What language is the main source of borrowing. Borrowings in modern Russian: history of appearance, causes, problems and examples of use. German loanwords in Russian

Keywords

LANGUAGE CONTACT/ BORROWING / SPANISH / ANGLO-AMERICANISM/ ADAPTATION / LANGUAGE CONTACT / BORROWING / SPANISH / ANGLO-AMERICANISM / ADOPTATION

annotation scientific article on linguistics and literary criticism, the author of the scientific work is Sofya Vladimirovna Kudryashova

Relevance and goals. The relevance of the study is due to the consideration of borrowing as a process that does not necessarily manifest itself in bilingualism, for it, first of all, it is necessary language contact... Borrowing is understood as a process in which elements of another language that are alien to the native language are not regulated by the knowledge of the language from which they are drawn. In most cases, borrowed units are adapted to one degree or another at the phonological, morphological, lexical-semantic and stylistic levels, i.e. are modified in accordance with the norms of the recipient language. The aim of the study was to identify different views of domestic and foreign linguists on the concept of "borrowing", to analyze theoretical approaches to the study of types of borrowings and linguistic criteria for their adaptation in the recipient language. Materials and methods. The material is linguistic scientific articles, abstracts and monographs. In the course of the research, a descriptive method was used, involving the interpretation and classification of the material, as well as the inductive-deductive method, which makes it possible to comprehend and generalize the corresponding theoretical material. Results. The study made it possible to identify three main stages of adaptation of borrowings in the recipient language: penetration into speech, partial assimilation (borrowing), and rooting in the language. At the same time, it is often difficult to determine at what stage of the adaptation process is this or that borrowing. The process of adaptation of borrowings at different language levels is uneven: a relatively small number of borrowings is characterized by the same degree of development at all levels of the language system. Conclusions. The concept of borrowing in linguistics is ambiguous. This phenomenon is studied in terms of adaptation of borrowed units, their changes under the influence of interference, as well as functioning in the system of the recipient language. Features of these processes can be due to both internal and external factors. Borrowing is a process characteristic of both bilingualism and monolingualism, when elements of another language that are alien to the native language are not regulated by the knowledge of the language from which they are derived. In most cases, borrowed units are adapted to one degree or another at all language levels, i.e. are modified in accordance with the norms of the recipient language.

The text of the scientific work on the topic "The process of borrowing as a kind of language contact"

S. V. Kudryashova

BORROWING PROCESS AS A VARIETY OF LANGUAGE CONTACT

Annotation.

Relevance and goals. The relevance of the study is due to the consideration of borrowing as a process that does not necessarily manifest itself in the conditions of bilingualism, it primarily requires language contact. Borrowing is understood as a process in which elements of another language that are alien to the native language are not regulated by the knowledge of the language from which they are drawn. In most cases, borrowed units are adapted to one degree or another at the phonological, morphological, lexical-semantic and stylistic levels, that is, they are modified in accordance with the norms of the recipient language. The aim of the study was to identify different views of domestic and foreign linguists on the concept of "borrowing", to analyze theoretical approaches to the study of types of borrowings and linguistic criteria for their adaptation in the recipient language.

Materials and methods. The material is linguistic scientific articles, abstracts and monographs. In the course of the research, a descriptive method was used, involving the interpretation and classification of the material, as well as the inductive-deductive method, which makes it possible to comprehend and generalize the corresponding theoretical material.

Results. The study made it possible to identify three main stages of adaptation of borrowings in the recipient language: penetration into speech, partial assimilation (borrowing), and rooting in the language. At the same time, it is often difficult to determine at what stage of the adaptation process is this or that borrowing. The process of adaptation of borrowings at different language levels is uneven: a relatively small number of borrowings is characterized by the same degree of development at all levels of the language system.

Conclusions. The concept of borrowing in linguistics is ambiguous. This phenomenon is studied in terms of adaptation of borrowed units, their changes under the influence of interference, as well as functioning in the system of the recipient language. Features of these processes can be due to both internal and external factors. Borrowing is a process characteristic of both bilingualism and monolingualism, when elements of another language that are alien to the native language are not regulated by the knowledge of the language from which they are derived. In most cases, borrowed units are adapted to one degree or another at all language levels, that is, they are modified in accordance with the norms of the recipient language.

Key words: language contact, borrowing, Spanish, Anglo-Americanism, adaptation.

S. V. Kudriashova

THE PROCESS OF BORROWING AS A KIND OF LANGUAGE CONTACT

Background. The relevance of the study is determined by consideration of borrowing as a process that is not necessarily manifested in bilingualism - first of all, it

requires language contact. Borrowing is thought of as a process by which elements of another language, foreign to the native language, are not regulated by the knowledge of the language from which they are drawn. In most cases, borrowed units adapt to varying degrees on the phonological, morphological, lexical-semantic and stylistic levels, in other words, modified in accordance with the rules of the recipient language. The aim of the study was to identify different views of domestic and foreign linguists on the concept of "borrowing", analysis of theoretical approaches to the study of types of borrowings and linguistic criteria to adapt them to the recipient language.

Materials and methods. The data for the study included scientific articles, author "s abstracts of dissertations and monographs. The study used a descriptive method, involving interpretation and classification of the material, as well as an inductive-deductive method to comprehend and summarize the relevant theoretical material.

Results. The study revealed three main stages of adaptation of borrowings in the recipient language: penetration, partially acquisition (borrowing), rooting in the language. In this case, it is often difficult to determine at what stage is a particular borrowing in the process of adaptation. The adaptation process of borrowing at different levels of language is not uniform: a relatively small amount of borrowings is characterized by the same degree of development at all levels of the language system.

Conclusions. The concept of borrowing in linguistics is multivalued. This phenomenon is studied in terms of adaptation of borrowed items and their changes under the influence of interference, as well as functioning in the recipient language. Features of these processes can be caused by both internal and external factors. Borrowing is a process, characteristic for the situation of bilingualism and monolingua-lism as alien elements of another language are not regulated by the knowledge of the language, from which they are drawn. In most cases, borrowed units adapt to varying degrees in all language levels, modified in accordance with the rules of the recipient language.

Key words: language contact, borrowing, Spanish, anglo-americanism, adoption.

The study of issues of linguistic contacts and related phenomena, in particular the process of borrowing, has a long tradition in domestic and foreign linguistics. This issue is currently especially relevant and attracts the attention of many researchers, since the end of the XX and the beginning of the XXI century. characterized by a significant expansion of international relations and the strengthening of linguistic contacts, which are carried out both directly between speakers of different languages, and with the help of the media.

In a situation of intensive interaction of languages, changes occur in the system of one or both languages, or the appearance of common linguistic features, i.e. interference, or partial or complete displacement of one of the contacting languages. The most significant consequence of linguistic contact is the appearance in the interacting languages of various types of borrowing.

The study of the phenomenon of "borrowing" is a study of a complex of linguistic and extralinguistic problems, which include issues related to the interpretation of this term, types of borrowing, the reasons and conditions of borrowing, changes that occur with borrowing.

knowledge in the recipient language, etc. The term "borrowing" in linguistics is ambiguous. So, many scientists distinguish between the concepts of "borrowing" and "borrowed word", proposing to define the term "borrowing" as "the mutual influence of languages", other authors identify these concepts, arguing that words are most often borrowed.

Some linguists mean by borrowing a process, others - the result of a process. Many foreign linguists describe borrowing as "a process that results in the transition of a linguistic unit from one language to another." In turn, others believe that borrowing is “elements transferred into another language, i.e. the consequences of the interaction of languages that can exist in this language after the interaction has ceased. "

The closest to the objectives of our research is the definition of borrowing, which belongs to I. G. Dobrodomov: “Borrowing is an element of a foreign language (word, morpheme, syntactic structure, etc.), transferred from one language to another as a result of linguistic contacts, as well as itself the process of transition of elements from one language to another ”.

By borrowing, we mean foreign language elements, especially words, since borrowing occurs most often at the lexical level. In addition, borrowing is the transfer of lexical units from one language to another with the subsequent adaptation of borrowed tokens in the system of the recipient language. The process of lexical borrowing is undoubtedly broader than grammatical, derivational or phonetic borrowing.

As a result of long historical interaction and mixing of languages, borrowings occupy a significant place in the vocabulary of many languages. Borrowing channels can be both oral and book, written. In oral borrowing, the word undergoes more changes in its appearance than in writing. If a word enters the language of another people while simultaneously borrowing a new object or concept, then the meaning of this borrowing does not undergo changes, but if a new word appears as a synonym for already existing words, a delimitation of meanings occurs between them and shifts in the original semantics are observed. A morphologically complex borrowed word is usually simplified upon transition to the recipient language and is perceived in this language as simple and non-derivative.

Thus, borrowing in a broad sense is the process of moving various elements from one language to another and their adaptation in the borrowing language, and in the narrow sense - linguistic elements moved from one language to another and functioning in it. We can talk about borrowing a word (the most frequent and typical case of borrowing), borrowing a phoneme (the most rare and particular case, depending on the degree of contact between two languages), borrowing a morpheme (usually as part of a word), syntactic borrowing (constructing phrases in a language under the influence of foreign language syntactic constructions) and, finally, on the borrowing of the semantic (the appearance in the word of the meaning "under pressure" of the foreign language sample - semantic tracing).

The most active process of borrowing occurs at the level of vocabulary, this is due to the need to nominate new realities, concepts and phenomena in the recipient language.

It is believed that the process of borrowing, unlike other phenomena accompanying linguistic contacts, in particular mixing and switching codes, does not imply a deep knowledge of the language from which the elements are borrowed, and direct contact of the carriers of the two cultures, since only lexical material directly contacts and functions. The ability to borrow is influenced by a large number of factors, such as the genetic proximity of languages, socio-political conditions, the way languages spread, their similarity, the nature of contact, the attitude of linguistic communities to these languages, etc.

Both in domestic and foreign linguistics, there are a number of classifications of borrowings based on various criteria. For example, oral and book borrowings (O.S. Akhmanova, 1969; D.E. Rosenthal, 1976), direct and indirect (G. Paul, 1960; B.N. Golovin, 1973), lexical and morphematic (I. G. Dobrodomov, 1990), linguistic and cultural-historical (R. A. Budagov, 1965; L. Bloomfield, 1968), material borrowings and tracing papers (T. G. Linnik, 1989).

Following E. Haugen, we distinguish the following types of borrowings:

Actually borrowing, in this case, both the material form and the semantics of the source language are borrowed, however, phonomorphological and semantic changes are possible under the influence of the recipient language;

Semantic tracing-paper, i.e. borrowing semantics without material form or with partial morphemic substitution;

Hybrid formations, i.e. words, partially consisting of foreign language elements.

The importance of the problem of borrowing is determined both by linguistic parameters, which are aimed at revealing the mechanisms of adaptation, and by social ones, which make it possible to reveal the depth of cultural and historical contacts. The linguistic mechanism of the entry of borrowed units from various source languages into the recipient language is, in principle, the same, and borrowings can be investigated from the point of view of the mechanism of interference that led to them and from the point of view of phonological, grammatical and semantic adaptation in the borrowing language.

AI Smirnitsky notes that when borrowing, “a word breaks with the system of the language in which it existed earlier, is included in the system of another language and is formed according to the rules and means of this language. Understanding borrowing as the transfer of words from one language to another presupposes their adaptation in the structure of the recipient language and gradual adaptation to its linguistic norms. Hence, according to L. A. Ilyina, the priority of formal development of borrowings as a criterion for their inclusion in the perceiving language, their division according to this criterion into "assimilated" and "unassimilated", the allocation of conventional, but unassimilated foreign words in the language.

In modern contact linguistics, three main approaches (or theories) to the problem of lexical borrowing dominate, for which,

in particular, Y. Aydukovich points out. These include: 1) the theory of the transfer of borrowings, according to which borrowing is considered as "the transition, transfer, penetration of elements of one language into another language"; 2) the theory of structural modeling of borrowings by analogy with foreign language samples, according to which borrowing is explained as “the creation of one's own elements by one's own language means through creative imitation, approximate copying of foreign language samples; 3) a compromise theory, according to which "when copying the plan of expression", "transfer, transition of foreign language meanings" is allowed.

Thus, the widespread traditional understanding of borrowing as a transition, transfer, penetration of elements of one language into another is opposed by its explanation as the creation of one's own elements by one's own language means through creative imitation, approximate copying or structural modeling by analogy with foreign language samples.

On the basis of the theory of "transfer", the theory of activation or adaptation of elements of the source language in the recipient language is also postulated, according to which, in the speech of monolinguals, the word transferred from one language to another is subject to adaptation at all language levels and the results of language influence can be represented by a scale - from full integration until the complete mismatch of language elements.

Most scientists (L.P. Krysin, E. Haugen, B.N. Zabavnikov, V.M. Aristova) distinguish three main stages of adaptation of borrowings in the recipient language: penetration into speech, partial assimilation (borrowing), rooting in the language.

1. Penetration meets the following criteria:

Direct connection with the source language, manifested in the external design of the word, for example, the appearance of foreign language inclusions in the texts, the emergence of formal doublets, fluctuations at the grammatical and word-formation levels;

Semantic unambiguity as a consequence of the fact that in most cases a lexical unit at the stage of penetration denotes someone else's reality or conveys someone else's concept;

Use in certain contexts;

Absence of derivative formations.

2. Borrowing is characterized by:

The internal connection of the word with the source language;

Stabilization of the word form at the grammatical and derivational levels;

The beginning of the regular use of the word;

The beginning of word-formation activity.

3. Rooting is characterized by:

Separation of words from the source language;

Full semantic independence of the word and the formation of the lexical-semantic microsystem of the given word (phraseological units, figurative uses, etc.);

Interaction with elements of the borrowing language, leading to the differentiation of meanings in the original words;

Wide use of the word;

Wide word-formation activity, often leading to the formation of new lexemes.

It can be difficult to determine at what stage of adaptation a particular borrowing is. The process of adaptation of borrowings at different language levels is uneven; a relatively small number of borrowings are characterized by the same degree of development at all levels of the language system.

As a result, linguists are developing more specific classifications of the degrees of adaptation of borrowings. Following the traditionally distinguished criteria for adaptation of borrowings, developed by Sh. Seshan, S. A. Belyaeva, V. M. Aristova, G. V. Pavlenko, the following order of the degree of adaptation is proposed: phonetic and graphic adaptation, grammatical, lexical-semantic adaptation, semantic independence words, its word-formation activity, the emergence of new meanings in the recipient language, widespread use in speech, the expansion of the semantic range of the word.

At the first stage, foreign language inclusions or exoticisms are distinguished, which are occasional lexical units that penetrate the language, preserve the letter (orthographic) combinations of the source language. In texts for graphical implementation, they are displayed in quotes or in italics. There are only small changes in the sound envelope of the borrowing. They are at the initial stage of adaptation, however, in the process of frequent use in speech, they can adapt in the recipient language and go to the stage of rooting in the language.

At the second stage of mastering, borrowings become more and more adapted to the system of the recipient language, which is associated with the desire to make them more understandable. Partially mastered borrowings undergo phonetic-graphic, morphological and semantic adaptation. In order to transmit a foreign language word through the sounds of the borrowing language, it is simplified by reducing sounds, omitting unstressed vowels and eliminating the dependence of the meaning of the word on the length of the vowel sound.

With grammatical adaptation, borrowings are correlated with certain lexico-grammatical categories of words. The borrowed word gradually loses the grammatical categories of the source language and is included in the morphological system of the borrowing language, acquiring the corresponding grammatical categories of the recipient language.

At the stage of rooting, the borrowed word begins to possess signs of semantic independence and enters into a system of semantic relations with other words of the recipient language. Not many words retain their previous semantic characteristics; most often they are influenced by the borrowing language, which leads to the development of new meanings in them. At the stage of rooting, foreign language vocabulary in the borrowing language exhibits active word-formation activity, forms single-root words, acquires new shades of meanings, etc.

BN Zabavnikov notes that borrowings begin to show “a deviation in semantic development on a new basis. This can be a change in the volume of the meaning of the borrowed word in comparison with its prototype, most often a narrowing. "

It should be noted that the semantic adaptation of the word primarily indicates that the word has indeed been assimilated in the recipient language. In this case, the borrowed word is included in the system of semantic relations in the vocabulary of the recipient language, undergoes new grammatical transformations, undergoes semantic changes along with the original words and can receive a completely different meaning.

Borrowing can take place at all levels of the linguistic structure. In some situations, in particular with mediated linguistic contact, only lexical borrowing occurs, while the consequences for the receiving language may be insignificant; in others, in particular with direct linguistic contact, different types of code switching can take place. With intense contact between two or more linguistic communities, both lexical and structural borrowing can occur, which can lead to changes and restructuring of the language or languages-recipients; linguistic contact can also facilitate language change. In some cases, the recipient language may undergo only minor changes in different language tiers, in others - significant restructuring, as a result of which its variants or varieties can be formed, an example of which is the territorial variants of the Spanish language and the Spanish-Creole languages common on the American continent.

As for the mechanism of interaction of contacting languages, it depends both on the nature of interethnic contacts and on the intrastructural properties of these languages and, first of all, on their structural similarity (difference) and mutual understanding (incomprehensibility).

The generally accepted classification of borrowed lexical units is based on the classification according to the degree of mastering the word. Along with etymological classifications (according to the source of borrowing), “this kind of classifications involves not only solving the question of the source of borrowing a word (or a group of words), but also raising the question of typological similarity and the limit of permeability of two systems (giving and receiving), on which the or another form and degree of formal and semantic adaptation ”.

L.P. Krysin identifies the conditions necessary for the adaptation of a borrowed word in the system of the borrowing language, which at the structural level include its transmission by phonetic and graphic means of the borrowing language, correlation with grammatical classes and categories, phonetic and grammatical development, word-formation activity. At the level of semantic adaptation, a certainty of meaning is formed, a differentiation of meanings and their shades occurs between the borrowed word and the original vocabulary existing in the language. Finally, one of the main signs of the adaptability of a word is its regular use in speech.

The classifications also reflect the aspect of the borrowing process concerning the determination of the extreme points of this process, namely the time of penetration and the time of mastering the borrowed unit in the system of the borrowing language. Foreign language material that does not fit into the parameters of the language system is subject to mandatory processing in it. So, according to

As it was shown above, a whole set of signs-indicators of complete assimilation of the word is put forward to the second extreme point (state).

The degree of mastery of a foreign language word is evidenced by the presence of differential signs: the more there are, the higher the mastery of borrowing in the recipient language. All borrowings are subdivided on the basis of conformity / inconsistency with the prevailing linguistic norms, as a result of which the following types of adaptation of borrowed vocabulary are distinguished: graphic, phonetic, morphological, syntactic and semantic.

Since the structural difference between languages in contact is an objective reason for interlingual interference, then for its study, as a rule, their systems are compared in a synchronous and / or diachronous plan. It is believed that the structural factors influencing the interference are total in nature and cover all levels of the language system (phonological, grammatical and lexical). In order to provide a more complete and reliable description of changes in languages in contact, the above levels are explored in the paradigmatic, syntagmatic and transformational plan with the study of complete and partial discrepancies in linguistic structures.

The degree of adaptation of borrowing depends on the level of genetic relationship of the donor language and the recipient language, the typological similarity of the languages in contact, the sphere, frequency and duration of its use, the intensity of the adaptive influence of the recipient language, as well as the correspondence / inconsistency of the phonetic, spelling and grammatical characteristics of words of foreign language origin. productive types of design of the original words of the borrowing language. A foreign language word is considered fully adapted if it was mastered not only at the formal level, but also acquired its independent lexical meaning, i.e. began to express subject-conceptual relations, and also developed the ability to combine with other words.

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Kudryashova Sofya Vladimirovna

Candidate of Philology, Associate Professor, Department of German and French Languages, Saratov State Law Academy (Russia, Saratov, Volskaya st., 1)

Email: [email protected]

Kudriashova Sofia Vladimirovna Candidate of philological sciences, associate professor, sub-department of German and French languages, Saratov State law Academy

(1 Volskaya street, Saratov, Russia)

UDC 81 Kudryashova, S.V.

The process of borrowing as a kind of language contact /

S. V. Kudryashova // News of higher educational institutions. Volga region. Humanitarian sciences. - 2015. - No. 4 (36). - S. 66-75.

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has come a long way of development. Our vocabulary is made up not only of primordially Russian words, but also words borrowed from other languages. Borrowing as an element of a foreign language, transferred from one language to another as a result of linguistic contacts, can undoubtedly be considered as a way of replenishing the vocabulary of the language. Usually, words are borrowed, less often syntactic and phraseological turns.
The borrowing of sounds and word-formative morphemes occurs as a result of their secondary isolation from a larger number of borrowed words. Borrowings are adapted to the system of the borrowing language and are often so assimilated by them that the foreign-language origin of such words is not felt by the speakers of this language and is revealed only with the help of etymological analysis.
The influx of borrowings in the Russian language especially increased in the 90s of the twentieth century, which is associated with active social and political processes in Russia, changes in the economy, culture and moral orientation of society. The process of borrowing was covered in research and scientific literature in different periods of the country's development in different ways. This problem was dealt with by LP Krysin, VM Aristova, AI Dyakov. In their works, they investigated the reasons for borrowing and the principles of assimilation of borrowings. By the end of the twentieth century, domestic linguists E.M. Vereshchagin, V.P. Kostomarov, S.G. Ter-Minasova et al. Investigate the process of borrowing from a cultural perspective. According to their research, the influence of the English language on the modern Russian language is felt both at the lexical, morphological, grammatical and phonetic levels, and at the level of the Russian-language culture.
One of the areas, especially strongly susceptible to changes in the lexical composition and borrowings, both lexical and cultural, is, today, the field of sports. Sports terms of English origin are so integral part of the modern Russian language that often their origin is not felt (for example: hockey, football, half time, start, finish, etc.). In recent years, many names for new sports have appeared: windsurfing, skateboard, freestyle, bobsleigh, ski-stream, skeleton, as well as various forms of leisure activities: bowling, diving, curling, etc. These words are very often found in magazines, TV programs.
The process of mastering the newest Anglicisms by the Russian language is influenced by various factors, one of which is “the presence of established systems of terms in the borrowing language” * related to a particular sphere.
The main reasons for borrowing sports vocabulary can be identified. It:
the need to name a new sport (curling, squash)

The need to distinguish between concepts that are similar in content (runner and sprinter - short distance runner)

The need for specialization of concepts (judge and referee - sports judge.)

Replacement of phrases with one word (streetball is street basketball, stayer is a long-distance runner)

You should also highlight the socio-psychological reasons:

Perception of a foreign language word as more prestigious, better sounding (bol, set);

The use of borrowed words in the speech of authority figures during popular TV programs, in articles in newspapers and magazines.

Phonetically and graphically, some Englishisms are subject to interference from the Russian language (for example, big air - big air or big air).
Grammatical assimilation. Most of the studied Anglicisms are included in the coordination system inherent in the Russian language. Nouns change in gender, number, case, etc. (diving, powerlifting competitions)
Semantic assimilation. Some unambiguous English sports terms retain a monosemy (narrow meaning) in the Russian language system, for example: scuba - scuba in diving (from the English scuba - self-contained underwater breathing apparatus).
For others, the lexical meaning is expanded due to determinologization, i.e. a sports term goes beyond its scope, for example: freestyle “… freestyle fans can be found even in the fashion industry; free style in clothes is chosen not only by the younger generation .. ". (TV program "Fashionable Sentence") If borrowed Anglicism has a synonym or a Russian analogue, Anglicism expresses a narrower and more specific concept (diving - diving, diving).
Topically, I have divided the words into six groups:
1. Sports names: baseball, windsurfing, diving, curling, snowboarding, etc.

2. Names of athletes and service personnel: goalkeeper, catcher, rider, runner, diver, midfielder, forward, etc.
3. Names of sports equipment, items of equipment, for example: scuba, snowboard, bat, etc.
4. Names of technical elements, techniques: sparring, crossing, offside, dribbling.
5. Names of errors, violations: penalty, strike, foul, break.
6. Names of sports grounds: outfield, base, court, ring, etc.
In the cultural aspect, there is a borrowing of the concept, as well as elements of the culture of the English-speaking countries. For example, the word “curling” includes, firstly, the concept defined as “a kind of Scottish game, the participants of which compete in skating on ice of smoothly polished round stones ...” *, and secondly - the concept of British “gentlemen”.
So, Englishisms, getting into the Russian language, gradually assimilate: they adapt to the sound system of the Russian language, obey the rules of word formation and inflection, to one degree or another losing their non-Russian pronunciation.
In addition, along with the English vocabulary, the Russian language borrows the cultural realities of the English people (sports), in particular, certain concepts of the English-speaking culture. It is not the first time that the Russian language is faced with the need to borrow foreign words, therefore those lexical units that will be in demand will enrich it, as has happened more than once in the past, and unclaimed ones will be rejected.

2.2 Specificity of translation of sports terms

Regardless of the context, the term is translated by the term - a full and absolute equivalent, and therefore, according to the opinion of a number of specialists, it belongs to the number of units that do not complicate the translator.
However, it should be noted that only ideally the term is unambiguous and devoid of synonyms and connotations. But even with this “ideal” position, one can speak of its complete translatability only in those cases when the elements of terminology are in their natural environment, that is, in the scientific style of speech, in the sublanguage of science; we are primarily interested in the translation of a term in a literary text.
The myth about the only meaning of the term and the absence of synonyms in it is easy to dispel with a simple dictionary reference - this is clearly seen in the comparative plan. Recently, elements of terminology - the further, the more - are found far beyond the scientific literature, but essentially in all genres: in the era of scientific and technological revolution, science and technology have become almost the main suppliers of new vocabulary for the modern general literary language. There is a lot of terminology in popular science and science fiction works, it is also in publicistic literature, terminology is not alien to both fiction, and even poetry.
However, the behavior of the term in a scientific and in a literary text is not the same, as, accordingly, the functions it performs in these genres, different in terms of means of expression, are not the same. In its natural environment, as a component of the terminological system and sublanguage of the corresponding science, the term plays only a naming role, the role of a sign indicating a precisely defined concept, while in a work of art it performs primarily the stylistic task set by the author, without losing, however , and its objective meaning.
Before translating, the term must be recognized in the text, distinguished from the elements of general language vocabulary. Difficulties arise mainly due to homonymy (between two terms, between a term and a non-term), due to the assignment of a common lexical or phraseological unit - sometimes a "former term" - terminological status, as well as due to the "transparent" internal form of the term. Homonyms are sometimes easier to recognize among borrowed terms, but often they also make it difficult for the translator. The situation is more difficult with the terms primordial for IL. Many of them, being elements of the corresponding terminological system, have at the same time a sufficiently "transparent" internal form to mislead the translator. It happens that a scientific or technical concept is called in different languages by terms that coincide in its internal form: eng, tooth, fr. dent, it. Zahn in many meanings are covered by subject content and internal form of Rus. tooth. But the trouble is that this cannot be considered a regularity: there are many terms for which such a coincidence is not observed.
By itself, the translation of terms in a literary text is subject, as a rule, to the basic principle of translation of this category of words: a term is translated by a term. Some prerequisites are also similar: to carry out such a translation, it is necessary that an equivalent term exists in the TL and the translator knows not only the fact of its presence, but also the exact form. These prerequisites require some clarification. The translator cannot "re-express" the term in TL, which is natural in relation to other lexical and phraseological means; the term FL should be replaced by the term TL in its generally accepted, official form, established in the appropriate terminology. But what to do when there is still no equivalent of the term in the language? Descriptive translation is indispensable here. So the translator has little choice: a term is needed; either he borrows it - usually from FL (transcription), or “composes” his own (tracing paper, neologism, compound term, etc.), or assigns the status of a term to a common linguistic unit.
When translating a literary text, in contrast to a scientific one, other transformations are also permissible: replacing a specific concept with a generic one (a boat instead of a skiff, or a gig); descriptive translation - a common language unit instead of a terminological unit, an approximate synonym replacement, and even a zero translation. And here, as in relation to realities, the choice of a suitable translation technique depends on the semantic significance of the term, on its "illumination" in the text. But basically this choice, as in relation to any lexical means, is determined by the context and, in particular, the stylistic role of the term. As a rule, in the absence of an equivalent term in the GL, the least desirable techniques are those that are inherent in terminological translation. Introducing a new term into a literary text that does not exist in the corresponding branch of science in the PJ is a very risky business. Word-creation in the field of terminology should be provided to specialists - scientists in cooperation with philologists, and the translator of fiction should be advised to resort to it only in extreme cases and certainly with the blessing of specialists.
Speaking about the stylistic function of the term and terminological or professional speech in fiction, it is necessary to point out the use of the term by the writer as an element of speech characteristics.
In direct speech, there are often not separate terms, but pieces of terminological text imitating "professional language", and even more often - stable turns, related by their origin to one or another field of science, but later received figurative meanings. In the scientific medical literature, terms that are devoid of a well-defined content are usually avoided: smallpox is preferred to be called variole, and chickenpox is varicella. In fiction, however, these popular, albeit not too definite, names are extremely convenient synonyms used by writers - in essence, like any synonyms - for example, to nuance the speech of different characters, to build life-truth images. The position of a translator who has to repeat such a nuance in another language can be unenviable when there is no means suitable for the style in the TL.
However, with the development of medical science, many of the popular names for diseases either went out of use, or acquired clearer outlines and entered the medical nomenclature. On the other hand, many purely scientific names have become quite popular. Such "scientific" awareness of the broad masses of readers, especially in the field of medical, military, economic sciences, in the sciences of space, etc., allows for a fairly wide use of the corresponding terms in fiction without explaining them.
To summarize, let us present what has been said about terminological translation in the form of abstracts:
1. The basic principle of this translation is that a term is conveyed by a term.
2. In contrast to the scientific text, in fiction, terms, especially the original for the FL, are more difficult to recognize; and the selection of methods for their translation is connected with their preliminary isolation from the general language vocabulary.

3. Deviations from the basic principle of translation are allowed mainly in cases where a term in a given text has no terminological meaning, does not carry a significant semantic load and, of course, if it has lost its connection with the corresponding terminological system.
4. In the absence of an equivalent term in a scientific text in a scientific text, they borrow it or create a new one, or attach a terminological meaning to a general literary unit, and in a literary text they prefer other methods, trying, nevertheless, not to violate the “terminological sound” of the text: replacing it with another ( usually close in meaning, and sometimes even far from equivalent) term, compensation of a species concept with a generic one, a synonym for varying degrees of closeness, approximate correspondence (with an ordinary word) and even a zero translation.
5. The internal form of the term, which is not taken into account when translating scientific literature, can have meaning in literary translation, but only in those cases when it plays a similar role in the original. The transparent inner form can, on the other hand, become a source of translation failures - due to the lack of recognition of the term or the inability to combine terminological meaning with the figurative one during translation.
The current state of philological scientific thought convincingly shows that every language has the main stages of its historical development, that its verbal structure is closely connected with the history of the development of the people, with social, political, cultural factors that determine its existence in every historical epoch. It is in dependence on these fundamental scientific provisions that one of the most important and urgent tasks of linguistic science becomes an extremely clear study of the lexical composition of the language, the ways of its development and enrichment, analysis and study of intra-linguistic processes, which greatly strengthens the theoretical and practical foundations of science.
Sports terminology belongs to the lexical layer of the special structure of the English language, which has not yet attracted the attention of linguists. Of course, it cannot be denied that a number of publications are devoted to sports terminology in various countries of the world, which, however, are more informative than scientific in nature. Therefore, a special study of English sports terminology both in diachronic and synchronous relations, bringing clarity to many unknown pages of the social, political and cultural life of past generations, seems to be a very important and urgent task of modern linguistics.

At all times and in almost all countries, borrowing is treated in two ways: either borrowing is good, not scary for the Russian, in particular, the language, enriches it; or borrowing is a threat to the very existence of the national language, leading to the loss of identity. A similar divergence of opinions is observed in our country. Moreover, these views are reflected in such currents as Slavophilism and Westernism.

It is obvious that the borrowing of words from other languages is a natural, necessary and really existing process, which is due to international relations. This is the result of linguistic contacts, relations between peoples and states.

However, the question of the relationship between "ours" and "others", about the use of borrowings in Russian speech has always caused heated discussions, fierce disputes.

For the first time, M.V. Lermontov: "Take care of the properties of your own language, because what we love in the style of Latin, French or German sometimes deserves a laugh in Russian."

It was in the 18th century that the debate about borrowing arose. About a hundred years later, when in the first half of the 19th century linguistics turned into an independent science, the problem of foreign words in Russian speech became even more acute. Moreover, not only scientists, but also critics and writers expressed their opinions.

A.N. Tolstoy wrote: “A certain percentage of foreign words grows into the language. And in each case, the artist's instinct must determine this measure of foreign words, their necessity. It is better to say "lift" than "self-raising", "telephone" than "long-talk", "proletariat" than "beggars", but where you can find a root Russian word, you need to find it. "

The same idea is expressed by V.G. Belinsky: “The word wet-shoes could very well express the concept expressed by the word galoshes, which is completely meaningless for us; but it’s not forcibly to force the whole people instead of galoshes to use wet shoes if they don’t want to! ”. He said very well: “The purists are afraid of an unnecessary flood of foreign words: the fear is more than unfounded. An unnecessary word will never stay in the language, no matter how hard you try to put it into use. "

V.I. Dal, creator of the famous dictionary of the Russian language. He suggested replacing foreign words with Russian synonyms: muffler - nose-tuck, gymnastics - dexterity, pastry chef - sweetie.

Now, what Dahl proposed seems ridiculous, because the above words have become firmly established in the Russian language, and we do not feel foreignness from them. An example of the second attitude can be the great Russian critic V.G. Belinsky, who argued that borrowings are not terrible for the Russian language.

Alexander Solzhenitsyn had a negative attitude to borrowing. In the novel In the First Circle, one of the heroes preaches a negative attitude towards foreign words, replacing them with Russian formations. Although even he cannot do without borrowing.

The computerization and "internetization" of society led to the fact that a huge number of English words broke through the global network into oral speech. It is with this that the worries of Russianists are connected: the use of Anglicisms in Internet communication today has become not just a fashionable hobby. More and more often, carriers of the "great" and "mighty" simply cannot express their thoughts otherwise than with the help of borrowed words. It is obvious that the Russian language in which communication is conducted on forums and in social networks will be incomprehensible to a villager or a professor of venerable age. But what happens to borrowed words on the Internet is very similar to the foreign word entry system described above.

Just look at the use of two foreign words: "flood", which means a meaningless message, the text of which does not carry a semantic meaning, and "ban" - blocking a user on the forum, which prohibits him from sending messages.

“Natives of the Russian language do not just use these words, they transform them, as a result of which such neoplasms appear as“ flood ”- write meaningless messages or“ flood ”, which is used in the context of“ do not breed a flood ”,“ do not make a flood ” , to ban - that is, to prohibit someone from sending messages. " Explanatory dictionary of the modern Russian language. Language changes at the end of the twentieth century. Astrel. 2005 from 200.

These words, existing in the slang of Internet users, are a vivid illustration of the ability of the language system to receive, assimilate and process new information. Language control its system and its purity, but people themselves have a significant impact on the development of the language.

“Borrowings are in every language. In some it is more, in some less, but nothing can be done with them, no matter how hard you try. After all, foreign words, as a rule, are international, international, denote terms and objects that are common, common among a given people, a given culture and a given language with other cultures and peoples. And already on this alone, in order not to remain in closed solitude and isolation from the common paths of mankind, they should not be avoided, and, probably, it is impossible. " Ed. A. Pain. Russian language - theory and practice. Tutorial. Minsk. "POPURRI" 2000, 39-40.

What original words can be used to replace kimono, ikebana, mistral, corsets, bowls, and who would think of it?

Finally, not a single language of science, art, politics, law, music, sports is unthinkable without them.

And how to do without a coat, muffler, a diplomat (briefcase), hat, umbrella, cars, trams, metro, trolleybuses, coffee, tea, cigarettes, cigarettes, wallets - the foreigners we need, many of whom have left and forgotten along with the objects, blow archaic, found in literature - bouquets, puffs, liveries, sweaters, stacks, boots, muffs, corsets, but many have appeared quite recently? And so it is constantly: some come, others leave, some of them stay for a long time and permanently, they get used to it, consider it a family, some are just a guest who has sat down, visited and gone home. Is it worth it to expel them indiscriminately, replacing them with their own, homegrown and not accepted language?

However, recently the flow of borrowings is so great that it makes you seriously think about the future of the Russian language. The oral speech of a Russian person turns out to be full of English and American expressions of not the best quality. The wave of foreign language borrowings that poured into our language due to a number of historical events and technological discoveries made it almost impossible to use colloquial vocabulary without using borrowings. Moreover, the process of globalization and the development of high technologies makes the process of penetration of borrowings practically endless.

This situation forces us to seriously attend to the development of the Russian language. Borrowings must be treated with a great deal of caution, since in our time there is a tendency towards an increase in the amount of foreign language vocabulary in our language.

Stokolyas Alexandra

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Togliatti State University
Department of Theory and Methods of Teaching Foreign Languages

and cultures "
"TSU Science Days"

Abstract topic:

"Borrowing words is a natural and necessary process of language development"

Work performed by: Stokolyas Alexandra

student of 10 "B" class

MBU "School number 41"

Supervisor: English teacher

Alekseeva Daria Anatolievna

g. Togliatti, 2019

Introduction …………………………………………………………………….

1. Ways to replenish the vocabulary of the language ……………………… ..

2. What languages does English consist of …………………………… ..

3. Where did the Russian language come from ……………………………………………

4. Anglicisms ………………………………………………………… ..

Output………………………………………………………………………..

Bibliography………………………………………………………….

Introduction

In the modern world, which is rapidly developing in all directions, foreign languages are the main means of communication. The expansion of interethnic contacts, in which English-speaking countries prevail in almost all spheres of activity, contribute to the constant appearance of English borrowings in the Russian language. Scientists - linguists also mention such a phenomenon as Anglo-Russian bilingualism, which, possibly, is a consequence of the "globalization" of the English language. In the dictionary of S.I. Ozhegov, the following definition is given: Anglicism is a word or turn of speech in any language, borrowed from the English language or created on the basis of the English word and expression.

The relevance of our work determined by the importance of the English language in the life of Russian society.

Target to study the phenomenon of the spread of English loanwords into the Russian language.

An object research: words borrowed from the English language.

Item anglicisms in Russian.

We are faced with the following tasks:

find out in what ways you can replenish the dictionary
explore the history of vocabulary development in English and Russian
find out what anglicisms are and when they began to come to the Russian language

Ways to replenish the vocabulary of the language

Recently, more and more foreign words and terms have appeared in various branches of our life: science and technology - a computer, a display, a player; financial and commercial activities - barter, investment, sponsor, holding; in the cultural sphere - bestsellers, westerns, thrillers, hits, blockbusters. In everyday speech, foreign words are increasingly heard, such as tweeks, hamburger, sprite, boombox, party, toaster, mixer, photocopy.

There are three main ways to expand the vocabulary of a language - its words and meanings:

1.semantic;

2.morphological;

3. borrowing;

Semantic way and borrowing common to all languages, without exception;morphologicalword formation as a way of enriching the vocabulary of the language and individual speech.Morphological- the formation of new words on the basis of existing words and morphemes of a given language (computer technician, disk drive, liquidator); semantic - rethinking of words, the appearance of new meanings in words, in this case the word can pass from proper names to common nouns. (Ohm, Ampere, ohms, amperes); borrowing words from other languages (website, courier). The most productive in the enrichment of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language is morphological word formation, that is, the creation of new words on the basis of the building material available in the language by the natural combination of morphemes in the word.

We were interested in the third way of replenishing the vocabulary of the language - borrowing words from other languages.

Borrowing vocabulary is a consequence of the interaction of peoples on the basis of economic, political, scientific and cultural ties.

In most cases, borrowed words enter the language in order to name new objects or phenomena that were not previously in the language, and also borrowed words can be synonyms to the names of already known objects and phenomena. This happens if the borrowed word somehow characterizes the object in a different way, or it is a generally accepted interethnic term or is forcibly introduced into the language (during military occupation). Polysemous words are usually borrowed in one of their meanings, while the volume of the word's meaning becomes narrower.

The younger generation actively uses English words in their speech, because many of them have long penetrated and firmly settled in the Russian language. On the one hand, the emergence of new words makes it possible to increase the vocabulary of native speakers, and on the other, the language loses its beauty and originality. But the Russian language will not disappear and will not cease to exist, because borrowing is an effective way of enriching the vocabulary of any language. Some words cannot be considered foreign. Take the word "number" as an example. In all European languages, as well as in Russian, it came from Latin, and in Latin it came from Greek. It is based on an even more ancient Indo-European root. In what language is it its own, and in what is it foreign?

Language is a living organism, and people are its component. He (the language) quickly adapts and absorbs new words, but if people do not use them, then they do not "take root" in the language. Despite the fact that many writers sound the alarm that there are a lot of foreign words in our language, the language itself will get rid of everything unnecessary. The presence in the Russian language of a large number of borrowed words makes it possible to become more diverse and richer, and this is a natural way of developing any language.

2. What languages does English consist of?

Borrowings from Latin and French played an important role in the development of the vocabulary of the English language. Also, the Scandinavian languages have had some influence on the vocabulary of the English language.The history of modern English began in the 8th century BC. During this period, the territory of Great Britain was inhabited by the Celts, who communicated in the Celtic language. So the word "Britain" itself comes from the Celtic - brith - painted.After Britain was conquered by the great Caesar, and in the 1st century BC. it began to be considered part of the Roman Empire. The Romans began to move there, who were forced to communicate with the local population, that is, with the Celts, which was directly reflected in the language. So, in modern English, words with Latin roots appeared. That is, the Romans and Celts interacted with each other, forming new English words until the 5th century AD. In the middle of the 11th century, the French conquered England. This is how the era of three languages began in the history of the development of the English language: French - for the aristocracy and the judicial system;

Latin - for science and medicine;anglo-saxon- for the common people.

The confusion of these three dialects gave rise to the formation of modern English. Thanks to the mixing, the vocabulary has doubled. The vocabulary was split into high (from French) and low (from Germanic) variants of the language. Then the peasants called their animals in English, and the butchers in the city called the meat of these animals in French. In modern English, pets and their meat are called different words: cow - beef (cow - beef), pig - pork (pig - pork), (sheep - lamb) (sheep - lamb), hen - chicken (chicken - chicken).

Despite all the external factors that influence English, its core remained Anglo-Saxon. In the 14th century, English becomes a literary and also the language of education and the first grammatical rules also began to appear. With the beginning of mass migration from England to North America, the language began to change there in a different direction. This is how British, American and other variants of modern English appeared, which today differ significantly from each other (grammatically, phonetically, lexically).

3.Where did the Russian language come from?

There are several theories of the emergence of the Russian language. Some scholars associate the Russian language with the Old Indian Sanskrit, while another theory claims a connection with the Old Scandinavian language.

According to the first theory, the Russian language is based on Sanskrit. But it should be noted that Sanskrit is a frozen and simplified version that has not developed over the past 4-5 thousand years. The teachings revealed that 60% of words in Sanskrit completely coincide with Russian in their pronunciation, and the only thing that distinguishes Russian from Sanskrit is the way of writing: Sanskrit uses hieroglyphs, which scientists call Slavic-Aryan runes.

Another theory hypothesizes that the language has Old Norse roots, and that Russia itself was created by the Swedish Vikings. It was from them that the future great dukes of Ancient Russia originated. For example, in the old birch bark letters of the 11-13th centuries. Novgorodians consider the territory of the Eastern Slavs near Kiev and Chernigov to be Rus. And only from the 14th century. when fighting enemy troops in the annals, they determine their belonging to the Russians.

It turns out that the modern norms of vocabulary and grammar in the Russian language were formed as a result of the interaction of many East Slavic dialects that were widespread in the territory of Ancient Rus and the Church Slavonic language. Also, writing was greatly influenced by Greek culture. And also nThe period of feudal fragmentation contributed to the formation of dialects that depended on the territory of residence of the people. Thus, three independent languages emerged from East Slavic:Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian... The Russian language belongs to the East Slavic (Old Russian) subgroup of the Slavic group of the Indo-European language branch.

The history of the emergence and development of the Russian language dates back to about 2-1 thousand years BC. e., when the Proto-Slavic dialect was separated from the group of Indo-European languages.

Scientists divide the Old Russian language into 3 groups according to the ethnic linguistic component: South Russian (Bulgarians, Slovenes, Serbo-Croats); Western Russian (Poles, Czechs, Pomors, Slovaks); Central Russian (eastern).

Let's make a list of reasons and explanations for the similarities between English and Russian. So, first, a lot of the words in both languages come from French, albeit for different reasons. Secondly, the languages we are considering are representatives of the Indo-European family * and their similarity is manifested in the presence of common grammatical meanings, categories and functions. Therefore, in many words of both languages there are roots from their common ancient proto-language. These words were not borrowed, they were originally general. We often have to wonder what “native Russian” words are also found in English. Thirdly, a large number of common Russian and English words are derived from Greek and Latin roots. It is known that Latin was the international language of scientists, and, therefore, it brought a huge number of words to other languages, for example, almost all medical terminology is based on Latin.

* At the end of the 3rd - the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC the Proto-Slavic language separated from the Indo-European family, which is the basis for the Slavic languages. In the X - XI centuries. the Proto-Slavic language was subdivided into 3 groups of languages: West Slavic (from which Polish , Czech, Slovak), South Slavic (developed into Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian) and East Slavic.

4. Anglicisms

Anglicisms are borrowings from English vocabulary. They began to penetrate into the Russian language from the beginning of the 19th century, but their number remained rather small until 1990, when a very strong borrowing of words began without corresponding concepts in various fields. About 15% of English loanwords are words that have appeared to meet the needs for the name of a new thing or concept (make up-make-up; concealer-concealer-pencil-corrector; termopot-thermo-pot-kettle-thermos).

There are various options for borrowing and they can be divided into groups:

words that came into the language to name a new subject;
words that have synonyms in Russian and can be replaced with equivalents.

Direct borrowing... These are words such as barter exchange, shop - shop, weekend - weekend, money - money, image - image, as well as spray, sponsor, speechwriter, investor, price list, cupcake, stand, sports, etc.

Hybrids. In this case, the meaning of a foreign word (source) changes somewhat, for example: to speak (to speak), buzz (busy - lively, noisy), a hacker is a person who can hack computer programs, etc.

Tracing paper. Words used while preserving their phonetic and graphic appearance, for example: login, password, disk, virus.

Half-calf. Words that obey the rules of Russian grammar during grammatical development), for example: shop “Let's go shopping” - meaning “to shop”.

Exotisms ... Words that characterize specific national customs of other peoples, for example: hot dog, chips, cheeseburger, sir, mister, lord, lunch, pound, penny.

Foreign language blotches... These are such expressive words as okay (ok), wow (wow). We hear them almost every day, turning on the radio or TV, we hear, for example: Google began to change something in its business plans; to connect to the Internet, you need to contact your provider; there will be a briefing soon, etc.

Composites ... Words consisting of two English words, for example: second-hand - a store that sells used clothing; video salon - a room for watching films; express cafe - fast cafe, that is, fast service; business lady - business woman, real-time reality show, etc.

Professionalismwords or expressions are called that are used by professionals in a particular field, for example, computer slang: interface, chip, driver, animation, virtual, printer.

Jargon. Words that appear due to the distortion of any sounds, for example: crazy - crazy.

Output

The English language, more than any other language, had the opportunity to borrow foreign words in conditions of direct direct contact: first in the Middle Ages from foreign invaders replacing each other on the British Isles, and later in the conditions of trade expansion and colonial activity of the British themselves. It is estimated that the number of native words in the English dictionary is only about 30%.Linguists argue that modern English is a mixture of different languages, and even today it is not static, it is constantly being updated. This is the main difference between this language and other European dialects. English not only permits, but welcomes neologisms, different dialects and variations. As you can see, he still keeps the tradition of "mixing dialects".

So, borrowing words is a natural process of language development. A fairly large number of linguists remain optimistic about the influx of Anglicisms into the Russian language. After all, lexical borrowings enrich the language. At the same time, the main vocabulary is preserved, and the grammatical structure of the language remains unchanged.

Slang is considered to be a conductor of Anglicisms in Russian speech.. It has supplanted and continues to squeeze the normative vocabulary. People are used to it and sometimes do not even realize that certain words are not characteristic of the literary language. Sometimes we do not attach importance to where they come from in our lives and what they mean.

Thus, the Anglotization of the Russian language takes place. The younger generation cannot help but use English words in their speech, since many of them have long penetrated the Russian language. On the one hand, the emergence of new words expands the vocabulary of native speakers, and on the other, its originality and unique beauty are lost. The words they pronounce in the Russian manner cannot always express the same as the words of their native language..

Bibliography

1.Breiter M.A. Borrowing in English: History and Perspectives: A Guide for Foreign Students of Russian Studies. - Vladivostok: Dialogue publishing house. 2003.
2.Vaulina E.Yu., Sklyarevskaya G.N. Let's Speak Correctly !: The Newest and Most Common Borrowings in Modern Russian. - M., 2004.

3.Vinokur G.O. Notes on English word formation. - Moscow, 1999.

4. Dal V.N. Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language. M .: Russian language, 1981.

5.Dyakov A.I. The reasons for the intensive borrowing of Anglicisms in the modern Russian language. // Language and culture. - Novosibirsk, 2003.

6.Krysin L.P. Foreign words in English. - Moscow, 2006.

7.Krysin L.P. Foreign words in modern life. English language of the late twentieth century. - Moscow, 1996.

8.Ozhegov S.I. and Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language: 800 words and phraseological expressions / Russian Academy of Sciences. Institute of the Russian language named after V.V. Vinogradov. - 4th ed., Supplemented. - M .: Azbukovnik, 1999.

Introduction

The methodological and theoretical basis of this study was the work of such linguists as Krysin L.P. ("On the reasons for lexical borrowing"), Rosenzweig V.Yu. ("Language contacts"), Shcherba L.V. ("Language and the Way development "). In their works, research was carried out on the culture and history of the countries from whose languages borrowings came to English.

Relevance This work is due to the fact that foreign words occupy most of the language, and the process of borrowing is continuous. The English language is considered one of the richest languages in the world, which includes an uncountable number of foreign language words. More and more often, questions are raised about language borrowing, which in the future affect various areas of activity. The English language has been replenished over the centuries and continues to develop incessantly. It includes a large number of words from nowadays dead languages, such as, for example, Latin, Gaulish, Gothic, etc. However, it also has a fairly large number of modern borrowings that came from other languages: Italian, Spanish, French, Russian; but this will be discussed further in the work.

The following was also formulated. hypothesis of this study: despite the fact that most of the vocabulary of the English language consists of borrowed words, it has not lost its qualities, but on the contrary, it has been enriched not only with new lexical units, but also with concepts.

The purpose This work is the study of the modern linguistic situation in the vocabulary of the English language in terms of foreign language borrowings. In addition, the various influences of borrowing on the English language will be considered and the pros and cons of this process will be highlighted. One way or another, all languages are full of foreign words and expressions and this problem is unlikely to ever lose its relevance, due to a rich common history and mixing of languages.

Object research is the introduction of foreign language vocabulary into the vocabulary system of the English language, while subject work is itself borrowing.

Tasks, which should be analyzed in this research paper, were formulated as follows:

clarification of the main sources for the introduction of foreign language borrowings into the English language
defining their role in modern vocabulary
study of the reasons for the penetration of borrowings into the language
development of a classification of borrowings
proof that the English language has not lost its individuality, despite the colossal number of borrowed words

Analysis of borrowed words can be carried out in various methods: descriptive, method of comparison, observation of linguistic phenomena and analysis of foreign language vocabulary in the media. In this work, the development and spread of borrowings will be considered by languages, words from which were included in the vocabulary of the English language.

Structurally the scientific work consists of an introduction, two chapters with two subsections in each, a conclusion and a list of literature used in the work.

The originality of the linguistic situation in terms of the process of linguistic borrowing.

Foreign borrowings completely permeate the English language. The vocabulary of the language has constantly changed throughout English history during various invasions and conquests, the development of trade and the influence of the cultures of neighboring countries. One of the features of the borrowings that came to the English language is their number, which is quite large in comparison with other languages. On average, borrowings make up more than fifty percent of the vocabulary, while the remaining layer of vocabulary contains native English words and expressions.

Language borrowings provide a fairly high quality of intercultural communication. The vocabulary of the English language includes a part of the Germanic words, namely: borrowed from the Scandinavian and Old English languages, from Latin, Russian, French, Spanish and many other languages. The names of basic concepts, as well as almost all numerals, have their origin from the Old English language, for example: life and death, night and day, hot and cold, etc. A large number of verbs, nouns and adjectives come from Old English and Scandinavian languages. (eg Wife, sit, bring, brother, land, happy, wrong, etc.) Having familiarized myself with the works of many scientists in the field of lexicology, I tend to the opinion of those who believed that English cannot be positioned as a language formed with the help of peoples. Indeed, despite the huge number of borrowings, the grammatical structure of the language remains unchanged.

English, like no other, had the opportunity to borrow words due to the fact that Great Britain was constantly in direct contact with neighboring countries, which ultimately led to the spread of foreign words in its territory. However, despite the fact that the language has a huge number of borrowings, modal verbs, conjunctions, adverbs, almost all pronouns and almost all verbs, as well as many nouns, are original words. The influence of a particular language can always be associated with historical factors, such as: various conquests, trade, wars and many others. All these reasons lead to different intensities of the introduction of borrowings, depending on the circumstances prevailing in a particular period of time.

In the course of studying this phenomenon, the conditions and causes of this phenomenon, the conditions for their change, various types and methods of their implementation are of greater interest to researchers. In the modern world, borrowings in general occupy an important place, as one of the main sources of vocabulary development. In this part of the work, we highlight the main stages in the development of the vocabulary, its replenishment, as well as the nature of the relationship between the source language and the borrowing language.

On the term "borrowing", the classification of borrowings.

In this part of the research paper, concepts such as "borrowing" and "speech penetration" will be explained. Borrowing is called an integral element of the language formation process. In the understanding of LP Krysin, borrowing is called "the process of moving various elements from one language to another." This procedure is considered important not only in a social environment, but also in a professional one. Borrowings open up great opportunities for people in one way or another related to any field related to a foreign language. A similar opinion is also found among the authors of the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary.

The number of borrowings is large, but it is still impossible to calculate to within a single word. The reasons for this are the constant growth of foreign words and their endless introduction into the language, as well as the process of assimilation, in connection with which it is rather difficult to establish the origin of the word. This process occurs due to the active perception of foreign words by the borrowing language, because it remakes the word for its most advantageous position in the language system. All phonemes available in one or another borrowed word are replaced by phonemes that are most suitable for auditory perception, the grammatical structure of the word also changes, because when introduced, it is included in the morphological system of the English language. Further, the word is included in the semantic system of the language, and, therefore, can have several meanings overnight or completely lose its original meaning. In the course of borrowing words, pairs of synonyms were formed, that is, a borrowed word and a word that already exists in the language. The collision of these pairs of synonyms sometimes resulted in the so-called struggle with various outcomes. In some cases, both words remained in the language, in others, either borrowing supplanted the original word, or in the opposite order. Often, French borrowings eagerly took root in English, such as the word beorz(now not used) - "mountain", has been replaced by the French word montagne... However, words borrowed many centuries ago have already completely gone through the process of assimilation and, therefore, are not perceived as foreign words.

From the point of view of etymology, the vocabulary of the language is divided into borrowings and original words. Basically, borrowed words come into the language with new concepts and ideas, that is, they name previously unknown things. The borrowing process can be carried out in two ways, namely written and oral. In the event that a word is borrowed orally, assimilation occurs much faster than in the case of a written one. But, despite this, words borrowed in writing retain their grammatical, spelling and phonetic features much longer.

The introduction of borrowings is implemented in most cases independently, as well as with the help of other languages (for example: with the help of Latin, many Greek words came to English).

There are three main ways of introducing borrowings: transcription, tracing and transliteration.

Transcription is a phonetic way of borrowing, i.e. when a word is transferred to another language, its sound form is preserved (French restaurant).
Calculation is a way of borrowing words in which the constituent parts (morphemes) are replaced by their equivalents in the borrowing language (eg Miniskirt "miniskirt", suicide "suicide"). In the process of tracing, parts of the borrowed word are combined in the likeness of a foreign word.
In the case of transliteration, the spelling of the word is borrowed, the letters in the borrowed word are replaced with the letters of a foreign language, and therefore the word begins to be read according to all the rules of the borrowing language (for example: hotel, zebra, sport).

From this we can conclude that many foreign words undergo some changes in the process of borrowing, adapting to the grammatical, phonetic and semantic properties of the language.

According to V. Yu. Rosenzweig, “the terms“ mixing of languages ”and“ mutual influence of languages ”, like the term“ borrowing ”itself, which is often used in relation to the phenomena of contact as a whole, and not only in the field of vocabulary, represent a complex process of linguistic contacts , in which one or the other of two or more languages acts as the “giving” side as opposed to the other, “taking”, or in which both languages “enrich” each other ... ”. In connection with the so-called "enrichment" of languages, a classification of borrowings was formed, the main source of which is, of course, the language from which the borrowed word came. In this process, most languages have their place, but the main role is played by Spanish and French in relation to the modern borrowing process. In ancient times, this role was played by Latin and the Greek language. Languages can also act as intermediaries, which implies intermediate stages between the language that is the main source of borrowing and the borrowing language. These elements are subdivided into groups: word-formative elements, direct borrowing, indirect borrowing, unchangeable phrases and, also, semantic borrowing.

Word-building elements imply a partial borrowing of morphemes. If a morpheme is often used, the morphological structure becomes clear and this morpheme is included in the number of derivational elements of the borrowing language. The most commonly used morphemes from French and Latin, for example: fr. –Ment (arrangement, management), -ance (fragrance, ignorance), -age (courage, heritage); lat. –Tion (relation, derivation); -able (regrettable; unforgettable) and so on;
Direct borrowing can be called one of the easiest ways to introduce words, tk. in this case, words are included in the language without intermediary languages, through written and oral speech;
Indirect borrowing produced through an additional (third) language. As a rule, indirect borrowing was carried out between more distant languages, such as Spanish and Arabic.
Immutable phrases are mainly copied from the language by means of tracing, while retaining their morphological structure (eg: fr. tete-a-tete "one-on-one"). Among such cripples, you can often find phrases from the times of the Soviet Union "house of rest", "palace of culture"
Semantic borrowing. Borrowing new meanings is often transferred into the language and fixed to an already existing concept in the language. Especially quickly semantic borrowings get along in related languages. An example is the word "gift", which meant "ransom" in Old English. Later, under the influence of the Scandinavian languages, where this word had the meaning of "gift", influenced the original meaning and took root in the English language.

Reasons for the penetration of foreign borrowings into the English language.

The study of the reasons for borrowing foreign words excited the minds of many linguists. However, there were no clear boundaries denoting the main reasons. This topic was touched upon more than once in one of the works of L. P. Krysin. According to him, at the beginning of the twentieth century, the need for a name was considered the main causal factor. Many other reasons are also listed - psychological, social, linguistic, the need for the formation of new linguistic forms, the convenience of their use, etc. This phenomenon has a huge number of reasons for its occurrence, they are quite diverse, but, despite this, they are the same for all languages. Among them, there are two main groups: extralinguistic and intralinguistic.

Extra-linguistic reasons for borrowing represent the following aspects:

Development of interethnic contacts, which contributes to the emergence of internationalism. Internationalisms are words that have a similar semantic or sound structure and corresponding meaning (eg: pilot, congress). Basically, the translation of internationalisms is not particularly difficult, sometimes they play the role of so-called "auxiliary" words that facilitate the semantic understanding of the text. They can denote both scientific and political concepts, and concepts that are important in any professional fields.
Socio-psychological: the expression of the meaning of a word, using a unit that does not have the appropriate meaning, in order to create a "prestige effect" (eg: FR. Boutique "a small store of expensive, sometimes exclusive things located in a prestigious area", in the modern English synonym the word “boutique” is the word “shop”).

Intra-linguistic reasons include the following aspects:

The need to name a new phenomenon or object, due to the absence of such in the borrowing language. This reason is the most important because together with the new concept, the word that names it (gondola, ballet) is being introduced into the language.
This aspect is similar to the above, but the difference is that the need for a name is due to an imprecise name for a phenomenon already in the language and culture. The meaning of this aspect is that with the existence of two words (original and borrowed), the English version is considered more general than a foreign language word that has different shades of a given object or phenomenon, which makes it easier to understand.

So, in this part of the scientific work, we found out the main reasons for the penetration of foreign borrowings into the English language, examined the term "borrowing" from different points of view, and also analyzed the classification of borrowings and their main elements.

Traditionally allocated criteria for mastering a foreign language word.

When introduced into a language, foreign borrowings, as a rule, go through the process of assimilation. This process is called the assimilation or assimilation of borrowed words in the phonetic, semantic and grammatical sphere of the language system. The degrees of assimilation (assimilation) can also be different, the reason for this is the different origin of words, as well as the time of their introduction. Stylistically and grammatically foreign words are used according to the rules of the English language. Basically, verbs and nouns that come from other languages get standard suffixes and endings (“-ed”, “-s”).

There are several aspects of the assimilation of lexical units: phonetic, graphic, morphological and semantic.

Phonetic assimilation implies a variable pronunciation of words, i.e. when introduced, the word may remain unchanged or undergo an assimilation process and the sounds of the borrowed word will imitate the pronunciation of English words.

Graphic assimilation strictly adheres to the historical spelling of the word, but in the case of borrowing words from languages with a different spelling of the alphabet, the main essence of graphic assimilation is in reproducing the borrowed word according to the spelling rules of the borrowing language.

Morphological assimilation is the main factor of changes in the structure of a word. Traditionally, a morphologically complex foreign language borrowing, when introduced into a language, undergoes a simplification process and, therefore, begins to be perceived as just a non-derivative word.

And finally, semantic assimilation, which is one of the most difficult aspects. The thing is that in the process of borrowing, only one meaning of the borrowed word enters the English language, which is the basis of the semantic process of assimilation. All further development of the new linguistic unit will move in a different direction, according to all the rules of the language.

Such a difficult phenomenon as borrowing contributes to the appearance of serious changes in the language system, as a result of which more and more new parts of words and words themselves appear, which basically do not distort the language, but endow it with special, previously unknown concepts and phenomena. Hybrid words often appear, which are the combination of two words from different languages into one. There are also exoticisms, barbarisms and ethnic stereotypes mentioned in the next subsection.

Borrowings in English from different languages (Celtic, Latin, French, Greek, Italian, Spanish, Germanic, Russian).

The percentage of borrowings in English is very high (over 70%), most of which are borrowings from French and Latin, which gives us the right to include English in the group of Romano-Germanic languages.

As Danish linguist Otto Jespersen observed, "English is a chain of borrowings" that has resulted in numerous conquests. With each conquest, the English language was more and more enriched with foreign words, therefore conquests are one of the main reasons for the appearance of borrowings. Thus, the English language, formed over the centuries, became what we know it now.

The first conquerors were the Romans even before our era (I-VII centuries BC), who introduced a significant part of the words from Latin into the English language. Due to the fact that the ancient tribes inhabiting the northern part of Europe traded with the Roman Empire, a considerable number of words related to trade appeared in the English language. In addition, many scientific words were borrowed from literature, various works and scriptures. Also, the Roman preachers included in the language many words associated with Christianity and religion in the general sense. The adoption of Christianity in the 6th century had a significant impact on Britain, which contributed to the introduction of the Latin alphabet, the opening of monastic schools and the development of writing in the Latin alphabet. Many words that came to English from Latin are also borrowed for Latin itself. The main source of borrowing was the Greek language, therefore, in the English language there are some words from the Greek language. During the Renaissance, a large number of words related to art, literature, science and creativity were introduced. During this period, the English language borrowed many scientific words, which was unusual at the time. At the same time, many words were borrowed from the French language, which also had great importance during the development of the English language.

Words that come from the French language are usually distributed according to different areas. Basically, this includes the sphere of public administration, science (medicine), the army and military life. Of course, in addition to this, in the English language there are a considerable number of words from the sphere of everyday life and words denoting general concepts. The influence of the French language on English turned out to be quite powerful, which provoked the removal of some words from the language. The displaced words were replaced by lexical units from the French language.

It is a well-known fact that borrowed words often undergo various types of transformation (phonetic, semantic, morphological). The French language was no exception, and in this regard, some words that had an emphasis on the first syllable changed their stress to subsequent syllables (more often to the last). In addition, the penetration of French words caused a certain dissonance. The fact is that the difference between some words was only stylistic, and therefore more synonyms appeared ("to understand", "to comprehend" - to understand).

Scandinavian borrowings have deep roots since the 9th century, thanks to which the language has become richer and brighter, more expressive and rich. English has been enriched by various place names and names. The reason for this was the Scandinavian conquests that took place in the 9th-10th centuries. Quite a large number of words from the Scandinavian languages were deposited, especially in the field of agriculture, domestic life and trade. In addition, the reason for the appearance of these borrowings can be considered similar elements between Old English and Scandinavian languages.

The Russian language also did not stand aside during the formation of the English language. Regular trade and economic contacts contributed to the introduction of Russian words into the English vocabulary. The earliest borrowings from Russian appeared in the 16th century. The main layer of borrowings includes geographical names, job titles, household items and household items. In the 19th century, words of a political nature began to appear in the vocabulary of the English language, which to this day remain part of this language rich in borrowings. In addition, during the Soviet Union, the vocabulary of English was replenished with the so-called Sovietisms, which were directly entrenched in the vocabulary of the language in connection with the rich history of the Soviet State.

Foreign language borrowings in English texts.

Foreign words can often act as a transmitter of an “alien” culture or, so-called, exotic words. This group includes words depicting the culture of the country, state. The role of such words is very important in the media sphere, due to the fact that the language simply lacks this or that concept, phenomenon or name. Such words reflect the mentality of the country, traditions, customs, in other words, they seem to convey to us a piece of foreign culture. The following subgroups can be attributed to exotic words:

- names of drinks and dishes;

- names of places of residence;

- traditional clothing (Arabic: Hijab);

- names of musical instruments;

- customs and traditions;

Also, euphemisms are used in English texts, which is also one of the ways to use foreign words. Euphemism is a type of allegory used in case of the author's desire to reproduce a particular concept not directly, but veiled. An example is the following situation:

She is pregnant. -She’ s pregnant. = She’ s expecting a baby.

Often, euphemisms are used when information conveyed directly may sound incorrect or embarrass a person.

The next type of use of foreign words implies ethnic stereotypes. In this case, the understanding of this term is considered as an idea of an ethnic group, of the culture of a people, the concept of an ethnic stereotype is associated with stable stereotypes and associations. This includes such aspects as personal differences of people of different nations, spheres of life, psychological characteristics and traits characteristic of people of a particular nation.

To take French leave - rus. Leave in english

Rome wasn’t built in a day - Moscow was not built right away

Also one of the most common types of borrowing used in the media is barbarism. Barbarisms are words that have a place to be in the language, however, are socially unrecognized. In other words, such words are perceived only as alien, as a violation of lexical linguistic norms. Barbarisms cannot be said with certainty that they are part of the vocabulary of the English language. They are rather fickle, ephemeral and can disappear as well as they appear.

Basically, barbarisms are used to describe the life and culture of the people from which these words came. The main distinguishing feature of barbarisms is the fact that they are perceived as strangers. In scientific speech, such words are used quite rarely, although for the journalistic style such words are quite appropriate.

Conclusion

Thus, we can conclude that borrowing as a process is quite versatile, but this process is an integral part of the formation of the English language. In addition, in this research work, methods of introducing borrowings, their classification were considered and borrowings from various languages were analyzed. The reasons for the emergence of foreign words in the vocabulary of the English language were also clarified and their meaning in the press and public life was determined. The reasons for the introduction of borrowings lie both on the surface and within the language system. The need for this process is determined by historical factors due to developing international contacts. Borrowings have filled almost all areas of the English language: everyday, scientific, political, sports and economic.

I would like to point out the fact that the impact of some languages on English is still not well understood. However, this topic is developing rather quickly and enriched in the field of linguistics. At the moment, we have studied all the main points in the development of the theory of the English language and it is safe to say that borrowing is one of the most important stages in this long process. The modern vocabulary of the English language has changed and replenished over the centuries and thanks to this it has become richer and more expressive, without losing its true qualities. After reading the works of linguists on this topic, one can agree with the opinion of those who did not consider English to be the language of international origin. The thing is that, despite the huge number of lexical borrowings, the grammatical structure has remained unchanged.

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