Measuring area on topographic map. Determination of distances on a map of different ways

Topic 7. Measurement of distances and areas on topographic maps

7.1. Measurement and postponus distance on the map

To measure the distance on the map, a millimeter or large-scale ruler, a circular meter, and for measuring the lines of lines - Kurvimeter is used.

7.1.1. Measurement of distances with millimeter line

Millimeter line measure the distance between the specified points on the map with an accuracy of 0.1 cm. The resulting number of centimeters multiply by the value of the named scale. For flat terrain, the result will correspond to the distance on the ground in meters or kilometers.
Example. On the map scale 1: 50 000 (in 1 cm - 500 m.) The distance between two points is 3.4 cm. Determine the distance between these points.
Decision. Named scale: 1 cm 500 m. The location distance between the points will be 3.4 × 500 \u003d 1700 m..
At the corners of the inclination of the earth's surface, more than 10º must enter the appropriate amendment (see below).

7.1.2. Measurement of distances with a circular meter

When measuring the distance in a straight line, the circular needle is installed on the endpoints, then, without changing the circular solution, the distance is counted according to a linear or transverse scale. In the case when the circulation solution exceeds the length of a linear or transverse scale, an integer number of kilometers is determined by the squares of the coordinate grid, and the residue is the usual order along the scale.

Fig. 7.1. Measurement of distances with a circulatory-measuring meter.

For length loan line Sequentially measured the length of each link, and then summarize their values. Such lines are measured also by increasing the circulat solution.
Example. To measure the length of the broken ABCD. (Fig. 7.2, but), Circle's legs first put on the point BUT and IN. Then rotating the circus around the point IN. move the back leg from the point BUT exactly IN", lying on the continuation of the direct Sun.
Front leg from point IN Turn in point FROM. As a result, a circular solution is obtained In "S.=AU+Sun. Moving in the same way the rear feet of the circulation from the point IN" exactly FROM"and the front of FROM in D.. Circular solution is obtained
With "d \u003d in" C + Cd, the length of which is determined by a transverse or linear scale.

Fig. 7.2. Line length measurement: aBCD's broken; b - curve1b1c1;
B "C" - auxiliary points

Long curves segments Measure the chord of the circular steps (see Fig. 7.2, b). A circular step equal to an integer number of hundreds or tens of meters is installed using a transverse or linear scale. When the circular legs are permutable along the measured line in directions shown in Fig. 7.2, B arrows, say steps. The total length of the line A 1 C 1 is made of a segment A 1 in 1 equal to the step of step multiplied by the number of steps, and the residue in 1 s 1 measured by cross or linear scale.

7.1.3. Measuring distance Kurvimmeter

Curves segments are measured by mechanical (Fig. 7.3) or electronic (Fig. 7.4) Kryvimimer.

Fig. 7.3. Kurvimeter mechanical

First, rotating the wheel with the hand, set the arrow to zero division, then rolled the wheel on the measured line. The countdown on the dial against the end of the arrow (in centimeters) is multiplied by the magnitude of the map scale and get the distance on the ground. Digital Kurvimeter (Fig. 7.4.) - This is a high-precision, user-friendly instrument. Kurvimeter includes architectural and engineering functions and has a convenient display for reading information. This device can handle metric and Anglo-American (feet, inches, etc.) values, which allows you to work with any cards and drawings. You can enter the most frequently used type of measurement, and the device will automatically translate large-scale measurements.

Fig. 7.4. Kurvimeter digital (electronic)

To improve the accuracy and reliability of the results, it is recommended to conduct all measurements twice - in direct and reverse directions. In the case of minor differences in the measured data for the final result, the arithmetic value of the measured values \u200b\u200bis taken.
The accuracy of measurement of the distances in the specified methods using a linear scale is 0.5 - 1.0 mm on a map scale. The same thing, but using a transverse scale is 0.2 - 0.3 mm by 10 cm of the line length.

7.1.4. Recalculation of horizontal injections to inclined range

It should be remembered that as a result of measuring distances by cards, the lengths of horizontal projections of lines (D) are obtained, and not the length of the lines on the earth's surface (s) (Fig. 7.5).

Fig. 7.5. Inclined range ( S.) and horizontal injections ( d.)

The actual distance on the inclined surface can be calculated by the formula:

where d. - Length horizontal line projection S.;
α - The angle of inclination of the earth's surface.

The length of the line on topographic surface can be determined using a table (tab.7.1) relative values \u200b\u200bof the amendments to the length of horizontal injections (in%) .

Table 7.1.

Tilt angle

Terms of use Table

1. In the first line of the table (0 tens), the relative values \u200b\u200bof the amendments at the angles of inclination from 0 ° to 9 ° are given, in the second - from 10 ° to 19 °, in the third - from 20 ° to 29 °, in the fourth - from 30 ° up to 39 °.
2. To determine the absolute value of the amendment, it is necessary:
a) in the table over the angle of inclination to find the relative amount of the correction (if the angle of the topographic surface is set not in an integer number of degrees, then the relative amount of the amendment is necessary to find interpolating between the tables);
b) Calculate the absolute value of the correction to the length of horizontal injections (i.e. this length is multiplied by the relative amount of the amendment and the resulting product is divided by 100).
3. To determine the length of the line on the topographic surface, it is necessary to add the calculated absolute value of the amendment to the length of the horizontal injection.

Example. The topographic map is defined the length of horizontal injections of 1735 m., Topographic surface inclination angle - 7 ° 15 '. The table relative values \u200b\u200bof the amendments are shown for entire degrees. Consequently, for 7 ° 15 "It is necessary to determine the nearest large and closest smaller magnitude to one degree - 8º and 7º:
for 8 ° relative magnitude of the amendment 0.98%;
for 7 ° 0.75%;
Difference of table values \u200b\u200bin 1º (60 ') 0.23%;
The difference between the specified angle of inclination of the earth's surface is 7 ° 15 "and the nearest smaller tabular value of 7º is 15."
We compile proportions and find a relative amount of amendment for 15 ":

For 60 'the amendment is 0.23%;
For 15 'amendment is h.%
h.% = = 0,0575 ≈ 0,06%

The relative magnitude of the correction for an angle of inclination 7 ° 15 "
0,75%+0,06% = 0,81%
Then it is necessary to determine the absolute value of the amendment:
= 14.05 m "14 m.
The length of the inclined line on the topographic surface will be:
1735 m + 14 m \u003d 1749 m.

At low angles of tilt (less than 4 ° - 5 °), the difference in the length of the inclined line and its horizontal projection is very small and may not be taken into account.

7.2. Measurement of space on cards

The definition of areas of the topographic cards is based on the geometric dependence between the shape area and its linear elements. The scale of the square is equal to the square of linear scale.
If the sides of the rectangle on the map are reduced in n. Once, the area of \u200b\u200bthis figure will decrease in n. 2 times. For map scale 1:10 000 (in 1 cm 100 m) The scale of the area will be equal to (1: 10 000) 2 or 1 cm 2 will be 100 m × 100 m \u003d 10 000 m 2 or 1 hectare, and on the map of scale 1 : 1 000 000 per 1 cm 2 - 100 km 2.
Graphic, analytical and instrumental methods are used to measure the area of \u200b\u200bmaps. The use of a particular measurement method is due to the shape of the measured area specified by the accuracy of the measurement results required by the speed of receiving the data and the presence of the necessary devices.

7.2.1. Measurement of the area of \u200b\u200bthe area with rectilinear boundaries

When measuring the area of \u200b\u200bthe site with rectilinear borders The site is divided into simple geometric shapes, measure the area of \u200b\u200beach of them with a geometric method and, summing up the area of \u200b\u200bindividual sections, calculated based on the scale of the card, receive the total area of \u200b\u200bthe object.

7.2.2. Measurement of the area of \u200b\u200bthe area with a curvilinear circuit

Object C. curvilinear contour They are divided into geometric shapes, pre-hidden boundaries with such a calculation so that the sum of the cut-off areas and the amount of excess are mutually compensated for each other (Fig. 7.6). The measurement results will be at some extent approximate.

Fig. 7.6. Hinding the curvilinear boundaries of the site and
breakdown its square on simple geometric shapes

7.2.3. Measuring area area with complex configuration

Measuring areas of sites, having a complex incorrect configuration more often produced with the help of pallets and plan meters, which gives the most accurate results. Grid pallet It is a transparent plate with square grid (Fig. 9.9).

Fig. 7.7. Square grid pallet

The palette is applied to the measured circuit and it counts the number of cells and their parts that are inside the contour. The fractions of incomplete squares are evaluated to the eye, so in order to increase the accuracy of measurements, labels with small squares are used (with a side 2 - 5 mm). Before working on this map, the area of \u200b\u200bone cell is determined.
The area of \u200b\u200bthe plot is calculated by the formula:

P \u003d a 2 n,

Where: but -square side expressed on the map scale;
n. - the number of squares in the limits of the circuit of the measured section

To increase the accuracy, the area is determined several times with an arbitrary permutation of the palette used in any position, including with a turn relative to its initial position. For the final value of the area, the average arithmetic is taken from the measurement results.

In addition to the mesh beans, point and parallel palets are used, which are transparent plates with stamped dots or lines. The points are put in one of the corners of the cells of the grid palette with a known price of division, then the grid lines are removed (Fig. 7.8).

Fig. 7.8. Pallet

The weight of each point is equal to the price of the division of the palette. The area of \u200b\u200bthe measured area is determined by counting the number of points inside the contour, and multiply this amount by weight point.
On the parallel palette, equidate parallel straight lines are depricted (Fig. 7.9). The measured area, when applied to it, the palettes will be divided into a number of trapezions with the same height h.. The segments of parallel lines inside the contour (in the middle between the lines) are the average lines of trapez. To determine the area of \u200b\u200bthe site using this palette, it is necessary to multiply all measured medium lines to multiply between parallel lines of the Palest h.(taking into account scale).

P \u003d H.∑ l.

Fig. 7.9. Pallet consisting of a system
Parallel lines

Measure squares of significant areas made by cards using planimeter .

Fig. 7.10. Polar Planometer

The plan meter is used to determine the area mechanically. Wide distribution has a polar plan meter (Fig. 7.10). It consists of two levers - pole and water-based. Determination of the contour area plan meter comes down to the following actions. Signing the pole and installing the oscillating lever at the starting point of the contour, take countdown. Then the bypass spire is gently leading along the contour until the starting point and take the second countdown. The difference of samples will give the contour area in the divisions of the planimeter. Knowing the absolute price of the basement of the planimeter, the contour area is determined.
The development of technology contributes to the creation of new devices that increase productivity when calculating areas, in particular, the use of modern devices, among which - electronic plan meters .

Fig. 7.11. Electronic plan meter

7.2.4. Calculation of the area of \u200b\u200bthe polygon by coordinates of its vertices
(analytical method)

This method allows to determine the area of \u200b\u200bthe site of any configuration, i.e. With any number of vertices whose coordinates ( x, Y.) Known. At the same time, the numbering of the vertices should be made along the clockwise arrow.
As can be seen from fig. 7.12, Square S. polygon 1-2-3-4 can be considered as the difference in space S "figures 1U-1-2-3-3uand S "figures 1Y-1-4-3-3
S \u003d S "- S".

Fig. 7.12. To calculate the area of \u200b\u200bthe polygon by coordinates.

In turn, each of the squares S "and S "it is the sum of the scene of the trapezes, the parallel sides of which are the abscissions of the corresponding vertices of the polygon, and altitudes - the difference of the ordinate of the same vertices, i.e.
S " \u003d pl. 1U-1-2-2-2 + pl. 2,2-3-3,
S "\u003d PL 1U-1-4-4U + PL. 4U-4-3-3U
or:

2s. " = (x 1+ x 2)(w. 2 – w. 1) + (X 2.+ x. 3 ) (w. 3 - u 2)
2 S." = (x 1+ x 4)(w. 4 – w. 1) + (x 4.+ x 3)(w. 3 - w. 4).
In this way,
2s. = (x 1+ x 2)(w. 2 – w. 1) + (X 2.+ x. 3 ) (w. 3 - u 2) - (x 1+ x 4)(w. 4 – w. 1) - (x 4.+ x 3)(w. 3 - w. 4).

Opening brackets, get
2s. = x 1 u 2 – x 1 u 4 + x 2 U. 3 - x. 2 in 1 + x 3 y 4 - x 3 u 2 + x 4. In 1. - x 4 W. 3

From here
2s. = x 1 (y 2 - w. 4) + x 2 (y 3 - in 1) + x 3 (y 4 - w. 2 ) + x 4 (in 1. - w. 3 ) (7.1)
2s. = y 1 (x 4 - h. 2) + y 2 (x 1 - h. 3 )+ y 3 (x 2 - h. 4 )+ y 4 (x 3 - x 1) (7.2)

Imagine expressions (7.1) and (7.2) in general, denoting through i.serial number ( i. = 1, 2, ..., p)the tops of the polygon:
2s. = (7.3)
2s. = (7.4)

Hence, the doubled area of \u200b\u200bthe polygon is equal to either the amount of the works of each abscissa to the difference in the order of the subsequent and previous vertices of the polygon, or the amount of the products of each ordinate to the difference between the abscissa of the previous and subsequent vertices of the polygon.

An intermediate computing control is to satisfy the conditions:
\u003d 0 or \u003d 0

The values \u200b\u200bof coordinates and their differences are usually rounded up to tenth meters, and works to whole square meters.
Complex formulas for the settlement area can be easily solved using spreadsheets. MicrosoftXL. . An example for a polygon (polygon) of 5 points is given in Tables 7.2, 7.3.
Table 7.2 Introduce the initial data and formulas.

Table 7.2.


				y i (x i-1 - x i + 1)





	Double area in m 2			Sums (d2: d6)
	Square in hectares

Table 7.3 shows the computing results.

Table 7.3.

				y i (x i-1 -x i + 1)






	Double area in m 2
	Square in hectares

7.3. Eye measurements on the map

In the practice of kartometric works, eye measurements are widely used, which give approximate results. However, the skill is easy to determine on a map of distance, directions, square, slope and other characteristics of objects contributes to mastering the skills of the correct understanding of the cartographic image. The accuracy of the eye definitions increases with the acquisition of experience. Eyemerish skills warn gross miscalculations in measurements.
For determining linear objects The card should be hovering with the magnitude of these objects with segments of kilometer mesh or linear scale divisions.
For determining squares of objects As a peculiar palette, kilometer mesh squares are used. Each square of the scale mesh is 1:10,000 - 1:50,000 on the ground corresponds to 1 km 2 (100 hectares), the scale of 1: 100,000 - 4 km 2, 1: 200 000 - 16 km 2.
The accuracy of quantitative definitions on the map, with the development of the character, is 10-15% of the measured value.

Questions and tasks for self-control

Explain the measurement order on the map of the straight line.

Explain the measurement order on the map of the broken line.

Explain the measurement order on the winding line curve with the meter circulator.

Explain the measurement order on the winding line curve by Kurvimeter.

How can I use the length of the linear object on the topographic map?

Which area on the ground corresponds to one square of the coordinate mesh map scale 1:25 000?

Measurement of distances on the map. Study of the area. Reading a map on the route

Studying area

According to the relief and local subjects shown on the map, one can judge the suitability of this area to the organization and conduct of the battle, on the use of military equipment in battle, to the conditions of observation, fire, orientation, disguise, as well as ongoing.

The presence on the map of a large number of settlements and individual arrays of forests, cliffs and promoters, lakes, rivers and streams indicates the crossing of the terrain and limited review, which will make it difficult to move the movement of combat and transport equipment outside the roads, to create difficulties in organizing observation. At the same time, the raised nature of the relief creates good conditions for the shelter and protection of units from the effects of weapons of mass lesion of the enemy, and forest arrays can be used to disguise the personnel of the unit, military equipment, etc.

According to the nature of the planning, size and font, signatures of settlements can be said that some localities refer to the cities, others to the townships of the city type, and the third to the villages of the rural type. Orange blocks of quarters indicates the predominance of fire-resistant buildings. Closely located to each other, black rectangles inside the quarters point to the dense nature of the construction, and the yellow fill - on the neo-hesiness of the buildings.

The settlement may be located meteorological station, power station, radio, combustible warehouse, a plant with a pipe, a railway station, a flour plant and other objects. Some of these local items can serve as good guidelines.

A relatively advanced network of roads of various classes can be depicted on the map. If there is a signature on the conditional sign of the road road, for example, 10 (14) B. This means that the coated part of the road has a width of 10 m., And from the ditch to ditch - 14 m, cobblestone coating. Purchase can be held a one-section (two-step) railway. After studying the route along the railway, you can find separate areas of roads that pass on the mound or in the excavation with the specified depth.

With a more detailed study of roads, it is possible to establish: the presence and characteristics of bridges, embankments, recesses and other structures; the presence of difficult areas, steep shuts and lifts; The possibility of the congress from the roads and movement next to them.

The water surfaces are depicted on the maps of blue or blue, so they are distinctly allocated among the symbols of other local items.

By the nature of the signature font, the river can be judged about its shipping. The arrow and digit on the river indicate which direction it flows and at what speed. Signature, for example: means that the width of the river in this place is 250 m, the depth is 4.8 m, and the ground bottom is sandy. If there is a bridge across the river, then its characteristic is given next to the image of the bridge.

If the river on the map is depicted by one line, this suggests that the width of the river does not exceed 10 m., If the river is depicted in two lines, and its width on the card is not indicated, its width can be determined by the designated characteristics of the bridges.

If the river is passable, the crust conditional sign indicates the depth of the fusion and the bottom of the bottom.

When studying soil and vegetable cover, you can find various parts of the forest on the map. Explanatory conventional signs on the green fill of the forest area can point to the mixed composition of the tree of trees, deciduous or coniferous forest. Signature, for example:, indicates that the average height of the trees is 25 m, their thickness is 30 cm, the average distances between them are 5 m, which makes it possible to conclude that it is impossible to move in the forest of cars and tanks outside of roads.

The study of the relief on the map begins with the definition of the general nature of the irregularities of the area on which the combat task has to be performed. For example, if a hilly relief is depicted on the map with relative heights of 100-120 m, and the distance between horizontals (locking) from 10 to 1 mm, this indicates a relatively small ridge of the skates (from 1 to 10 °).

A detailed study of the terrain on the map is associated with solving problems to determine the heights and mutual excess of points, the species, the direction of the steepness of the rod, the characteristics (depth, width and length) of the arrow, ravines, promotion and other relief parts.

Measurement distance on the map

Measurement on the map of straight and winding lines

To determine the distance on the map between points of the terrain (objects, objects), using the numerical scale, you need to measure the distance between these points in centimeters and multiply the resulting number by scale.

Example, on the map scale 1: 25000 Measure the distance between the bridge and the windmill; It is 7.3 cm, we multiply 250 m by 7.3 and we get the desired distance; It is equal to 1825 meters (250x7,3 \u003d 1825).

Determine on map distance between points of the terrain with a ruler

A small distance between two points in a straight line is easier to determine using a linear scale. For this, there is a fairly zirkul meter, the solution of which is equal to the distance between the specified points on the map, attach to a linear scale and remove the countdown in meters or kilometers. In the figure, the measured distance is 1070 m.

Large distances between points via direct lines are usually measured using a long line or circulator.

In the first case, to determine the distance on the map using the line, use a numerical scale.

In the second case, the solution "Step" of the circulator meter is installed so that it matches the integer number of kilometers, and the integer number of "steps" is set on the measurable segment. The distance that does not fit into the integer number of "steps" of the circular meter is determined by linear scale and add to the resulting number of kilometers.

In the same way, distances are measured by winding lines. In this case, the "step" of the circular meter should take 0.5 or 1 cm depending on the length and degree of the tooliness of the measured line.

To determine the length of the route on the map, a special device is used, called a crossmeter, which is especially convenient for measuring winding and long lines.

The device has a wheel that is connected by the arrow gear system.

When measuring the distance, it is necessary to install its arrow to divide 99. Holding a cevimimeter in a vertical position to maintain it on the measured line, without pulling off from the map along the route so that the scales reading increases. Bringing to the end point, count the measured distance and multiply it to the numerical scale denominator. (In this example, 34x25000 \u003d 850000, or 8500 m)

Accuracy measurement distance on the map. Amendments to the distance for the tilt and the lines of lines

The accuracy of determining distance distance on the map depends on the scale of the map, the nature of the measured lines (straight, winding), the selected method of measurement, relief of the terrain and other factors.

It is possible to determine the distance on the map in a straight line.

When measuring distances using a circulator or a line with millimeter divisions, the average measurement error in the equible areas of the terrain usually does not exceed 0.7-1 mm on the map scale, which is for the map scale 1: 25000 - 17.5-25 m, Scale 1: 50000 - 35-50 m, scale 1: 100000 - 70-100 m.

In mountainous areas, with a large steepness, the mistakes will be more. This is explained by the fact that when shooting the terrain on the card, they do not apply the length of the lines on the surface of the earth, but the length of the projections of these lines to the plane.

For example, with a roll of 20 ° steepness and a distance of 2120 m, its projection on the plane (the distance on the map) is 2000 m, i.e., 120 m less.

It is estimated that at the angle of inclination (steepness of the skate) 20 °, the resulting result of measuring the distance of the map should be increased by 6% (by 100 m to add 6 m), at an inclination of 30 ° - by 15%, and at an angle of 40 ° - by 23 %.

When determining the length of the route on the map, it should be borne in mind that the distance on the roads measured on the map using a circulation or a crossmeter, in most cases, turn into a shorter distant distances.

This is explained not only to the presence of descents and lifts on the roads, but also by some generalization of the roads on the maps.

Therefore, the result of a route length measurement of the length of the route should be in view of the nature of the terrain and the map of the card multiplying the coefficient specified in the table.

The simplest ways of measuring the area on the map

An approximate estimate of the size of the squares is made to the eye in the squares of the kilometer grid existing on the map. Each square of the scale of scale cards 1: 10000 - 1: 500,000 on the ground corresponds to 1 km2, the square of the mesh mesh scale 1: 100000 - 4 km2, the square of the scale of scale cards 1: 200000 - 16 km2.

More accurate areas are measured by a palette, which is a sheet of transparent plastic with a mesh of squares with a side of 10 mm applied to it (depending on the scale of the map and the necessary measurement accuracy).

Having imposed such a palette to the measured object on the map, they first count the number of squares that fully inside the circuit of the object, and then the number of squares intersectable by the object circuit. Each of the incomplete squares take half the square. As a result of multiplication of the area of \u200b\u200bone square, the area of \u200b\u200bthe object is obtained to the sum of the squares.

Squares of 1: 25000 and 1: 50,000 squares of small sites are conveniently measured by an officer line with special rectangular cuts. The square of these rectangles (in hectares) are indicated on the line for each scale of the GARTA.

Reading a map on the route

Read the card - this means correctly and fully perceive the symbolism of its conditional signs, quickly and unmistakably recognizing on them not only the type and varieties of the objects depicted, but also their characteristic properties.

The study of the map on the map (card reader) includes the definition of a general nature, quantitative and qualitative characteristics of individual elements (local items and relief forms), as well as determining the degree of influence of this area to the organization and conduct of combat.

Studying the area on the map, it should be remembered that with the time of its creation on the ground, changes could occur, which are not reflected on the map, i.e. the content of the map to some extent will not correspond to the actual state of the area at the moment. Therefore, the study of the area on the map is recommended to start with familiarization with the card itself.

Acquaintance with the map. When familiarizing with the card according to the information placed in the rash design, the scale, the height of the relief section and the time of creating a map. Data on the scale and height of the cross section of the relief will allow the degree of details of the image on this map of local items, shapes and details of the relief. Knowing the amount of scale, you can quickly determine the size of local items or removing them from each other.

Information about the time of creation of the Card will be able to pre-determine the correspondence of the map content to the actual state of the area.

Then read and, if possible, remember the magnitude of the decline of the magnetic arrow, the amendments of the direction. Knowing the direction amendment of the direction, you can quickly make the translation of directive angles into magnetic azimuths or orient the map on the area along the kilometer mesh.

General rules and sequence of terrain study on the map. The sequence and degree of details of the study of the area are determined by the specific conditions of the combat situation, the nature of the combat mission of the unit, as well as the seasonal conditions and tactical and technical data of military equipment used in the fulfillment of the combat mission. When organizing defense in the city, it is important to determine the nature of its planning and development, the identification of durable buildings with basement and underground structures. In the event that the route moves the route of the division, to study with such details the feature of the city is not necessary. When organizing an offensive in the mountains, the main objects of study are passes, mountain passes, tesns and gorges with altitudes adjacent to them, shaped shapes and their impact on the organization of the fire system.

The study of the terrain is usually beginning with the definition of its general nature, and then study in detail individual local items, form and details of the relief, their impact on the conditions of observation, disguise, cross-country, protective properties, the conditions of fire and orientation.

The definition of the general terrain is aimed at identifying the most important features of the relief and local items that have a significant impact on the fulfillment of the task. When determining the general nature of the terrain, based on familiarization with relief, settlements, roads, the hydrographic network and vegetation, the variety of this locality, the degree of its intersection and the closure is revealed, which makes it possible to pre-define its tactical and protective properties.

The overall nature of the area is determined by a quick overview on the map of the entire area being studied.

In the first view, the card can be said about the presence of settlements and individual massifs of forests, obscurations and promoters, lakes, rivers and streams testifying to the crossing of the terrain and limited review, which inevitably makes it difficult to move the movement of combat and transport equipment outside the roads, creates difficulties in organizing observation . At the same time, the raised nature of the relief creates good conditions for the shelter and protection of units from the effects of weapons of mass lesion of the enemy, and forest arrays can be used to disguise the personnel of the unit, military equipment, etc.

Thus, as a result of the definition of the general nature of the area, conclude about the availability of the area and its individual directions for the actions of the units on the machines, and also outline the frontiers and objects that should be studied in more detail, given the nature of the combat vendor to be carried out in this area of \u200b\u200bthe terrain.
A detailed study of the area aims to identify the qualitative characteristics of local items, forms and details of the relief within the borders of the unit's actions or by the upcoming route of movement. Based on obtaining such data on a map and taking into account the relationship of topographic elements of the area (local items and relief), an assessment of the conditions of passability, disguise and observation, orientation, referee, and also define the protective properties of the area.

The definition of high-quality and quantitative characteristics of local items is made on the card with relatively high accuracy and large details.

When studying on the map of settlements, the number of settlements, their type and disgrace is determined, determine the degree of obsolence of a particular area (district) of the area. The main indicators of tactical and protective properties of settlements are their area and configuration, the nature of the planning and development, the presence of underground structures, the nature of the area on the approaches to the settlement.

Reading the card, according to the conditional signs of settlements, set the presence, type and location of them in this area of \u200b\u200bthe area, determine the nature of the outflow and layout, density of development and fire resistance of buildings, the location of the streets, main passages, the availability of industrial facilities, outstanding buildings and landmarks.

When studying on the road network card, the degree of development of the road network and the quality of roads, determine the conditions for the terrain and the possibility of efficient use of vehicles.

With a more detailed study of the roads are set: the presence and characteristics of bridges, embankments, recesses and other structures; the presence of difficult areas, steep shuts and lifts; The possibility of the congress from the roads and movement next to them.

When studying dirt roads, special attention is paid to identifying the lifting capacity of bridges and ferry crossings, as they are often not designed for skipping heavy wheeled and tracked machines.

Studying hydrography determine the presence of water objects on the map, refine the degree of rug of terrain. The presence of water bodies creates good conditions for water supply and transportation by waterways.

The water surfaces are depicted on the maps of blue or blue, so they are distinctly allocated among the symbols of other local items. When studying on the river card, channels, streams, lakes and other aquatic obstacles, the width, depth, flow rate, the nature of the bottom, the shores and the locality adjacent to them are determined; The presence and characteristics of bridges, dam, gateways, ferry crossing, brodes and sections, convenient for forcing are established.

When studying the soil and vegetable cover, the presence and characteristics of forest and shrub arrays, swamps, salt marshes, sands, stony plants and those elements of soil-vegetable cover, which can have a significant impact on the conditions of passability, disguise, observation and the possibility of shelting.

The characteristics of the forest site studied on the map make it possible to conclude about the possibility of its use for the secret and dispersed location of the divisions, as well as on the pavement of forests on the roads and buses. Good landmarks in the forest to determine their location and orientation in the movement are the house of the forester and seeks.

The characteristics of the marshes are determined by the design of the syncons. However, when determining the pavement of swamps on the map, the time of year should be taken into account and the weather state. In the period of rains and the dissolution of the swamp, shown on the map with a conditional sign as passable, in reality may be difficult. In winter, in the period of severe frosts, difficult swamps can become lighted.

The study of the relief on the map begins with the definition of the general nature of the irregularities of the area on which the combat task has to be performed. At the same time, the presence, location and mutual relationship of the most characteristic of this section of typical shapes and parts of the relief are determined, in general, their influence on the conditions of passability, observation, refuge, disguise, orientation and organization of protection against weapons of mass lesion. The overall nature of the relief can be quickly determined in thickness and draw horizontals, heights and symptoms and conditional signs of relief parts.

A detailed study of the relief of the area on the map is associated with solving problems to determine the heights and mutual excess of the points, the species and direction of the steepness of the skates, the characteristics (depth, width and length) of the flap, ravines, promotion and other relief parts.

Naturally, the need to solve specific tasks will depend on the nature of the combat task. For example, the definition of invisibility fields will be required when organizing and conducting exploration by observation; Definition of steepness, height and length of the skates will be required when determining the conditions of terrain and the choice of route of movement, etc.

Fig. 20. Measurement of distances on a circular meter map

on linear scale

For example, on a map of 1: 50,000 (scale value of 500 m), the distance between two guidelines is 4.2 cm.

Consequently, the desired distance between these landmarks will be equal to 4.2 × 500 \u003d 2100 m.

A small distance between two points in a straight line is easier to determine using a linear scale (see Fig. 20). For this, there is a fairly zirkul meter, the solution of which is equal to the distance between the specified points on the map, attach to a linear scale and remove the countdown in meters or kilometers. In fig. 20 The measured distance is 1250 m.

Large distances between points via direct lines are usually measured using a long line or circulator. In the first case, to determine the distance on the map using the line, use a numerical scale. In the second case, the solution ("step") of the circular meter is set so that it corresponds to an integer number of kilometers, and the integer number of "steps" is laid on the measured part. The distance that does not fit into the integer number of "steps" of the circular meter is determined by linear scale and add to the resulting number of kilometers.

In this way, the distances along winding lines are measured. In this case, the "step" of the meter circulator should take 0.5 or 1 cm depending on the length and degree of the tooliness of the measured line (Fig. 21).

Fig. 21. Measurement of distances over winding lines

To determine the length of the route on the map, a special device is used, called a cevimimer. It is convenient for measuring winding and long lines. The device has a wheel that is connected by the arrow gear system. When measuring the distance, it is necessary to install its arrow to zero division, and then rolling the wheel along the route so that the scales reading increases. The resulting countdown in centimeters is multiplied by the value of the scale and get the distance on the ground.

The accuracy of the detection of distance distance depends on the scale of the map, the nature of the measured lines (straight, winding), the selected method of measuring the terrain and other factors.

It is possible to determine the distance on the map in a straight line. When measuring distances using a circular or a line with millimeter divisions, the average measurement error value in the equible areas of the terrain usually does not exceed 0.5-1 mm on the map scale, which is for the map scale 1: 25,000 - 12.5-25 m , scale 1: 50 000 - 25-50 m, scale 1: 100 000 - 50-100 m. In mountainous areas, with a large steepness of skate, errors will be greater. This is explained by the fact that when shooting the terrain on the card, they do not apply the length of the lines on the surface of the earth, but the length of the projections of these lines to the plane.

With a row of 20 ° skate and a distance of 2120 m, its projection on the plane (the distance on the map) is 2000 m, i.e., 120 m less. It is estimated that at the angle of inclination (steepness of the skate) 20 °, the resulting result of measuring the distance of the map should be increased by 6% (by 100 m to add 6 m), at an inclination of 30 ° - by 15%, and at an angle of 40 ° - by 23 %.

When determining the length of the route on the map, it should be borne in mind that the distance on the roads measured on the map with the help of a circulation or a crossmeter are turned on shorter than valid distances. This is explained not only to the presence of descents and lifts on the roads, but also by some generalization of the roads on the maps. Therefore, the result of a route length measurement of the route should be taken into account on the nature of the area and the scale of the card to multiply the coefficient specified in Table. 3.

Very often, users face a situation where you need to calculate the distance of the path. However, how and with how to do it? The first thing comes to mind is a navigator capable of determining the distance. However, the problem is that the navigator works only with a car expense, and if you are located, for example, in the park and want to find out how many kilometers it is necessary to go through the desert areas, such a "solution" of the problem will not solve it at all.

However, we would not write an article if we had no trump card in the sleeve: we are talking about maps. The application is updated every day and complemented by new chips, to say exactly when it became possible to determine the distance, we cannot, but it is probably one of the most useful functions.

In order to find out the distance traveled or planned path, you need:

Hold your finger at the point that will be initial, after which additional settings will appear

Swipe up will reveal the settings in full screen

Click on "Measure the distance"

Spend on the display and select an intermediate or end point by pressing the location on the map

As the pathway, the distance displayed in the lower left corner will increase. In order to remove the last point, you need to click on the return button, which is located in the upper right corner next to the "Menu" button. By the way, clicking on three menu points, you can completely clean the entire route.

Thus, we learned how to determine the distance of the route of interest.

It is worth noting in general the stable and high-quality work of Google cards. In Play, market there are many similar applications, including maps.me, Yandex.Maps, but for some reason it is the solution from Google, firstly, it's best to fit into the system, bringing your Material-chips, secondly, programmatically implemented on rather high level. Here you can view the street with the StreetView-Panorama, download offline navigation and so on. In a word, if you are interested in cards - boldly download the official Google decision.

1.1. Map maps

Map scale Shows how many times the length of the line on the map is less than the length of the length on the ground. It is expressed as a relationship of two numbers. For example, the scale of 1:50 000 means that all area lines are depicted on the map with a decrease of 50000 times, i.e. 1 cm on the map corresponds to 50000 cm (or 500 m) on the ground.

Fig. 1. Registration of numerical and linear scales on topographic maps and city plans

The scale is indicated below the bottom side of the card frame in digital terms (numerical scale) and in the form of a straight line (linear scale), on segments of which the corresponding distance on the ground is signed (Fig. 1). It also indicates the size of the scale - the distance in meters (or kilometers) on the ground, corresponding to one centimeter on the map.

It is useful to remember the rule: if the right of the relationship is to cross the last two zero, then the remaining number will show how many meters on the ground corresponds to 1 cm on the map, i.e., scale.

When comparing several scales, the larger will be the one whose number in the right part of the ratio is less. Suppose that the same section of the area has 1: 25000, 1: 50000 and 1: 100000 scale cards. Of these, the scale of 1: 25000 will be the largest, and scale 1: 100,000-small.
The larger the scale of the card, the details of it depicts the terrain. With a decrease in the scale of the map, the number of locality details applied to it

The details of the area of \u200b\u200bthe area on topographic maps depends on its character: the less details contain the area, the most power they are displayed on the maps of smaller scales.

In our country and many other countries, as the main scale of topographic maps taken: 1: 10000, 1: 25000, 1: 50000, 1: 100000, 1: 200000, 1: 500000 and 1: 1000000.

The cards used in the troops are divided into large-scale, medium-scale and small-scale.

Map scale	Name card	CAR classification
		software	by main purpose
1:10 000 (1 cm 100 m)	ten thousand	large-scale	tactical
1:25 000 (1 cm 250 m)	twenty pyattyanya
1:50 000 (1 cm 500 m)	five thousand
1: 100 000 (1 cm 1 km)	stomasky	medium-scale
1: 200 000 (1 cm 2 km)	two-hundredth thousand		operational
1: 500 000 (1 cm 5 km)	five hundred dollar	small-scale
1: 1 000 000 (1 cm 10 km)	millionna

1.2. Measurement on the map of straight and winding lines

Example, on the map scale 1: 25000 Measure the distance between the bridge and the windmill (Fig. 2); It is 7.3 cm, we multiply 250 m by 7.3 and we get the desired distance; It is equal to 1825 meters (250x7,3 \u003d 1825).

Fig. 2. Determine on the map the distance between points of the area using the ruler.

A small distance between two points in a straight line is easier to determine using a linear scale (Fig. 3). For this, there is a fairly zirkul meter, the solution of which is equal to the distance between the specified points on the map, attach to a linear scale and remove the countdown in meters or kilometers. In fig. 3 The measured distance is 1070 m.

Fig. 3. Measurement on the distance of distances with a linear scale zircle

Fig. 4. Measurement on the distance map of the circular meter by winding lines

Large distances between points via direct lines are usually measured using a long line or circulator.

In the first case, to determine the distance on the map using the line, use a numerical scale (see Fig. 2).

In the same way, the distances along the winding lines are measured (Fig. 4). In this case, the "step" of the circular meter should take 0.5 or 1 cm depending on the length and degree of the tooliness of the measured line.

Fig. 5. Distance Measurement by Kurvimmeter

To determine the length of the route on the map, a special device is used, called a crossmeter (Fig. 5), which is especially convenient for measuring winding and long lines.

The device has a wheel that is connected by the arrow gear system.

1.3. Accuracy measurement distance on the map. Amendments to the distance for the tilt and the lines of lines

Accuracy Determination of Distance Care Depends on the scale of the map, the nature of the measured lines (straight, winding), the selected method of measurement, terrain and other factors.

It is possible to determine the distance on the map in a straight line.

For example, with a roll of 20 ° (Fig. 6) and a distance of 2120 m, its projection on the plane (distance on the map) is 2000 m, i.e., 120 m less.

Fig. 6. Projection of the string length on the plane (map)

This is explained not only to the presence of descents and lifts on the roads, but also by some generalization of the roads on the maps.

1.4. The simplest ways of measuring the area on the map

An approximate estimate of the size of the squares is made to the eye in the squares of the kilometer grid existing on the map. Each square of scale mesh 1: 10,000 - 1: 500,000 on the ground corresponds to 1 km2, square map mesh square 1 : 100,000 - 4 km2, Square Mesh Card 1: 200000 - 16 km2.

More accurate square measure palest, which is a sheet of transparent plastic with a mesh of squares with a side of 10 mm applied to it (depending on the scale of the map and the necessary measurement accuracy).

2. Azimuths and directory angle. Magnetic declination, rapprochement of meridians and correction

True azimuth (AI) - the horizontal angle, measured by a clockwise arrow from 0 ° to 360 ° between the northern direction of the true meridian of this point and the direction to the object (see Fig. 7).

Magnetic Azimuth (AM) - the horizontal angle, measured by a clockwise arrow from 0to to 360 ° between the northern direction of the magnetic meridian of this point and the direction to the object.

Directional corner (α; Du) - horizontal angle, measured by a clockwise arrow from 0 ° to 360 ° between the northern direction of the vertical line of the coordinate grid of this point and the direction to the object.

Magnetic declination (Δ; SC) is the angle between the northern direction of the true and magnetic meridians at this point.

If the magnetic arrow deviates from the true meridian to the East, then the Eastern declination (taken into account with the sign +), with the deviation of the magnetic arrow to the West - Western (taken into account with the sign -).

Fig. 7. Corners, directions and their relationship on the map

Rapid of meridians (γ; Sat) - the angle between the northern direction of the true meridian and the vertical line of the coordinate grid at this point. With the deviation of the grid line to the East - the rapprochement of the Meridian East (taken into account with the + sign), with the deviation of the mesh line to the West - Western (taken into account with the sign -).

Amendment direction (PN) is the angle between the northern direction of the vertical line of the coordinate grid and the direction of the magnetic meridian. It is equal to the algebraic difference in magnetic decline and rapprochement of meridians:

3. Measurement and construction of directory angles on the map. Transition from the directory angle to magnetic azimuth and back

On terrain With the help of a compass (bush) measured magnetic azimuths directions from which then move to directory angles.

On the map On the contrary, measure directional angles And they go to magnetic azimuths of directions on the ground.

Fig. 8. Changing the Directional Corner by the Transport Map

Directional angles on the map are measured by the transporter or chordwall.

Measurement of directive corners with transportation are produced in the following sequence:

the landmark on which the directory angle is measured is connected by a straight line with a point of standing so that this straight line is greater than the transport radius and crossed at least one vertical line of the coordinate grid;
combine the transport center with a point of intersection, as shown in Fig. 8 and count the value of the directory angle. In our example, a directing angle with a point A to a point in equal to 274 ° (Fig. 8, a), and from the point A to the point C - 65 ° (Fig. 8, b).

In practice, it is often necessary to determine the magnetic AM at a well-known directional corner ά, or, on the contrary, an angle ά NO to a well-known magnetic azimuth.

Transition from the directory angle to magnetic azimuth and back

The transition from the directory angle to the magnetic azimuth and back is performed when it is necessary to find the direction, the directive angle of which is measured by the map, or vice versa, when it is necessary to enter the map, the magnetic azimut of which is measured, on the ground with using compass.

To solve this problem, it is necessary to know the magnitude of the deviation of the magnetic meridian of this point from the vertical kilometer line. This magnitude is called the direction amendment (PN).

Fig. 10. Determination of amendment for transition from a directive angle to magnetic azimuth and back

The directional correction and the components of its angles - the rapprochement of meridians and magnetic declination are indicated on the map below the south side of the frame in the form of a scheme having a view shown in Fig. nine.

Rapid of meridians (g) - the angle between the true meridian point and the vertical kilometer line depends on the removal of this point from the axial meridian zone and can be from 0 to ± 3 °. The diagram shows the average for this sheet of the map the rapprochement of meridians.

Magnetic declination (d) - The angle between the true and magnetic meridians is listed on the diagram for the year of shooting (updates) of the card. In the text placed next to the scheme, information on the direction and magnitude of the annual change in magnetic decline is given.

To avoid mistakes in determining the size and sign of the direction amendment, the following reception is recommended.

From the top of the corners in the diagram (Fig. 10) to carry out an arbitrary direction of OM and designate the directory angle ά and magnetic azimuth of this direction. Then it will immediately be seen, what are the magnitude and amendment sign.

If, for example, ά \u003d 97 ° 12 ", then AM \u003d 97 ° 12" - (2 ° 10 "+ 10 ° 15") \u003d 84 ° 47 " .

4. Preparation on data card for the azimuth movement

Azimuth movement - This is the main way to focus on the terrain, poor landmarks, especially at night and with limited visibility.

Its essence is to keep in the area of \u200b\u200bdirections given by magnetic azimuths, and distances defined on the map between the turning points of the planned route. The direction of movement is kept with the help of a compass, the distance is measured by steps or by speedometer.

The initial data for the azimuth movement (magnetic azimuths and distances) is determined by the map, and the time of movement - according to the standard and are decorated as a circuit (Fig. 11) or fit into the table (Table 1). Data in this form is issued by commanders that do not have topographic maps. If the commander has its work card, then the initial data for the azimuth movement it is directly on the working map.

Fig. 11. Scheme for Azimuth Movement

The route of the Azimuts is chosen, taking into account the terrain, its protective and camouflage properties, so that it provides a quick and secretive output to the specified item in a combat.

The route usually includes roads, requests and other linear benchmarks that make it easier to maintain the direction of movement. Rotary points are chosen from landmarks easily identifiable on the ground (for example, building tower type, road crossroads, bridges, overpass, geodesic points, etc.).

The experimental way is established that the distance between the guidelines in the route turning points should not exceed 1 km when driving in the afternoon, and when moving by car - 6-10 km.

For traffic at night, the landmarks are scheduled for the route more often.

To ensure a secretive way to the specified item, the route is planned for hollows, vegetation arrays and other objects to disguise movement. It is necessary to avoid moving on the row of elevations and open areas.

The distances between the guidelines selected on the route are measured by direct lines using a circulator and a linear scale or possibly rather - a ruler with millimeter divisions. If the route is scheduled for a hilly (mountain) area, then the relief correction is introduced into the distance.

Table 1

5. Implementation of standards

№ norm.	Name of standard	Conditions (order) performance of the standard	Tea category	Rating in time
№ norm.	Name of standard	Conditions (order) performance of the standard	Tea category	"Ot."	"Choir."	"UD."
1	Determination of the direction (azimuth) on the ground	Dan Azimuth directions (landmark). Specify the direction corresponding to the specified azimuth on the ground, or determine the azimuth to the specified reference point. The time to fulfill the standard is counted from the setting of the problem before the report on the direction (azimuth value). The performance of the standard is estimated "Unsatisfactory" if the error in determining the direction (azimuth) exceeds 3 ° (0-50).	Serviceman	40 S.	45 S.	55 S.
5	Preparation of data for azimuth movement	On the map M 1: 50,000, two items are indicated at a distance of at least 4 km. Examine the area around the map, outline the route of movement, choose at least three intermediate benchmarks, determine the directional angles and distances between them. Proceed for a scheme (table) of data for the azimuth movement (directional angles to translate into magnetic azimuths, and the distance to the pairs of steps). Errors that reduce the assessment to "unsatisfactory": error in determining the directory angle exceeds 2 °; error in the distance measurement exceeds 0.5 mm on the map scale; not taken into account or incorrectly introduced amendments to the rapprochement of meridians and the declination of the magnetic arrow. Time to execute a standard is counting on the moment of issuing a map before viewing the schema (table).	Officers	8 min	9 min	11 min