1. Description
  2. cultivation
  3. Application

Everyone knows what an alder looks like. Inconspicuous in appearance, but it is a real harbinger of the onset of spring. When all the trees are still with bare black trunks, catching melancholy and sadness, the alder is already blooming with might and main. It is with flowering that the life cycle of this tree begins, then young leaves begin to appear. Alder is a deciduous tree,. Depending on the location, it can be in the form of a tree or shrub.

Description

Shoots of a young plant have a cylindrical shape with a greenish core.

Kidneys grow on legs, have two scales. Alder leaves grow in the next order, the shape of the leaf is whole lobed, sometimes serrated along the edges. The shape of the leaf can vary - from round or slightly oblong to elongated.

Flowering occurs with monoecious flowers that have the shape of fluffy earrings - the birch family has such a distinctive feature. In this case, the stamens are formed on top of the shoot in the form of long catkins, and the pistils are formed in the lower part and have the form of small spikelets.

A distinctive feature of the alder is that it blooms even before or simultaneously with the beginning of the blooming of the leaves. Due to this, pollen is better carried by the wind.

Inflorescences are formed during the year preceding flowering, while at different times: female, staminate - begin to form in the middle of summer (about 5-6 months in duration), male, pistillate - from autumn (1-2 months are formed).

During the formation of inflorescences, male flowers are formed in the amount of 3 pieces, less often - one in the form of an earring. Female flowers are formed in pairs, at the bottom of the shoot.

The fruit is a hard woody cone, characteristic of the alder. Among the many trees in the forest, alder can be recognized precisely by these cones.

The trunk is usually slender, covered with smooth bark on the outside.. The density of the wood is low.

Alder can be distinguished from other trees by the following parameters:

  • begins early flowering;
  • has earrings;
  • there are small bumps on the shoots.

Alder grows in the temperate zone, prefers rich and moist soil, but can grow in both dry and clay soil.

Kinds

Depending on the terrain and living conditions, it can have any number of different forms. You can find more than a hundred different species - trees and shrubs. On the territory of Russia, 2 of these species are most often found - this is sticky black and gray, namely:

  • Black look. The name is due to the leaves having a sticky element, and due to the fact that the trunk is black. In Greek myths, this species was described as a harbinger of spring. Description: This species is capable of rapid growth, often reaching a height of 20 meters. It grows in the forest, most often lonely, plants of other species do not grow nearby. The plant begins flowering in mid-spring. The fruits are small black cones. photophilous and loves moist soil, so it can often be found in moist places. Often this species is combined, forming alder thickets. It is considered an endangered species in some regions of Russia. Planted along reservoirs, the plant adorns parks and squares.

  • Another type of tree - gray alder - can be easily distinguished from other trees. The appearance of the tree (pictured) does not look like its "black" relative - it has a slightly curved trunk with a bark that has a gray tint, while the leaves of the tree also have a gray color. When flowering produces brownish earrings. During the flowering period, the tree looks very elegant and unusual. Unlike its other counterparts, the gray species is unpretentious to habitats - it lives even on poor soils and in wetlands. It has great resistance to frost and windy weather. Young shoots grow rapidly, often forming dense thickets of trees and shrubs. This property of trees is often used for industrial purposes - trees are planted along the banks, thereby additionally securing them from falling off.

In addition to these, there are also other species that are widespread throughout Russia. Among them, one can single out such a species as shrub alder or Siberian alder. Such plants are small trees with a maximum height of up to 6-8 meters. They live mainly in the Siberian part of Russia and the Far East.

Most species of this tree begin flowering in early spring - from April to May. As noted above, flowering begins before the leaves bloom. Flowers - long earrings and small black bumps.

cultivation

Although alder is often considered a weed tree, this is far from being the case. This opinion is formed because of the wood of the tree. Alder wood is often small, crooked, and difficult to use for industrial purposes. However, some species of this tree do well in unpretentious conditions, which is an excellent property for breeding nurseries or starting a forest.

So, for example, gray alder lives in any area and on any soil. In addition, a large amount of nitrogen accumulates on its roots in tubers, which gradually settles into the ground and is able to restore the fertility of the soil around it.

Growing alder trees and shrubs is fairly easy. The seeds of the plant germinate easily. Alder cones are quite hard, which prevents them from scattering during the collection of seeds, this excludes the ingress of foreign impurities into them.

It should be noted that black alder is much more difficult to grow. The tree loves only moist soil rich in mineral elements, and almost does not grow on poor, depleted soil with insufficient moisture, therefore such a tree is unsuitable for breeding a nursery, it is often planted along the banks of rivers and reservoirs.

Growing alder - benefits:

  • some species are unpretentious to the soil, which allows you to plant trees in any area;
  • easy to collect seeds;
  • begins early flowering;
  • due to the accumulation of nitrogenous formations on the roots, it is able to improve soil fertility.

Application

Trees of the alder family have medicinal and healing properties. Cones from trees have anti-inflammatory and disinfectant properties, which are used to prepare various medicines. The elements contained in the leaves and bark of trees have a detrimental effect on various types of protozoan microorganisms. Therefore, parts of the tree can be used to make remedies for skin diseases - eczema, psoriasis, and various fungi.

Alder cones have also found their application in the medical field.. Tinctures and decoctions of them are used in the event of colitis, dysentery, as an astringent for gastric or intestinal bleeding. Due to their astringent properties, alder leaves and cones are used in the treatment of burns, nose and mouth bleeding, stomach ulcers, and various skin inflammations.

The healing properties of alder were known to our ancestors. A decoction of alder leaves has long been used as a diaphoretic for colds. It can also be used to make wonderful relaxing foot baths.

Industrial use

The use of alder for industrial purposes is quite wide:

  • although alder wood is not very durable, it is quite soft and pliable, which makes it much easier to work with it for industrial purposes;
  • alder does not lead to the formation of cracks, and therefore this material is often used for the manufacture of musical instruments;
  • has a small and soft wood, due to which the wood material is widely used by wood carving artists;
  • alder products gain strength over time, wells, barrels, underground structures are made from it;
  • alder wood products are widely used - from decorative panels and caskets to furniture;
  • The construction world of materials also makes extensive use of alder wood - for interior decoration or furniture.

In conclusion, it is worth noting the relatively low cost of wood, which affected its wide application in industry.

Many people ask questions about what an alder looks like, is it a shrub or a tree. Depending on the habitat conditions, the plant can change its shape and grow in the form of a deciduous bush with cones or a large sprawling tree. The homeland of the species is Europe. This tree used to be endowed with magical properties,considered sacred, a symbol of fertility and rebirth, and today is widely used in industry and medicine.

Botanically, this tree with catkins belongs to the birch family. Most often it can be found in areas with high humidity: near rivers, swamps, lakes. If we talk about Russia, then this tree species is most common in the region of the Urals, Western Siberia, in the steppe and forest-steppe zone. Spruces, birches, aspens, oaks can grow next to them. Graceful earrings on the tree appear in spring, at the time of flowering, and by autumn, fruits in the form of small cones ripen.

In total there are about 40 species of alder. We usually have three types:

  • Gray. The variety was named so because of the gray color of the bark and the same shade of leaves growing on it. Its trunk is uneven, has many bends. In height, the species grows up to 20 m. During the flowering period of the alder, brown earrings appear on it. This species loves light, so it grows more often in sunny places. These trees are not afraid of cold and winds, they can take root on rather poor soils.
  • Black alder is characterized by a dark bark color, on which there are many cracks. The leaves are oval or rounded, have a notch. The trunk is branched. This variety reaches a height of up to 35 m. Flowering occurs with the formation of earrings in early spring. The fruits at the time of ripening are similar to the cones of coniferous trees of small size. It likes to grow near rivers, you will not meet it in wetlands. Black alder has beautiful, pinkish wood with a sheen, so it is often used in production.
  • Red alder has been cultivated since 1884. Grows up to 20 m in height. The tree has light gray bark and dark red shoots. The leaves are large, pointed, with a tucked-in serrated edge. Cones are egg-shaped, medium-sized, collected in 6-8 pieces.

Gallery: alder tree (25 photos)





















Application in construction

The wood of this tree is used not only independently, but also as a component in the production of chipboard, plywood, and veneer. This is justified by its antiseptic qualities due to its astringent properties. Each type of alder has its own characteristics that determine the scope of its application.

Black alder is considered the most sensitive to temperature changes, so they try not to use it in the decoration of saunas and baths. What you need to consider when working with alder - this wood is quite soft and still requires treatment from pests and moisture. Its main advantage is a long service life and the fact that the fibers have a beautiful texture. This species is used for the manufacture of crafts, toys, paper, and is used as fuel.

Products made from gray alder are better suited for use in wet conditions, which expands the scope of its application. This wood is also ideal for making eco-friendly toys, shoes and some turning tools.

Houses, saunas, baths

The advantages of this type of wood include the ability to obtain beautiful shades with the help of staining and even achieve an imitation of more valuable tree species. Alder board has healing properties, so it is well suited for interior decoration of houses, saunas and baths. The advantages of building materials from alder wood are:

  • resistance to deformation at high temperatures;
  • no emission of resinous and other harmful compounds;
  • the ability to absorb moisture well;
  • excellent sound and heat insulation properties;
  • the fact that condensation does not accumulate on the surface of this wood;
  • low thermal conductivity - this minimizes the risk of burns.

When building structures, it is important to take into account one nuance - alder boards should not come into contact with the ground.

Doors, laminate, furniture

From the array of this wood, excellent interior doors are obtained. Thanks to various processing, they can be used in any interior, while the price remains quite affordable. Alder doors are completely safe, besides they have antibacterial and anti-allergic properties, they can be used even in children's rooms. They serve for quite a long time.

Alder laminate not only meets all technical requirements, but also has an attractive appearance. It can be considered as a replacement for elite parquet. Such floors are not too dirty, easy to clean, do not require a lot of time for maintenance and some special means for this.

For the manufacture of furniture, not only solid wood is used, alder is part of plywood, chipboard and furniture panels. In operation, these types of materials give the best wear resistance, they do not form chips, are not subject to deformation. Furniture made of alder is lightweight, but at the same time quite durable.

It is important to know that when working with wood it is better not to use nails, they can split the material when driven in. Screws will be a great replacement in this case.

Alder leaves, bark, alder seeds, which are recommended to be collected in late autumn, have a healing effect. When harvesting, the cones are cut with garden shears, after which they are dried in a room at room temperature. If everything is done correctly, the fruits will have a brown or brown color, a light aroma and an astringent taste. The leaves are harvested at the beginning of summer, and the bark at the beginning of winter.

Due to the presence of essential oils, organic acids, tannins, alkaloids and other components, preparations based on alder fruits and leaves have a blood-purifying, bactericidal, hemostatic, astringent effect. Decoctions from the seeds and leaves of this plant give a diaphoretic and antimicrobial effect, reduce inflammation.

An infusion of alder fruits is used to treat disorders of the gastrointestinal tract, the bark is used for enterocolitis and digestive disorders. Plant-based decoctions cleanse the skin, heal wounds, eliminate nosebleeds, reduce allergies, and help with rheumatism.

It is easy to distinguish alder from aspen. It is enough to see these trees several times. But if you don't have a picture in your head, this article will help you distinguish these trees even in winter.

By the leaves

Trees are very different leaves. Aspen leaves are larger. The edges are smooth, the shape is classic. In alder, they have jagged edges. The shape is elongated, closer to an oval.

By fruits

Alder is easy to distinguish by fruits resembling cones. In spring and summer they are green, and by winter they dry out, turn brown and ossify. You won't find anything like this on Aspen.

By bark

The bark of these plants is also very different. In aspen, it is smooth, greenish-gray in color, sometimes with a slight bluish tinge.

Alder bark is different. In gray, it has a pronounced gray color with a light woody texture. The bark of black alder is dark brown, almost black. In mature trees, it cracks and peels off.

For wood

In my opinion, the most characteristic differences are the properties of wood. If you cut the aspen, on the cut it has an exceptional white color. And alder wood, black or gray, is red.

Freshly sawn wood of light color. But literally before our eyes it begins to blush, leaving in an orange or pinkish hue. This phenomenon can be observed especially clearly in winter, when the reaction is faster.

Using this knowledge, you can easily distinguish alder from aspen. And it doesn’t matter if there are leaves on the tree or it will lie in your yard in the form of firewood.

She was brought from America, belongs to the birch family. The name comes from "Alnus", which in Latin means "coastal".

The article will introduce you to an amazing plant, you will find out how it looks, in what forests you can meet it and where its raw materials will be used. Alder, a photo of a tree and leaves are presented below.

Shrub Description

The shrub can grow up to three meters long. Flowering begins in mid-summer, and ends in the first month of autumn. It has yellow flowers with a white sheen.


The inflorescence has a length of up to 15 cm. This is one of the most valuable varieties of trees. She brings drupes, these are her fruits. It also blooms the very first of the Russian trees in mid-spring, before the wind-pollinated leaves bloom.

The forest is still frowning, undressed, snowdrifts are melting somewhere, and from afar you can already see the reddish tree when it begins to bloom.

If you get closer, you can admire the blackened leafless branches with dangling brownish-red catkins.

Gradually, the decorations inflate and yellow clouds of pollen fill the atmosphere. Small female flowers pollinate surrounding plants, and, as a result, green cones are formed, in which seeds are born.

Why is it ahead of other trees during flowering? Here's why: the previous summer, it was preparing for the oncoming heat. In July, men's earrings are cut on the branches. Until November, they develop, and by January they fully ripen. They contain a certain amount of pollen. It remains to wait only for the first rays of the gentle star.

The female flowers look like a picture of small spikelets of the field. After pollination, as a rule, the leaves are sealed with resin, develop and change, transforming into lumps.

By September, hard lumps become thick and hang until April. Seeds grow inside them. The premature onset of spring contributes to the daily growth of earrings by three centimeters. When the scales are folded back, the flowers bloom and turn into dust.

Light contact with the jewelry forms a cloud of pollen, which releases a lot: from one earring - up to 30 mg. A distinctive feature is not the first flowering, but also the fact that the fruits ripen in November.

Basically, such vegetation is undemanding. Likes moist, cool soil. Highly resistant to heat and wind. Winter tolerates well, loves the light. Usually propagated from seeds or cuttings.

Grows in open places or in the forest. It adapts well to life with other trees: birch, spruce, oak, etc. Feels good in open areas. This is evidenced by the fruits that appear after 9 years. In places with a constant shadow, they appear only by the age of 35. Lives for over a hundred years.


Varieties

On the territory of our country you can find two types: black and gray. Each of them has its own characteristics and the following description of the species will help not to confuse.

Black - grows up to 30 m in height and up to 80 cm in diameter. Gray - often grows into a dense bush. Sometimes it is no more than 15 m high and no more than 30 cm thick.

The difference lies in the color of the bark and the shape of the leaves. The first species has dark, sticky egg-shaped leaves. In the second variety, the leaves are usually in the form of an ellipse with sharp edges.

Consider where each species grows. The black variety prevails along the wet coasts of rivers and lakes. Gray - can be seen on the withered hills. Freely occupies cuttings, wastelands, ashes.

True, the moisture and nutritional value of the soil are similar. Glued is so named because the young leaves are very sticky. And on the dilapidated trunks of black alder, dark crusts form.

Medicinal properties

The alder tree is characterized by an amazing combination of three colors at once: fiery bark, emerald leaves, dark brown branches. According to popular signs, this depicts the traditional trinity: fire, water and earth.

The black velvet light plant is perfectly cut, but has one drawback - it is too fragile. Alder is a white wood, but when felled, the color will turn brown-red.

The vegetation in question is interesting for its beneficial properties for people and other vegetation. It fertilizes the soil with nitrogen. Its roots consist of nodule formations, hiding places for bacteria and nitrogen helpers.

Small roots, together with tree nodules, eat catfish with pleasure. This is caused by the following: the leaves fall off and throw off the various animals that the fish brothers feed on. This is a tasty place for fishermen.

The charcoal of the tree is also highly valued. It is designed to equip anti-chemical equipment, and alder chips are also used for smoking.

The next way to use it is to get good paint. First, the bark is kept in water for two days, then filtered. If you hold the material in the solution for half an hour, it will turn brown.

People have been using this plant for medicinal purposes for a long time. Scientists studied it in 1942. Pharmaceutics has mastered the techniques of making themelin.

Doctors prescribe medicines containing alder extract for long-term stomach diseases, inflammation of the small and large intestines.

Flower earrings are usually collected in the spring. With their help, creams are made for diathesis and eczema. In the country, many grow this plant for preparations: jam from alder cones.

In rural areas, people will tell you how to harvest cones and leaves for certain diseases. Can be used for stomach pain or colds. Applied with purulent-necrotic inflammation of the hair follicle.

Alder photo

Every year, many plants rush to announce the arrival of spring. Alder will also give an excellent hint for summer residents. A photo of this tree will make it possible for every person to understand how beautiful the alder looks at this time. The tree is decorated with smooth bark, and round alder leaves remain green until the very first frost.

Alder tree: Description and photo

This deciduous tree has a very lush crown, but still it is a little sparse due to the fact that the branches grow unevenly. When the snow has not yet melted in all places, the alder is already talking with might and main about the arrival of spring, this is expressed in its active flowering. Therefore, you only need to know when the alder blooms in order to determine that winter is gradually losing its strength.

At the same time, upon entering the flowering phase, many other plants help it to get ahead, as well as winds, due to which the pollination of alder takes place.

When the tree begins to bloom, it is decorated with beautiful earrings, divided into male and female. When, during formation, they have the usual green color, then at the ripening stage they acquire a red-brown hue.

Women's earrings are quite small and reach a size of approximately one centimeter, are found on a branch in groups of up to 10 pieces, a sign of maturation of these earrings is the formation of a woody shell. In this regard, male earrings have certain differences: they grow on branches in the amount of 5-6 pieces, are characterized by rather large sizes, being 6-10 cm long. The appearance of leaves begins only after the flowering of the alder is completed.

Alder fruits are small cones that are green in color. At the same time, the cones also differ from each other: some grow wingless, some can be leathery or membranous. During the entire winter period, they are closed, the structure is solid, but with the advent of March, the cones open, as a result of which the seeds fall into the ground. Cones reach their full ripening only at the end of autumn. The leaves of this tree are quite useful fertilizer, as they contain a large amount of nitrogen.

Alder in nature clip art








These trees approximately grow up to 100 years. Although there are centenarians who delight with their appearance for 150 years. Their favorite sites for germination are places with moist soil. Therefore, alder can often be observed on the banks of various reservoirs.

If there is a combination of favorable factors, then whole thickets - alder forests - can grow. In the northern regions, alder is ground like a coniferous tree. In the southern regions, it has a rather insignificant representation, therefore it is part of mixed forests along with beech and oak. Also, this tree feels great with other representatives of forests - spruce, birch, aspen, linden and oak.

Alder can be used both for decorative purposes and is interesting as a honey plant. During formation, the tree produces leaves and buds enriched with resinous substances, which are used by bees as a raw material for the production of propolis.

You can find a use for dried alder leaves, as they can be used as feed for livestock.

Varieties of alder: Description and photo

On the planet, according to some information, a little more than 40 varieties of alder tree grow.

On the territory of our country there are only a few species of this deciduous plant.

The tree prefers moist soils, grows well in temperate zones, is unpretentious in care.

Black alder: Description and photo

Although alder includes a lot of species, but among them, as a rule, you can see black alder, it is so called because of this color of the bark. This tree is also described in ancient Greek mythology; it most often appears here at fire festivals, being a symbol of the arrival of spring. The tree is a light-loving plant, but at the same time it is quite responsive to moisture. If alder is planted in wet areas, then alder swamps can grow here in the future. But standing water for this plant is fatal.

Black alder grows quite quickly in a year. Mature trees can grow up to 25 meters tall. With its inflorescences, it pleases before other plants, since they begin to appear already in April. The situation is slightly different with fruits that reach their maturity only at the end of next spring.

Unlike other varieties, black alder needs special care. This species is under protection in many countries - Kazakhstan, Moldova and some regions of Russia. Often, black alder is used to organize the landscape design of squares and parks. It can also be used for landing near water bodies to strengthen the shore. It does an excellent job with this task, as it has a branched and fairly wide root system.

Gray alder: Description and photo

This tree is among fairly popular species. birch families. Gray alder is large in size, as it can grow up to 15 m. For its landing, ravines and banks of reservoirs are selected, which are threatened with destruction. For planting material, seeds, cuttings or young shoots can be used.

The specific name of the alder is associated with the color of the tree. The trunk of this plant is characterized by a gray color, the leaves look the same way, brown earrings act as a decorative element. Therefore, when observing a tree that has these characteristics, know that it is an alder. This tree is also valued because of its ability to withstand significant frosts and grow well in nutrient-poor soil, as well as in wetlands.

Heart-leaved alder: Description and photo

As a rule, the plant grows in the regions of the Caucasus. In the first 50 years of its life, the hearty alder quickly reaches a size of more than 25 meters. Most often, this tree is used for landscaping. If wood harvesting occurs, then its scope is almost identical to that of gray and black alder.

Alder is one of the most popular trees in our country and therefore it is quite logical that the use of this wood is very common. The ability to manufacture various products, fairly easy processing, low cost - all these qualities make alder a valuable wood species.

Variety of alder species in nature








Scope of use

Alder is highly valued not only because of its beautiful appearance, but it has many other useful qualities.

In the decorative arts

Alder, which is grown from young seedlings, grows very quickly, often this leads to the growth of wild thickets. At this stage of its life cycle, it has a uniform wood structure and is easy to process. Therefore, it is often used in industry.

For creating artistic carving alder is one of the most common materials. It is used for the production of carved dishes, sculptures and decorative panels. After processing the wood by dry distillation, coals are obtained, which are highly valued by artists. Of great importance in the decorative arts are specimens in which the trunks are decorated with influxes.

In folk treatment

This plant is also valued as a remedy for the treatment of many diseases. Useful properties have bark, leaves and cones enriched with tannins. Effective remedies are considered tinctures and decoctions on the basis of cones and leaves, as they have anti-inflammatory, astringent, hemostatic, antibacterial and disinfectant properties.

  • to combat eczema and diathesis, a decoction of flowers is used, which must be prepared at the beginning of flowering;
  • alcohol infusion of earrings can help people suffering from constipation and hemorrhoids;
  • if there is a purulent wound, then it is necessary to apply black alder leaves to it, and it will heal rather quickly.

After a course of antibiotics, you can restore the natural intestinal microflora with a decoction of cones. Also, this tool will help to cope with diseases of the gastrointestinal tract. It is often used in conditions such as:

  • cold;
  • inflammation of the throat and nasopharynx;
  • pharyngitis;
  • angina.

To stop nosebleeds, it is necessary to keep swabs of fresh leaves in the sinuses of the nose. Traditional healers advise using a decoction to combat joint pain, arthritis and gout.

Alder in medicine drawing








An effective remedy is dry baths, they are made on the basis of fresh leaves.

  • they must be heated in an oven or in the sun, and then the leaves are laid out on a bed and a sick person is laid on them. You can also cover the affected parts on the body with heated leaves, and wrap yourself in a warm blanket on top. In this case, the result will be maximum when this procedure lasts at least an hour;
  • this remedy will work even better when the leaves are heated in a deep tub, where after it is necessary to seat the patient up to the neck. According to the same scheme, you can fight diseases with the help of birch leaves.

While visiting the bath quite it is useful to use alder brooms, which have a tonic, disinfecting, cleansing effect, energizing the body.

In industry

Ease of wood processing led to the fact that it is often used in industry. This wood can be processed in a variety of ways, including staining, varnishing and polishing. Also, this wood retains the integrity of the structure while screwing screws into it. Changes can occur when nails are driven in, this is expressed in the delamination of wood.

Alder drying will in no way affect its properties: it is short in time, and during this operation no defects appear in the form of cracks or warping. This property made alder the most popular material for the production of musical instruments.

The use of alder in industry








Preparation and collection of cones

The most favorable time for harvesting cones is the end of autumn. At the same time, you can continue collecting them until March. Directly collecting cones has certain features: first, you need to carefully cut off the ends of branches with cones with secateurs, and then they collect fruits from them. Cones lying on the ground do not have the required properties, so they cannot be used. After collecting, the cones are laid in an even layer in the attic or under a canopy, where there must be good air access. When it is quite warm outside, you can dry the cones in the open air, remembering to stir them periodically. With proper drying, the fruits retain medicinal properties within 3 years.

Summarizing

Not many people are familiar with a plant like alder, and in vain. Since it is the first to signal the arrival of spring, it begins to bloom even at a time when the snow has not melted. At this stage of its development the tree forms beautiful earrings giving it even more decorative properties. But alder looks most attractive when it has cones.

Although in this case it is necessary to be patient, since they are formed only next spring. However, alder is of interest not only because of its decorative qualities, since it is often used to prepare effective drugs for the treatment diseases and even for smoking. Wood is used in industry, as it easily tolerates various types of processing without being covered with any significant defects.