Tools
Tools
animals
animals
Fulfilled Titova Alina,
pupil 3-B class MBOU
School No. 2 of Rudney
Smolensk region
Head of Rogova N.N.,
primary school teacher

It is believed that
use of guns distinguishes man from
animals. The whole history of mankind -
this is the history of development and improvement
guns. However, our ancestors were not
the first inhabitants of this planet,
he who has learned to expand their own
opportunities with non-living
items.

Find out how to use
animals tools for expansion
their features with
Purpose:
non-residential items.

For which animals
using tools:
Food mining
Ensuring a convenient habitat,
communications,
aggression


The action of the guns are observed in:
few species insects
in birds
in mammals (somewhat more often in humans
monkeys) in the spheres of behavior:
pishchevoy (breaking the edible object by stone),
Confort (scratching an extraneous subject),
Communication (contacting by means
subject)
Protection (throwing subject to the enemy)
Sometimes the subject is pre-adapts to

use as an instrument.

1515 representatives
representatives
kingdom of animals
kingdom of animals
using tools
using tools
labor in everyday
labor in everyday
life
life

Crows
Crows
Palk I.
use sticks I.
used
branches to
get
to get
things
insects from logs,
from logs,
insects
drop walnuts
drop walnuts
before moving
before moving
machines so that
so that
machines
split the shell and
, I.
split shell
even use
even use
paper waste paper B.
paper waste paper B.
as Grabel or
as Grabel or
sponge ..
sponge

Elephants
scratch with back sticks
scratch with back sticks
fooled by leaves
fooled by leaves
thus that distinguishes flies
thus that distinguishes flies
chew a bark to make it
to make it
chew Cour.
fairly porous for
fairly porous for
absorption drinking water.
absorption drinking water.
But most perhaps
But most perhaps
an amazing property of elephants
artistic
are their art
are them
abilities. Caretaker
Caretaker
abilities.
zoos give elephants brushes, and
these sensual creatures
these sensual creatures
explore uncommon
explore uncommon
talent!
talent!

Shalashniki
during the construction of nests use
instruments:
Australia and New Guinea,
to attract a partner, males
shalashnikov build a complex dwelling -
carefully designed "Chalash", in
creating which is often used
various objects like covers from
bottles, beads, glass fragments and
in general, everything you manage to find and that
attracts attention.


stones and wooden tools for
breaking nuts
breaking nuts
To knock down the fruits
fruit knocking from trees
from trees,
Sticks
sticks for
choosing from enemies, hunting.
choosing from enemies, hunting.
sharp spears from sticks for hunting.
Chimpanzees
Chimpanzees
PP
pp.
iI
mM.
aA
tT
yy.
used
used
Pulk for mining termites
pulk for mining termites
Pruts and Solomins
rods and solomins - to
audit
- To catch up
insects, especially aggressively
Especially aggressive
insects
confused or poisonous termites
preliminary
(Solomins they pre-
(Solomins they
slumping to make them
slough
to make them sticky
sticky).).

Chimpanzees
Chimpanzees
pubbee in Duples
pubbee in Duples
travelery to gather
to collect
stuck water and and
water dropped there
squeeze it
then squeeze it
then
yourself in your mouth.
yourself in your mouth.

Gorilla
Gorilla
measure depth
measure depth
reservoir with help
reservoir with help
sooh.
sooh.

Orangutant
Orangutant
open the castle when
maybe
can open the lock when
assistance paper clips.
assistance paper clips.

Cappuchins
Cappuchins
stone
made stone
manufactured
knives, hitting pieces
knives, hitting pieces
silica about the floor until not
until not
film o floor
get sharp edges.
get sharp edges.

Dolphins
Dolphins
ruined sponges and and
bashed sponges
wrapped with pieces
wrapped with pieces
noses obviously for
noses obviously for
to avoid
in order to avoid
that
scratch during
scratch during
sea Hunting
sea Hunting
Dolphins surround
Dolphins surround
fish flock "bag"
fish flock "bag"
from air bubbles
from air bubbles
knocking down fishes and not
knocking down fishes and not
giving them
giving them
dispersed.
dispersed.

Ordinary
Ordinary
vultures
vultures
manipulate the stones
for
manipulate stones
help beak and beat them to
help beak and beat them to
ostrich egg
as long as an Ostrich egg
until
break them and get bone
brain. And some predatory
brain. And some predatory
birds split turtles.
birds split turtles.
not crap ..
not crap
Also enemy
Also enemy
throw bones to
throw bones to

Eagles
Eagles
lampsies
lampsies
throw bones to
to
throw bones
break them and get
break them and get
bone marrow.
bone marrow.
And some predatory birds
And some predatory birds
split turtles.
split turtles.

Octopus
Octopus
This guy in the photo
This guy in the photo
wears two
wears two
shells and in and in
halves of ricushi
half
danger
case of danger
case
closes them and, so
closes them and, so
hiding.
way hiding.
way
And the other kind of octopus
And the other kind of octopus
open tentacles
open tentacles
jellyfish and waving
jellyfish
waving them
Imi
time
as a weapon during
as weapons in
attacks.
attacks.

Looking
Looking
heats worm
gashes
worm barrel
ostroga fish
ostroga fish
spiny like fisherman
like fisherman

Ants
Ants
creating a developed
creating a developed
agricultural
agricultural
system, cut leaves and
system, cut leaves and
use them as
use them as
tanks for
tanks for
transportation of food and water.
transportation of food and water.

Tropical
Tropical
ants
ants
tailors
tailors
as a tool
as a tool
own
use ... own
use ...
larisa: While one members
while one members
larvae:
families hold edges
families hold edges
connected leaf together
connected leaf together
others take into jaws
others take into jaws
larvae and water from
larvae and water from
one sheet to another
one sheet to another
many allocated
many allocated
larves of Pautin
larves of Pautin
fasten sheets.
fasten sheets.

Osyasa
split lumps of land with
split lumps of land with
aid of small pebbles.
aid of small pebbles.

Green
Green
quacs
quacs
used
used
fishing bait,
fishing bait
to force fish
to force fish
call
call
distance strike.
distance strike.
Seen like some
Seen like some
scatter
quakes scatter
quacs
food, such as
for water food,
such as
on water
bread crumbs to
bread crumbs to
attract fish.
attract fish.

Marine
Marine
otter
otter
picks up at the bottom with the prey
stone, and one flat.
two two stones
, and one flat.
Then, lying up the belly on
Then, lying up the belly on
water surface (this is their favorite
pOST), Kalan puts on his chest
shell or
flat stone, he is a shell or
flat stone on him
sea hedgehog, and beats on them from above
, and beats on them from above
sea hedgehog
second stone
second stone

Rybabba
Rybabba
uses in quality
uses in quality
stake water. .
tools flowing water
tools
Shot by it isopod
Shot by it isopod
surfaces, spray
surfaces, spray
knocks down into the water sitting over
in the water sitting over
knocks down
insects.
it is insects her.

Crabs
dress in marine
dress in marine
anemone, pulling them
pulling them
anemone
himself on your back. Usually they
himself on your back. Usually they
do it for the purpose of
do it for the purpose of
nice.
nice.
disguise, although in others
Although in others
disguise
cases probably just
cases probably just
to look like
to look like
former owners of these birds
learn about such a skill when
learn about such a skill when
slice
favorite using a piece
pets, Using
metal or plastics,
metal or plastics,
raises the cell castle. .
raises Cell Castle
It is known that palm
It is known that palm
cockada (shown in the photo)
cockada (shown in the photo)
like the beak
like the beak
leaves to torque
to torque
leaves
moving to open nuts
moving to open nuts
just like a person
just like a person
would take a towel to
would take a towel to
strengthen friction for
strengthen friction for
opening a bottle.
opening a bottle.

Bird
Bird
tailor
tailor
vegetable
spent from vegetable
spent from
fibers real threads and
Real threads I.
fibers
sews leaves
they stitches the leaves
imi
constructing a nest.
constructing a nest.

Even more such animals,
Even more such animals,
which use guns not
which use guns not
from the case towards the case (topics
constantly, and on occasion
(Top
constantly, A.
more that the concept of "gun" has no
solved certain boundaries:
a pillar about which itches a horse
also can be considered an instrument).
also can be considered an instrument).

Famous
Famous
Inherit or
Inherit or
learn?
german
scientist I.Al.
scientist I.Al.
german
learn?
Eybezfeldt raised the chick of the reel in full
isolation from other birds and when the pupil
gone
ceke
gone
ceke
several chopsticks.
several chopsticks.
researcher
researcher
putting
putting
in
in
And then it turned out that the bird from birth
"Knows" that the wand can be used, but
absolutely does not understand how to do it
experimental bird clumsily and unsystematic
promed the wand in the cage gap.
Output could be done only one:
you could only do one:
Output
extract
help
ability
help
extract
ability
"Tool" A young reel studies with his
relatives.
relatives.
production
production
from
from

Development of abilities

The use of animals of various tools can be instinctive, the result of reasonable thinking, as well as depend on the set of other factors.

Birds and mammals with large Mozen - Primates, dolphins, elephants, crows - easily study, imitating habits of other individuals of their own species. The imitation is the shortest path leading to the use of animals of labor instruments. Seeing that the activity of a separate individual is especially effective, other animals begin to imitate it. Primates begin to use the guns while still cubs during the games.

If the animal had no experience with various objects in childhood, most likely, it would not be possible to perceive them as an instrument. Some birds teach their chicks to open the sinks of Malysov.

Tools

In nature, there is a ruthless struggle for survival. In the process of evolution, the part of the body of some animals has become peculiar tools that help them survive. The rare Madagascar string (or Aya Aya) on the foreheads there are extremely thin middle fingers, which the animal removes insects from the wood and pulls the flesh from coconuts.

When the elephant simply rubs on the trunk of a tree to scratch the title part of the body, he still does not use an instrument. However, scientists observed elephants that were laid out branches and used them in order to scratch the title on the body. In this case, we can already safely talk about the use of guns.

Mammals

Of all mammals, the best practices are best useful. The shape of the thumb and the developed brain allow them to apply guns in different areas.

The chimpanzees accelerate dirt from the surface of the water, clean the wool of the leaves, and from compressed leaves make a sponge, with which water from hard-to-reach places are removed. They collect the remnants of the brain from the skull of mining. Chimpanzees explore the slope of wild bees with the help of sticks, and termites and ants remove with blades. Baby adopt useful skills in experienced animals, the fate of them to process branches for certain purposes. Calan also enjoys a special tool to work.

He hunts where other marine mammals have already collected an easily accessible feed. Calan catches Maltryov, whose shells he learned to open. As an anvil, the animal enjoys a flat stone raised from the bottom. Rising to the surface, Calan turns over to the back and puts a stone on the chest, starting to cut the little ones and igloiner.

Birds

Birds quickly adopt the habits of other animals, which is not a reflection of their mind, but rather talking about natural curiosity. The tools use several types of birds. Some of them use unusual methods that are hereditary. For example, the sunny heron embars the flow of feathers along the water and even throws her pieces of food. Such behavior gives an effective result, so it is transmitted from generation to generation. Solar herons living near the tourists commonly visited places, collect residues after picnics and throw their fish.

The woodywood reel removes insects from the bark of trees with the cactus barns. Old birds usually use the most suitable guns.

Blue junction in Labotor conditions taught to get feed even with the bulls of the newspaper. This skill of her was adopted by Coyki, grew up in natural conditions.

As chimpanzees enjoy workers

Chimpanzees in their genetics are close to man. During the observation of the chimpanzee growing in captivity, people could compare how much the development of their abilities differs from the development of abilities in children. Monkeys deftly used subjects of everyday everyday, such as pots, cups, cutlery, doors, keys, furniture, painting books and playing cards. At first they studied it even faster than children. Chimpanzees distinguished, what objects in what case it is necessary to use. They laid out on trays objects, sorting them in color, magnitude and shape. This speaks of their developed abstract thinking. In addition, chimpanzees are well compared with the solution of practical problems. Scientists spent a series of experiments by placing banana cells behind the grille, to get a monkey only taking advantage of a stick laid in a cage. It is noteworthy that the tests of the monkeys have already had experience in communicating with a stick. In specific situations, monkeys resorted to the help of sticks of different devices. In the most complex experiment, animals had to make a long stick, connecting two short. Rats, cats and even pigeons also have abilities to learning. But only primates can correctly enjoy the necessary tools and approach the tasks of creative. Dolphins have unique abilities, which as well as chimpanzees and gorillas, recognize their reflection in the mirror.

Do you know that ...

  • The vulture breaks the egg, holding it in the beak and hitting the stones. On major ostrich eggs, he throws stones on top. Such behavior is characteristic of all African vultures: birds studied this from each other.

  • Octopus - a very smart animal. Its housing tower, folded from stones, it covers a big stone. Here he is not only hiding from the enemies, but also looks out of under the covers in search of mining.

  • Not only people, but also animals apply to the tools. In the arsenal of Raven, for example, there are sticks that they unfold fallen leaves. Often, these smart birds are discarded from the height of the nuts to split the shell.

    Chimpanzees. Photo: Tambako The Jaguar / Flickr.com Elephants can scratch their backs using a branch that they capture their flexible trunk. In addition, elephants are able to draw.

    Chimpanzee to extract termites, use sticks, stones break nuts and hunt, using sticks. Gorilla, moving the river, measure the depth with the help of the staff. Cappuchins do something like a knife, standing edges of stones.

    Birds-vultures to enjoy ostrich eggs, take the keys of stones and beat eggs until they split.

    Octopuses are considered intelligent invertebrates, they build asylum from halves of coconut or mollusc shells. In the event of an attack, octopuses close the entrance to their abode through the second half of the shell of the nut or another shell.

    The studio reel removes insects from the bark of trees through a twig, if you can not get to the bubble to the beak.

    Even ants use tools of labor. For example, ants-leaf cuts cut the leaves and apply them for transportation of food and water.

    Sea otters open oyster sinks or mollusk through stones.

    Dolphin. Photo: Morguefile.com crabs are masked by placing their sea algae or shells on the back.

    Bobras build real castles from branches and sticks, they even look their facilities with stones and mud.

    Parrot can open the cell lock using a piece of plastic. And the cockatoo looks his beak with leaves, it helps them to open nuts, about it so so there is also a person when you need to open a bottle, only we use towels to enhance friction.

    Dolphins, hunting at the bottom, can abrupt their nose algae to secure him from scratches.

    Figaro - Bird of the family of Kakada "Goffin". He lives in a zoo located in Austria near Vienna. Recently, the parrot demonstrated the ability to make simple workers of labor, although no one taught him this.

    For a long time, it was believed that Kakada "Goffin" do not know how to use the tools of labor at all. To surprise researchers, Figaro gracefully demonstrated not only his opportunity to apply, but also to produce such guns.

    Researchers from Oxford and Vienna photographed Figaro at a time when he had a long tree branch twigs, penetrating his cage so that with their help to rake the items that were out of reach of his beak. How did he learn this at all?

    "Figaro managed to get to the nuts whenever we put them there, and every time he made new tools for this, - the leader of the Vienna University of Alice Auxerberg told the press. - This shows that this type of cacatoo, although not accustomed to use the tools of labor, is characterized by curiosity, has a relatively large brain and the ability to create tools of labor. "

    Birds use bait from bread for fishing s

    As it turned out, in the bird kingdom and throughout the world of animals, Figaro is not so unique in his ability to use "tools of labor".

    Other species also mastered the use of sticks and stones for their needs, and some of them even managed to create their own "tools". Among the feathered crows are known for their skills in the use of workers. Those who live in the urban environment have demonstrated their ability to use them if necessary. For example, why not take advantage of the passing car to split a very hard walnut? The crows in Japan were seen in the decomposition of solid nuts on pedestrian crossings in anticipation that the passing car will make all the exhaustive work for them. And when cars left, the crows were sent to crushed on the road to nuts and taught their contents.

    Seagulls also showed their ability to use the tools of labor. In order to split the shells of mollusks, which they intended to eat, they just took off with them high into the sky and threw them on the protrusions of rock rocks. There were also cases of use of pieces of bread as a bait on the fish they wanted to eat. There are herons that use popcorn as bait for fishing.

    Making tube for well with water

    When the dolphins are looking for food at the bottom of the sea, they dig a nose to the seabed, as if scanning it. But this is not very convenient for them. In 2005, researchers from Australia and from the United States reported a group of dolphins, which wrap their nose into a material that protects it, but not preventing them from finding food in the sea soil.

    Dolphins are known for their love for games. There is information that they themselves invented such a game - manipulation by air bubbles using the nose.

    We will not forget the monkeys showing a variety of techniques for the use of instruments of labor. Dr. Thomas Brown from the Institute named after Max Planck in Germany described in his study Gorilla, applied a long cane to determine the depth of water in the pool, which she passed. The same scientist observed another gorilla that uses the board as a bridge when moving over deep reservoirs.

    In 2007, African chimpanzees demonstrated researchers from American Iowa University, the process of making simple copies from wooden sticks, focusing them with teeth.

    And elephants also demonstrate their abilities. When they meet on their path the fence, which is under electrical stress, they use long boards or large stones that are thrown toward the fence to break it out or break the electrical wiring.

    In the south of Africa, an elephant was observed, which wanted a well with water from "foreign eyes" to use it if necessary. He disappeared the bark from the nearest tree, chewed it until a big ball was obtained, which he then covered the well with water, like a plug, and supered sand. When he wanted to drink, he returned to the well, filmed a layer of sand, opened the cork and drank water.

    Tools of animals I.tools of labor man

    Without going into the course of the development of the work itself, we note only a few significant moments in addition to what has already been mentioned about the instrument of monkeys.

    First of all, it is important to emphasize that a tool as we have seen may be any item used by animals to solve a specific task in a specific situation. The instrument of labor will certainly be specifically manufactured for certain employment operations and involves knowledge of its future application. They are manufactured by the future before it is possible or the need for their use. By itself, such activity is biologically meaningless and even harmful (time spending and energy "wasted") and can be met only by the foresee of the emergence of such situations in which it is not necessary to do without legal instruments.

    This means that the manufacture of implementing tools involves the foresight of possible causal relations in the future, and at the same time, as Ladygin-Kotce showed, chimpanzees are unable to comprehend such relationships even in the preparation of the gun to its direct application during the solution of the problem.

    This is also connected with the important circumstance that in the instrument actions of monkeys behind the gun is not at all fixed by its "working" value. Outside the specific situation of solving the problem, for example, before and after the experiment, the subject that served as a tool loses any functional importance for monkey, and it refers to it just as well as to any other "useless" subject. The operation produced by a monkey with the help of an instrument is not fixed after it, and beyond its direct use of a monkey relates to it indifferent, and therefore it does not keep it constantly as an instrument. In contrast, not only a person keeps the guns made by him, but also in the guns themselves are stored by the man-made ways to influence the objects of nature.

    Moreover, even with the individual manufacturer of the tool, the manufacture of a public object takes place, because this item has a special way of consumption, which is publicly developed in the process of collective labor and which is enshrined. Each man's instrument is the material embodiment of a certain socially developed labor operation.

    Thus, the emergence of labor is associated with a fundamental change in all behavior: from the overall activity aimed at direct satisfaction of the need, a special action is distinguished, not sent directly biological motive and receives its meaning only with the further use of its results. This is one of the most important changes in the overall structure of the behavior, meaning the transition from the natural history of the world of animals to the public history of mankind. As the main development of public relations and the forms of production, such actions not sent directly by biological motives occupy a more and more place in human activity and finally acquire crucial importance for all its behavior.

    Genuine production of labor instruments implies an impact on the subject not directly effector bodies (teeth, hands), but by another subject, i.e. The treatment of the manufactured tools of labor should be made by another instrument (for example, a stone). Finding precisely such products (sistep, chisel) serve for anthropologists with true evidence of the presence of work in our ancestors.

    At the same time, according to Fabry, when manipulating biologically "neutral" objects (and only such people could become instruments of labor) monkeys, although they affect one object on another (Fig. 24), however, pay attention to changes occurring with the object direct impact, i.e. With the "gun", but not on the changes occurring with the "processed" ("second" object, which is not more than the substrate, the "background". In this respect, the monkeys do not differ from other animals. It suggests that these observation actions of monkeys in their essence are directly opposed to the instrumental working activities of a person, in which, naturally, not so accompanying its changes in the tools of labor itself, how many changes in the object of labor (the homolog of the second object). Obviously, only in certain experimental conditions it is possible to switch the attention of monkeys to the "second object".

    However, the manufacture of the tools of labor (for example, the adhesion of one stone with the help of another) requires the formation of such specific techniques for the "second object", such operations that would lead to a very special change in this object, thanks to which it will turn into an instrument of labor. A good example of this is the manufacture of ancient manual of a primitive man (stone hand cut, Fig. 50), where efforts were to be sent to creating a pointed end, i.e. Actually working part of the gun, and wide, rounded top (nucleus, nucleus), adapted to the solid holding tools in hand. It was on such operations that human consciousness grew.

    It is quite natural that from the creation of the first tools of the work of the type of hand-held Rubila Shelleskaya era, and even more so a primitive tool (deducts) of Sinantrophop from the Doslegal era, there was still a long way to highlight a variety of perfect work tools for a modern type of man (neoantrope) (Fig. 51). Even at the initial stage of the development of the Material culture of the Neoantroprop, for example, a Cryanonian man, there is a huge variety of types of guns, including for the first time the composite guns appear: the tips of the darts, flint liners, as well as needles, kopemetalki, etc. The abundance of tools for Sending guns. Later, such stone guns appear as an ax or hoe.




    Fig.50. Flint manual rice. 51. Late Paleolithic

    rubilly Shelleskaya era

    Material culture I.biologicallaws

    It is significant that, along with powerful progress in the development of material culture, and, accordingly, mental activity, since the beginning of the epoch of the late Paleolithic, the biological development of a person sharply slowed down: the physical type of a person acquires a very greater stability of its species signs. But in the oldest and ancient people, the ratio was inverse: with an extremely intense biological evolution, expressing in large variability of morphological signs, the technique of producing labor tools developed extremely slowly.

    Based on this, the well-known Soviet anthropologist Ya.y. Roginsky put forward the theory of "two turning points" in human evolution (the formulation of the "single jump with two turns" is also applied). According to this theory, new, socio-historical patterns appeared in the ancient people along with the emergence of work activities (the first turn). However, along with them, biological patterns continued to operate with them for a large period. The gradual accumulation of new quality led at the final stage of this development to the steep (second) turn, which was that these new, social patterns began to play a decisive role in the life and further development of people. This turn in the history of mankind and was marked by the appearance of a modern type man - Neoantroph. Roginsky speaks about this about the removal of the speciating role of natural selection and victory of social laws.

    So, with the appearance in the late Paleolithic of the Neoantropic, biological patterns finally lose their leading importance and inferior to their place public. Roginsky emphasizes that only with the advent of Neoantropic, social patterns acquire really dominant importance in the life of human teams.

    This concept is consistent with the idea that the first labor actions were to be carried out in the old (animal) form, presented, in factory, combining "compensatory manipulation" with the enriched to the same tools. Only subsequently the new content of objective activities (work) has also acquired a new form in the form of specifically human labor movements that are not characteristic of animals. Thus, at first, the great influence of the biological patterns inherited from the animals of human ancestors corresponded to the externally simple and monotonous subject activity of the first people. And this, as it were, masked the accomplishment of the greatest event - the occurrence of labor and with him the person himself.

    The problem of the origin of social relations and self-parting speech

    Group behaviormonkeys and the birth of social relations

    Public relations originated in the depths of the first forms of employment. The work from the very beginning was collective, public. This flowed out already from the fact that people from the moment of their appearance on Earth have always lived with teams, and monkeys - human ancestors - more or less large herds (or families). Thus, the biological prerequisites of a person's social life should be sought in the herds of fossil higher primates, more precisely, in their subject activity performed in conditions of herd life.

    On the other hand, labor determined from the very beginning the qualitative originality of the associations of the first people. This qualitative difference is rooted in the fact that even the most complex instrument activities of animals never has the nature of the social process and does not determine the relationship between members of the community, which even in animals with the most developed psyche the structure of the community is never formed on the basis of instruments, does not depend on She, and even more so it is not mediated by her.

    All of this must be remembered when identifying the biological prerequisites for the origin of human society. Deeply erroneous are often attempts to directly remove the patterns of public life of people from the patterns of animal group behavior. Human society is not just a continuation or complication of the community of our animals ancestors, and social laws are not coordinated to the etological laws of the life of the monkey herd. The public relations of people arose, on the contrary, as a result of the breakdown of these patterns, as a result of a radical change in the very essence of the rapid life of emerging work.

    In search of biological prerequisites of public life, Voztonis turned to the rapid life of the lower monkeys in order to identify those conditions in which "individual use of individual uses could become public, could affect the restructuring and development of relationships, could be found in these relationships a powerful factor in stimulating in these relationships The use of the gun. "* Voztonis and quiet conducted numerous studies in this direction to identify the characteristics of the structure of herd and herd behavior in monkeys.

    * Voztonis N.Yu. Prehistory of intelligence. P. 192.

    The quiet attaches to the emergence of monkeys a new, independent and very powerful need to communicate with itself like. This new need, as well, originated at the lowest level of the evolution of primates and reached his heyday among the living bavians, as well as those living by the families of man-like monkeys. In animals of human ancestors, the progressive development of the studies also manifested in the formation of strong intravenous relations, which were, in particular, especially useful with a joint hunt with the help of natural guns. Tych believes that it was this activity that led to the need to process the hunting tools, and then to the release of primitive stone guns for the manufacture of various hunting tools.

    It gives a lot of importance and the fact that the immediate ancestors of a person had teenagers should obviously assimilate the traditions and skills formed from previous generations to adopt the experience of senior members of the community, and the last, especially males, should have to show not only mutual tolerance, but And the ability to cooperate, coordinate your actions. In total, the complexity of joint hunting with the use of various objects (stones, sticks) as a hunt gun was required. At the same time, at this stage, for the first time in the evolution of primates, conditions arose when there was a need for the designation of objects and without this could not be consistent with the actions of the members of the herd with a joint hunt.

    Demonstration modeling

    Of great interest is to understand the nucleation of human forms of communication, the described Fabrician "Demonstration Manipulation" by monkeys.

    A number of mammals describe cases when one animals are observed for manipulating actions of other animals. So, the bears often observe the individual manipulative games of their relatives, and sometimes other animals, such as otter and beavers. However, it is most typically for monkeys, which not only passively observe the manipulations of another individual, but also react to them very much. It often happens that one monkey "provocatively" manipulates in sight of others. In addition to the demonstration display of the object of manipulation and the actions produced with him, such a monkey often "tease" the other and the fact that it makes a subject to it, but immediately pulls it back and with the noise "attacks" on it, as soon as she stretches his hand. As a rule, it repeats many times in a row. Such "teasing" is often invited to a joint game and corresponds to a similar "provocative" behavior of ping and other mammals in the "trophy" games (see h. II, ch. 4), when "flirting" is carried out by the "causing" display of the game facility .

    In other cases, the "deliberate" showing of the object of manipulation leads to monkeys to a slightly different situation: one person emphasized manipulates the subject in nature in closely observing the members of the herds, and aggressive manifestations from the "actor" occurring under the usual "teased", Suppressed by the "viewers" by special "conciliatory" movements and poses. "Actor" shows signs of "impure" peculiar to true demonstration behavior. Such a "demonstration manipulation" is found primarily in adult monkeys, but not the young.

    The result of the demonstration manipulation may be the imitative actions of the "viewers", but not necessarily. It depends on how much the actions of the Actor stimulated the rest of the monkeys. However, the object of manipulation always acts as a certain intermediary in communication between the "actor" and "viewers."

    With demonstration manipulation, the "viewers" can familiarize themselves with the properties and structure of the subject, which the "actor" manipulates, without even touching the object. This acquaintance is done indirectly: there is a mastering of someone else's experience at a distance by "contemplation" of other people's actions.

    Obviously, demonstration manipulation is directly related to the formation of "traditions" by monkeys, thoroughly described by a number of Japanese researchers. Such traditions are formed within a closed population and cover all its members. For example, in the population of Japanese Makakov, who lived on a small island, was discovered gradual, but then the universal change in food behavior, which was expressed in the development of new types of food and the invention of new forms of its pre-processing. According to published data, the conclusion suggests that this was based on the mediated games of the cub, and then demonstration manipulation and imitative actions of monkeys.

    Demonstration manipulation detects all signs of demonstration behavior (see h, ch. 2), but at the same time plays a significant cognitive role. Thus, the demonstration manipulation combines the communicative and cognitive aspects of activity: "viewers" receive information not only about the manipulating individual ("actor"), in the actions of which contain elements of "impression", but also (distant) about the properties and structure of the manipulation object.

    Demonstration manipulation served, in fact, in one time, obviously, the source of the formation of purely human forms of communication, since the latter originated with the work, the predecessor and the biological basis of which was the manipulation of the subjects of the monkeys. At the same time, the demonstration manipulation creates the best conditions for joint communicative and cognitive activities, in which the principal attention of the community members is drawn to the subject actions of the manipulating individual.

    Animal language I.directoral speech

    Contemporary monkeys communications, communications are distinguished not only by their diversity, but also a pronounced addictive, encouraging a function aimed at changing the behavior of the members of the herd. Tih also notes a greater expressiveness of the means of communication of monkeys and their similarity with emotional means of communication in humans. However, in contrast to a person, as Tih believes, the communicative means of monkeys - both sounds and television - devoid of semantic function and therefore do not serve as an instrument of thinking.

    In recent years, the communication capabilities of monkeys, first of all humor, were studied particularly intensively, but not always adequate methods. It is possible, for example, to refer to the experiments of the American scientist D. Premak, trying with the help of a system of optical signals to teach chimpanzees to human tongue. According to this system, the monkeys were developed by associations between individual objects (pieces of plastic) and food, and the method of "choice for a sample" was used, introduced into the practice of zoopsychological research back in the 10th of our century Ladykina-Kotce: to get a delicacy, the monkey should choose Among the different items (in this case, a variety of plastic pieces) and give the experimenter to the one that she has shown before that. In the same way, reactions were produced into categories of objects and generalized visual images were formed, ideas like the one with which we have already met when considering the behavior of vertebrates and even bees, but, it is clear that the chimpanzee has more complex. These were the views of the "greater" and "smaller" type, "the same" and "different" and comparisons of the type "on", "first", "then", "and", etc., for which animals below anthropoids probably probably Unable.

    These experiments, as well as similar experiments of other researchers, are certainly very impressive showing the exceptional abilities of man-like monkeys to "symbolic" actions and generalizations, great opportunities for communication with man and, of course, especially the powerful development of their intellect - all this is true, in conditions Especially intense training influences on the part of human ("educational learning", in Ladygina-Kots).

    However, these experiments, contrary to the designs of their authors, in no way prove the presence of the anthropoid language with the same structure as a person, at least because the chimpanzee "imposed" the likeness of the human language instead of establishing communication with animals The help of his own natural means of communication. It is clear that if you judge the "plastic" language invented by Premacion as an equivalent of a genuine monkey language, it will inevitably lead to artifacts. Such a way is unpromising in principle and cannot lead to an understanding of the essence of the animal language, because these experiments were given only a phenomenological picture of artificial communication behavior, externally reminiscent of the operating with the language structures in humans. The monkeys have been developed only (the truth, very complex) system of communication with a person in addition to the multitude of human communication systems with animals, which he created still since the time of domestication of wild animals.

    So, despite the sometimes striking skimpanzee skimpanzee use optical symbolic tools when communicating with a person and, in particular, to use them as signals of their needs, it would be a mistake to interpret the results of such experiments as evidence of the alleged fundamental identity of the monkey language and human language or withdraw direct instructions On the origin of human forms of communication. The misunderstanding of such conclusions implies from inadequate interpretation of the results of these experiments, in which monkeys's artificially formed by the experimenter are concluded about the laws of their natural communication behavior.

    As for the linguistic possibilities of monkeys, the principal impossibility of learning the monkeys with a directorial language was repeatedly proven, including in recent years, as well as the inconsistency of the linguistic conclusions of Premak and other authors of the experiments mentioned. Of course, the question of the semantic function of the language of animals is still in many ways, but there is no doubt that neither a single animal, including human monkeys, no conceptual thinking. As already emphasized, among the communicative means of animals a lot of "symbolic" components (sounds, poses, televitations, etc.), but there are no abstract concepts, there are no words, self-parting speech, no codes denoting subject components of the medium, their quality or relationships beyond Specific situation. This in the root, different from the animal, the method of communication could appear only when moving with biological on the social plane of development. At the same time, the Engels pointed out, ai-graduate speech and labor was the main factors of anthropogenesis.

    There is nothing surprising in the fact that the language of animals is characterized by the generalized conventionalness of the transmitted signals. This is the basis of any communication system, and in the transition to the social form of communication in the first people, it served as a biological prerequisite for the origin of a self-parting speech in their joint work. At the same time, only emerging social and labor relations could realize this premise, and there are many grounds to think that the first elements of human speech treated precisely to these relations, denoted information about the subjects included in collaborative work.

    This is the principal difference from the language of animals, which informs primarily (although not exclusively) on the internal state of the individual. As already noted, the communicative function of the language consists in cohesion of the community, individual identification, alarm on the location (for example, a chick or the "host" of the individual plot), attracting a sexual partner, alarms about danger, impressed or intimidation, etc. All these functions are entirely as part of purely biological patterns.

    Another important difference between the animal language from human speech is that the animal language is always a "closed", a genetically fixed system consisting of a limited number of signals defined for each type of limited number, while a person's part-based speech is a "open" system, which It is constantly enriched with new elements by creating new combinations of the components of its acoustic components. Therefore, a person has to learn the code values \u200b\u200bin the course of its individual development, learn to understand and pronounce them.