.

The end of the 1760s was marked by a sudden increase in the number of magazines with a pronounced satirical focus, designed for the wider readership. A notable feature of the emergence of this mass satirical journalism was that the initiative to awaken interest in periodicals of this type came from the supreme power in the person of Empress Catherine II.

In January 1769, she organizes the publication of weekly sheets under the title "All sorts of things", allowing everyone to publish such magazines at the same time. With the help of the magazine, in which light, non-binding satire was interspersed with edifying teachings, manipulating the opinions of numerous correspondents of the magazine, often imaginary, Catherine II hoped to lead the public opinion of the country, offering readers her vision of the general political situation in the state, imposing a favorable understanding of those who stood before the government of problems and ways to solve them.

"All sorts of things" advocated satire in a "smiling spirit", for the exposure of vices, but not of individuals and specific shortcomings. Superstition and passion for rumors, stinginess, envy and bad manners, petty tyranny and useless fashion, a tendency to bad habits and intolerance to others - these are the main objects of satire on the pages of the magazine.

The position taken by "Anything and everything" caused a response in the journal "Truten", which was published by Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov. Page V of this magazine, dated May 26, contained a letter addressed to the publisher of "Drone" from a certain Pravdulyubov, in which the rules of satire "in a smiling spirit" were sharply criticized. The magazine was published from May 1769 to April 1770. In the magazine Novikov examines three types of activities: military, civil and court. He evaluates them critically, especially the latter.

A drone is a bum who doesn't know what to do. In the preface, the publisher of the magazine admits to the readers his weakness: he is lazy and therefore does not read anything, does not correspond with anyone and does not serve anywhere. But he certainly wants to benefit the fatherland, and therefore decides to publish other people's works and asks to send him letters, essays and translations in prose and verse, especially satirical, critical and others, serving to correct morals, and promises to print them all in his sheets.

In 1769 Novikov chose as an epigraph for his magazine the prickly lines from the fable of Alexander Petrovich Sumarokov: "They work, and you eat their work." In 1770, Novikov realizes that it is necessary to change the tone of satire. He changes the epigraph again to the words of Sumarokov: "It is dangerous to be instructed strictly, where there is a lot of atrocity and folly." Novikov emphasizes that he realizes the danger of his attacks, and Pravdolyubov is demonstratively expelled from the magazine. Nevertheless, at the end of April 1770, the "Drone" was closed.

In June 1770 "Pustomel" appeared. Guided by the tactics of caution, Novikov was forced to act in this case through a figurehead (a report to the Academy of Sciences with a request to publish Pustomelya was written by Novikov's hand on behalf of the broker Fock). In total, only two issues were printed, after which this magazine was also closed. The reason for the closure is the continuation of the satirical line by Novikov, disagreeable to Catherine II.

Catherine II is again trying to lead public opinion, deciding to take up drama. In 1771 she wrote 5 comedies, which in 1772 appeared on the stage of the court theater without attribution.

Taking advantage of this, from the middle of April 1772 Novikov published a weekly satirical magazine "Painter", dedicated to the unknown writer of the comedy "Oh, time". Continuing the ideological and thematic direction "Drone", the writer still denounces the nobility, which has lost ties with the homeland, national soil, people, Russian culture. He creates vivid caricatures of dandies and dandies, makes fun of their language, clogged with foreign words. The magazine denounces social evil. Novikov uses more techniques of satire, a more subtle psychological characterization of his characters is given, the author's narration is interspersed with the statements of the characters themselves. At the end of June 1773, the magazine was closed without explanation from the reader.

From June 8 to September 2, 1774, Novikov's last satirical magazine, "The Purse", was published. Its leading theme was the denunciation of the Gallomancy of the Russian nobles. The central target of criticism is a character with the telling name Chevalier de Mansonge (from the French "lie"), who came to Russia to teach children, although he was a hairdresser in his homeland. The very name of the magazine is telling: in the 18th century, according to French fashion, men wore wigs with braids, on which they put on a net called a purse. This wallet for Novikov is a symbol of Gallomancy, on which he falls. The magazine was closed.

A few years later, in 1782, Novikov decided to once again appear before his readers in the former guise of a merciless denouncer - and took up the release of a magazine, which he called harmlessly: "City and Country Library, or Fun and Pleasures of Mind and Heart in Idle Times." The life of this publication lasted long enough: for five years, Russian proverbs were printed in the magazine, and a satirical story about its possible origin was created on the topic of each proverb, and the proverb itself served as the title of the story. The plots of these stories hinted at the real events of court life. Translations of the stories of Voltaire, Diderot and other French free-thinkers were also published here.

Catherine II realized that freedom of speech leads to the undermining of state power. In 1792, on the personal order of the empress, Novikov was captured and imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress. He was declared a "state criminal" and sentenced to death. At the last moment, the Empress replaced her with a 15-year imprisonment.

Novikov, however, spent only about four years in prison: after the death of Catherine II in 1796, by the decree of Paul I, he was released, but did not publish anything else.

● Information Wars in Russia in the First Half of the 19th Century: the Patriotic War of 1812 and the Decembrist Movement.

The Patriotic War of 1812 is called by many historians the first information war in Russia. The term "information war" has a double meaning. First, it is the impact on the civilian population and military personnel of another state through the dissemination of certain information. And secondly, these are purposeful actions taken to achieve information superiority by causing damage to information, information processes and information systems of the enemy.

Information war appears as a set of propaganda methods of ideological confrontation, among which the most important are the stuffing of disinformation and the presentation of information in a way favorable to oneself.

The idea of ​​creating an agitation and propaganda center at the headquarters of the Russian army arose immediately after the outbreak of hostilities. His first steps were associated with the publication of propaganda materials addressed to the enemy soldiers: leaflets, proclamations, publicistic brochures.

The fact is that Russian soldiers had already received similar leaflets and proclamations printed by the agitation center of Napoleon's army, and it was necessary to start counterpropaganda. It is known that Napoleon attached great importance to the word, and therefore he began the war by discrediting the image of Russia. From the pages of newspapers and magazines, Napoleon addressed the French: “Do you think that Russia is a distant peaceful country that treats us with respect? No! This is a real aggressor. Russian barbarians are enemies of civilization and everything European! "

4.5 months before the start of the war, a detailed plan of information confrontation with Russia was developed. The report, written by the Polish general Mikhail Sokolnitsky, who was in the French military service, is written so well, convincingly, powerfully, everything that needs to be done and how to destroy Russia is spelled out so much, to bring it to its knees and then liquidate it simply as a nation, as a state. what could be a textbook on information warfare.

The main idea of ​​the report is that it is necessary at any cost to provoke and kindle interethnic strife, primarily between Russians and Ukrainians. With the help of the Cossacks and the Crimean Tatars, other peoples can also be aroused. Further it was supposed to move to the Caucasus. The plan for the war with Russia was calculated for three years.

At the beginning of 1812, a propaganda work "On the growth of the power of Russia from its inception to the beginning of the 19th century" was published, the author of which was named the publicist and historian Charles-Louis Lesure. The manuscript of the book was corrected, and possibly in places and wrote the text, by Napoleon himself. The book stated that Emperor Peter the Great, before resting, left a secret plan to his descendants and future rulers of Russia. It was bequeathed to bring confusion and strife into international politics, to support the Russian peoples in a belligerent mood. The main goal of all this is to achieve power over all of Europe, to seize Constantinople and to rush to the lands of India through the Persian Gulf.

Plus, the Grand Army was completely atheistic. French memoirists wrote: “We watched with amazement and incomprehension how Russians weep and wear icons. They pray in front of these boards and try to excite themselves with religious fanaticism. " By that time, the French, imbued with the spirit of the revolution, believed only in their own strengths, the strength of a man who creates his own destiny, wins victories himself. And by virtue of the genius who heads them - Napoleon.

So in 1812 Russia had to face not just the invasion of a huge army, but an unprecedented information provocation.

Among the leaflets of the Main Apartment - an appeal to the peoples of Europe "Official news from the army", proclaiming the principle of political independence of European states; proclamations calling on the peoples of Europe to rise up to fight Napoleon; appeals to the soldiers of the Great Army with an appeal to lay down their arms.

The printing house had to work in difficult field conditions. Nevertheless, the propaganda journalism of the Headquarters printing house includes "Journals of Military Operations" - the official documents of the headquarters; publicistic leaflets and brochures; literary works published at the headquarters of Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov.

For counterpropaganda, it was necessary to launch, first of all, an ideological war against everything French. The conservative press began to elevate everything Russian to the level of apotheosis and belittle everything French to the point of the most rude and flat ridicule.

The first was achieved by a number of articles and poems dedicated to Russian patriotism, courage, generosity and other virtues and written in an exalted syllable or, on the contrary, close to the popular popular style.

The Governor-General of Moscow Count Fyodor Vasilyevich Rostopchin is a regular contributor to the Russian Bulletin magazine. He wrote posters - appeals to soldiers and civilians. The main technique is stylization, a crude imitation of the popular language.

In his bitterness against Napoleon and the French, the publisher of the Russian Messenger Sergei Nikolaevich Glinka went to extremes and even turned his compatriots against the peaceful French who were trading in Moscow. For example, in the article "On Moscow Signs" the magazine bursts out with anger over the fact that on French signs in Moscow "Russian speeches are always ranked lower than French" and that there are too many French signs in a Russian city.

They were opposed by the journal "Son of the Fatherland", which began to be published in St. Petersburg in October 1812 by Nikolai Ivanovich Grech. The government considered it necessary to have a semi-official socio-political magazine in the capital. The civic freethinking of the "Son of the Fatherland" manifested itself in the characterization of the war as a struggle for the national independence of the Motherland. "Let's die free and in a free Fatherland!" - this was the leitmotif of all the materials of the magazine.

Grech introduced an interesting innovation to his magazine - the illustrations, the content of which was subordinated to the general patriotic goal of the magazine. The main genre of illustrations is political caricature, making fun of Napoleon and his associates. The famous artists Alexei Gavrilovich Venetsianov and Ivan Ivanovich Terebenev painted for "Son of the Fatherland". Often, the theme of these cartoons echoed the satirical fables of Ivan Andreevich Krylov "Wagon train", "The crow and the chicken", "The wolf in the kennel" and others, published in the "Son of the Fatherland".

The Patriotic War of 1812 contributed to the development of new forms of printing, which the Decembrists would later use as well: "flying" leaflets-appeals, promptly responding to events. So it was not only the growth of national self-awareness that allowed Matvey Ivanovich Muravyov-Apostol to say on behalf of all the Decembrists: “We were children of 1812”. The Decembrists created propaganda works that were illegally distributed among the soldiers - "Curious Conversation" by Nikita Mikhailovich Muravyov (1822), "Orthodox Catechism" by Sergei Ivanovich Muravyov-Apostol (1825); songs in the folk style were composed and distributed, which from the end of 1822 were jointly written by Kondraty Fedorovich Ryleev and Alexander Alexandrovich Bestuzhev; critical reviews and articles were written praising the strength and power of the Russian people, who found themselves under the yoke of serf-owners. Thus, an information war was unfolding aimed at mass consciousness in order to form an emotional perception that was beneficial to the influencing party.

38. General characteristics of English journalism in the first half of the XIX century. Key representatives.
The first half of the 19th century is distinguished in England by the rapid development of capitalist production. The agrarian revolution is nearing completion. Agriculture, light industry and trade are developing rapidly. The massive introduction of machines into production leads to a reduction in manual labor, there is an increase in unemployment, a reduction in wages and, as a result, an increase in crime. A protest against machines spreads among workers. In 1832, "Carpenter's Political Monthly Journal" expressed the views of the advanced workers, wrote that the culprit should not be sought among machines, but the ways of using them. On the question of the influence of machines on the position of workers, the newspaper said that this opens up an opportunity for improving labor, for productivity, and for shortening the working day. "Chartist circular" (from 1848), "North Star" - against the disfigurement of cars. The official body "Edinburgh Review" is strongly opposed, calls on the government to be merciless to such crimes.
Severnaya Zvezda came first, Narodnaya Gazeta came second, its program: in order to preserve the Chartist party and express a wide popular movement, it became vitally important to organize the publication of a weekly truly democratic organ of the Chartists. Ideological orientation and thematic content: one of the main tasks is the propaganda of the ideas of the revolution, much attention is paid to highlighting the issue of the colonial policy of England. It was supposed to be published as a private organ. The newspaper could not be an official body, since the Chartist party was illegal. It was supposed to publish the newspaper with funds from workers and other parties of the Chartist movement. The volume of one issue is 12 pages, the price is 3.5 pence, the circulation is 5 thousand. Editor Jones. An editorial is published in each issue on the first page in the Current Notes section. Various problems are touched upon (foreign and domestic policy, the Chartist movement, the struggle of the colonial peoples, the struggle of the proletariat). The most notable are the foreign division and our colonies. K. Marx had a great influence. The Rhine Gazette was considered a model.
In addition to the Chartist press: conservative, liberal, oppositional, radical, religious, labor, professional, stock exchange and others. Frequency: daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, annually, morning issues, daytime, evening.
Dickens. 1833-35 - sketches of everyday life of various layers of the philistine, interspersed with humor, jokes. The manner of a cartoonist. First published articles without signatures. Mirror of Parliament newspaper, Morning Chronicle. The essays came out when he was 21 years old. "Evening Chronicle" - meets the family of the editor of the "Hired Carriage Parking Lot". From 1836 - editor of the "Almanac" and ceases to work in the "Morning Chronicle" Newspaper "Examiner". In 1842 he prints letters where he tries to achieve international copyright in America; American Notes appears. Articles about agriculture, satirical articles. Since 1850 - the weekly "Home Reading". Condemns the vices of society, but spares the feelings of readers. He publishes his works in his magazines "David Copperfield", "Hard Times". 1859 - the magazine "Round the Year", leaves it to his eldest son.
William Thackeray (1811-1863), University of Cambridge. Thackeray's journalistic debut took place while studying at Cambridge: he wrote for the student manuscript magazines "Snob" and "Chimera". He also owns 2000 drawings: illustrations for literary works, political cartoons, grotesque. The article "Pictures of Life and Mores (Hood John Leach)", 1854, gives an idea of ​​the nature of the English illustrative press, about the popular cartoonists working in the periodicals. The article is an example of Thackeray's artistic criticism. Sphere of interests - politics, republican views. He is not a supporter of revolutionary methods of social reorganization, he pinned his hopes on parliamentary methods of struggle. In 1833 he was a co-editor and foreign correspondent for the National Standed newspaper (National Banner). In the 1830s. accounts for the beginning of Thackeray's active journalistic activities. He has contributed to the Times, Morning Chronicle, Quaterly Review, Frazere Magazine, Punch. Tekkray - journalist works in the genres of parody, essay, satirical notes, articles, wrote texts for drawings.
In "Paris Letters" (1833) observations on various phenomena of French life: ridicules the absurdity of the names of Parisian newspapers. The notes are ironic: a mockery of French customs and tastes. In the essay "How they made a spectacle out of execution" (1840), he opposed the public death penalty, considering it as legalized murder, incompatible with Christian values. Democratic sympathies. The article "Fashionable Writer" (1841) - the first of a series against romance, idealizes the life of high society. He ridiculed the narrative devices of their authors. Thackeray places the main blame for the distribution of second-rate literature on the flattering and corrupt journalists who created the name for mediocre writers.
Article "Dickens in France" (1842). The first part of the article - Thackeray's review of a stage adaptation of Dickens's novel The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby - is a scathing rebuke. Exposes the ignorance, cynicism, moral dishonesty and hypocrisy of critics. The article is caustic and witty. Brilliant satirist and polemicist.
Parodist skill: The Legend of the Rhine (1845), The Novels of a Glorious Writer (1847), Miss Tickletoby's Lectures on the History of England (1842) and The History of the Next French Revolution (1844). The pinnacle of skill - "The Book of Snobs" (1846-1847), in which the writer created a satirical portrait gallery of snobs, represented various strata and institutions of English society (aristocracy, bourgeoisie, political, literary and military circles, church, university, press, etc.) etc.).
From 1860 to 1862 - editor of the Cornhill Magazine. The writer attracted many famous writers: A. Tennyson, G. Beecher Stowe, E. Trollope, E. Gaskell, M. Arnold. The magazine is a great success.

Due to the fact that in the 19th century periodicals had a mass audience, while competition between various newspapers and magazines increased, each publication, especially a commercial one, had to attract as many readers as possible. As a result, the emphasis was deliberately placed on the broadest strata of the population, who were neither sufficiently educated nor properly erudite. That is, the information presented in the press had to be written in a simple, often even primitive language and contain only facts that are really interesting to the reader, while not always reliable.

In 1881, the following happened: responsibility for the content of newspaper articles, the reporting of inaccurate information, speculation and guesswork in the press was abolished. This largely freed the hands of the authors of the so-called "yellow press" (this term originated in the United States and denoted publications, often very inexpensive in cost, containing exclusively entertainment information based on unverified sources, designed to cause as much emotion as possible in the reader, and not teach something useful and broaden your horizons).

Fragment of the 19th century newspaper.

Half-penny leaflets and other cheap editions

Until the mid-19th century, most taxes discouraged low-cost newspapers. But later, many of the duties were canceled, which led to a large increase in the number of different publications. In addition, it became possible to make them extremely cheap for the consumer, which significantly expanded the target audience.

The appearance of the so-called half-penny sheets at the end of the 19th century dealt a strong blow to large publishing houses. Not only were they very cheap (hence the name), their content was such as to maximize emotionally shaking a simple audience, greedy for sensations. The tone of the articles was primitive and vulgar, no serious and useful information was provided there, but scandals, intrigues and unverified information were abundant. The goal is to entertain a bored audience in the most primitive way. It turns out that some really important news might not have reached the reader, but it didn't matter to the creators of such cheap newspapers - the more sensations and rumors the articles contained, the more willingly the general public read them. Even the facts that actually took place, in this case, could be distorted beyond recognition.

The distribution of such leaflets caused significant damage to the reputation of the press in general, and it took time for the credibility rating to rise again. However, the so-called tabloid publications, attracting with their sensationalism, are often in demand in our time.