What do the cards show us? ALL European maps of the world (except for a few) before 1390 are so-called maps of the T-O type, depicting only the Mediterranean, the adjacent territories and, in part, the Black Sea region. What was beyond these territories was not known at that time. And this despite the fact that allegedly since the middle of the XIII century, many travelers and clergy of the Catholic Church of various ranks ply between Europe and the capital of China, Khanbalik! Only from the beginning of the 15th century, lands east of the Caspian Sea appear on the maps.

I will be asked: what about, for example, the famous maps of the Pisigano brothers and the Catalan Atlas of 1375? However, this is what Leo Bagrov writes in his encyclopedic book "History of Cartography" about three maps of the world of 1442-1453 by the Venetian Giovanni Leardo: "The three available maps are similar in outline, but in later of them there are more geographical names; The latter is practically indistinguishable from a typical Catalan map, at least as regards the names of individual places.The general network of rivers, lakes, mountains, etc. is also borrowed from Catalan maps. For this reason, the Leardo maps are 80-100 years behind of his time and are considered together with the maps of Dalorto, Pisigano, and the Catalan atlas of 1375. " I translate the above into Russian: the maps of Dalorto, Pisigano and the Catalan atlas of 1375 are drawn in the technique and manner of the 20s - 50s of the 15th century, but for some unknown reason they are dated 80-100 years earlier.

Fig 1. Catalan World Atlas 1375

Many maps do not have any dates at all and are approximately dated. Here is another quote from Bagrov, this time about the map of Albertine de Virga: "As follows from the signature on the map, its author was a native of Venice, but we know nothing more about him. The last digit [of the year of manufacture] is erased, only 141 are left. ; it is believed that the missing figure was from 1 to 5, so that the map dates from 1411-1415, although the table of Easter dates given on it begins with 1301. If you compare this map with the world map in the Medici atlas, you can notice their close similarity; there is an assumption that the Medici atlas should be attributed to the beginning of the 15th century, and not the date (1351) from which its calendar begins. "

Fig. 2 Map of de Virga.

This is how the cards are dated.

I will also note that the clearly dated Freducci d "Ancone card from 1497 is just a cast copy of the Catalan atlas. When I saw it for the first time, I confused them altogether. It can be said that this card, if not issued by the same master, is 100% made in one workshop after a short period of time.The only difference between it and the Catalan atlas is that there are no territories east of the Caspian Sea on the Freducci map, and the flags and outlines of the main cities depicted on the maps are different. fell into decay) and changed affiliation (or changed heraldry).

And the dating of the Catalan atlas in 1375, by and large, contradicts the traditional version of history and common sense. The atlas shows Janibek Khan (with a corresponding inscription that it is he). The time of his reign is 1342-1357. But if the atlas appeared only 20 years after his death, why not later? I would not be very surprised if the real date of publication of the Catalan atlas turned out to be 1475 (more on that below).

Rice. 3 Janibek Khan

And one more note.

Viewing the maps of the 15th-16th centuries allows us to draw an unambiguous conclusion: at that time the climate on Earth was SIGNIFICANTLY different from the present one. On the maps, we see things that are absolutely unthinkable from our point of view. Greenland is ice-free, with many cities and towns. But now it is impossible to live without steam heating in Greenland. The entire Arabian Peninsula is dotted with a dense network of rivers. Full-flowing rivers in the Sahara. Many maps show the coastline of Antarctica (discovered in 1820 by F.F.Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev), there is already Australia with settlements (discovered in the 17th century). The famous maps of Oronteus Finet of 1531 and 1532 depict Antarctica in detail without ice, with mountain ranges now hidden under a kilometer-long layer of ice. On the maps of the 15th century in Siberia, we see the most densely populated cities of the planet at that time. Judging by the maps, in the period of the 60-80s of the 15th century, some event took place on Earth, as a result of which the earth's face changed beyond recognition.

Rice. 4 Map of Oronteus Fine

Fra Mauro's famous 1459 map appears to have been the most recent map to reflect reality prior to these changes. It is on it in central and northern Siberia that the largest cities of that time are accurately depicted - the capital of Katay and the Great Khan, the city of Khanbalik (supposedly the current Beijing), the city of Quancu (Kansai at Marco Polo, the Heavenly City) and others. However, this map is drawn as a planisphere - a circle world. And the further from the center of this circle, the more distortion, the more difficult it is to determine where these cities really were. And it is also quite possible that the Siberian rivers then had other channels (more on this below). And yet, we can say with full confidence that the capital of Katay was then located somewhere in the middle reaches of the Ob. The possible location of the city is from Surgut to Biysk.

Fig. 5 Fra Mauro map of 1459

So Fra Mauro 1459 is the last card. After its appearance, the following metamorphosis takes place: Khanbalyk, apparently, disappears physically, and on the maps it gradually moves from the Ob region to the east over 150 years. By the middle of the 16th century, on the maps of Mercator, this city generally bifurcates, one remains on the Ob, the other, under a slightly changed name, turns out to be in the Far East approximately in the Okhotsk region. The names of the countries are also bifurcated: Kitai remains on the Ob, and Cathay leaves for Yakutia and Chukotka, and Karakorum is generally transferred to the Arctic Circle. And this despite the fact that Beijing is also on the maps and, naturally, is located at its current location. Obviously, the cartographers retained some knowledge about the location of the disappeared capital somewhere in the Ob region, but as Siberia was conquered by Muscovy, with its movement to the east, since the city still "did not meet", and it seems to be as it should be, cartographers were forced to draw it together with the river on which it was located, all the way east and east, in areas unexplored at that time. Until the very beginning of the 17th century, no one came up with the idea to identify the legendary Katay, the country of the Great Khan, described by Marco Polo and other travelers, with China, and Khanbalik with Beijing. On all maps until the middle of the 15th century, these are different countries, separated by many thousands of kilometers.

Rice. 6 Afanasy Nikitin

By the way, Afanasy Nikitin in his notes in the middle of the 15th century wrote: "... and from Pevgu to Chini and to Machin it takes a month to go, all that walking is by sea. And from Chini to Kytaa it is dry for 6 months." Six months of the caravan journey! And so it was believed until 1607, when Benedict Goes makes a journey from Kashmir to Western China. Then, obviously, the Jesuits, who actually ruled the China, come up with a brilliant idea, I am not afraid of this word, to impudently appropriate China, by and large, a country that was wild even before the beginning of the 20th century, the history and achievements of that great state, which was gradually disappearing from the maps.

Notes by Marco Polo, allegedly about the 90s of the XIII century, first appeared in Europe in German in 1477. They tell about Khan Kubilai, the last Mongol khan in China. And this time of the appearance of the notes (50-70s of the 15th century) is most likely the real time of Khubilai's reign.

Rice. 7 Khubilai accepts gifts from the Venetians. Illustration for the "Book" by Marco Polo. Master from Busico. Around 1412

We read Ibn Fadlallah al-Omari: "Between Bulgar and Akikul, he says, there is a distance of 20 days of ordinary walking. Behind Akikul, he [follow] Siberia and Ibir, then the land of Chulyman follows them. When a traveler travels from Chulyman to the East, he comes to the city of Karakorum, and then to the land of Hatay, in which the Great Kan is [one] of the Chinese lands. Franks and to the inhabitants of the Western Sea. At present, I say, Kan's place of residence is Khanbalyk. The Siberian and Chulym countries, he continued, adjoin the Bashkyrs ... Its [Kipchak] length from the waters of the Irtysh - it is larger than the Egyptian Nile and flows over most of the lands Khatayskikh - to Istanbul, and this length goes a little further to the country called Immejd. The Land of Nemezhd, he said, lies in the middle between the lands of the Russians and Franks. The merchants of our countries, Noman said, do not go further than the Bulgar city; the Bulgar merchants dyat to Chulyman, and Chulymansky merchants travel to the lands of Yugorsk, which are on the outskirts of the North. "

Let me remind you that Chulyman used to be the name of the Kama River in the Turkic language from its source to the confluence of the Belaya River. So everything is correct - Karakorum is located east of the Kama, and to the east it is already located Katay.

In the Tatar folk epic "Idegei" there are such words that belong to Janika, Tokhtamysh's wife:

Four parts - do you understand, my khan?

Irtysh, Yaik, Idil, Chulman

Cut the edge into four pieces.

It describes the boundaries of the lands of Tokhtamysh at that time - the Irtysh, Ural, Volga and Kama rivers.

On the map of N. Witsen - S. Loputsky in 1674, the Ob and Yenisei rivers are called China, and the water area of ​​the Kara Sea is called the China Sea. The desire of the British to pave the way to China through the Ob in the 16th century becomes understandable: "... sailing to China by the Northeast Passage is very convenient and easy ... because behind the island of Vaigach and Novaya Zemlya there is a large bay ... into which large rivers flow into , which must be irrigating the whole of China ... they can be penetrated by large ships into the very depths of the country. " This statement belongs to the greatest cartographer of the Middle Ages, Gerard Mercator.

Rice. 9 Witsen's map

Bayi in his 23rd letter to Voltaire wrote: "The Tatars say that once their ancestors, sailing on Lake Kytai, from where the Ob River originates, they saw in the distance majestic buildings, partly flooded." According to archaic legends of the Khanty (formerly known as Ostyaks) and Nenets (formerly Samoyeds), in the places of their settlement along the banks of the middle reaches of the Ob and Irtysh in ancient times there were cities covered with copper domed roofs.

Rice. ten

In different languages, Khanbalyk was called differently: Kanbaluk, Kabalut, Gambalu, Kanbalu, Kambalut, Garibalu, Kam-bakluk, Kambaluk, Shamblay. In Russian - Shambala. For several centuries, various mystics have been unsuccessfully searching for this city in Tibet, Chin and Mongolia.

They are looking in the wrong place where they can be found. The Portuguese Jesuit missionary Jacques Cabral wrote in 1625: "Shambhala is by no means China, but what is marked on our maps as Great Tartary." Among the persistent seekers of Shambhala is our famous traveler Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky (1839-1888). He adhered to the northern version of the location of Shambhala, bringing it closer, first of all, to the Polar Land of Happiness. "... A very interesting legend concerns Shambhala - an island located on the edge of the North Sea, - wrote Przhevalsky. - There is a lot of gold, and wheat reaches an amazing height. Poverty is unknown in this country; indeed, milk and honey flow in this country."

On the maps of the first half of the 15th century, Khanbalyk is located in the LOW LANDS of a very large river, practically on the shores of the Arctic Ocean. At the same time, other large cities are located to the east of it on other rivers (and most of them on the shores of the Arctic Ocean). Fra Mauro's Khanbalik is also located in the lower reaches of a very large river, and to the east of this river there is another very large river (or, more precisely, across one river - there is a smaller river between them) called QUIAM - i.e. HEM, KEM or HAM. The most ancient name of the Yenisei is "Kem" or "Khem", "big river" in translation. The origin of this word is traced back to the ancient Indian "whom" - water. Let me remind you that the sources and tributaries of the Yenisei are called Kyzyl-Khem, Balyktyg-Khem, Kham-Sary, Khemchik, Biy-Khem (Big Yenisei), Ka-Khem (Small Yenisei). Biy-Khem and Ka-Khem merge and form Ulug-Khem (literally great or great Khem).

Rice. 11 Enisey

On old maps, Katai-China is a territory that starts almost from Central Asia and goes to the Arctic Ocean. Let's look at the names of the Siberian rivers: Katun, Kotuy, Kheta (separately by itself, as well as Bolshaya and Malaya), Ket, Khatanga, Kotuykan, Golden Kitat. These hydronyms clearly have a common origin and make it possible to unmistakably determine the true location of the legendary Katai-China - this is the territory located to the left and right of the imaginary line drawn from the sources of the Ob to Taimyr. It is very, very possible that the local people of the local Kets (this is a self-name, "Ket" is a person; then is China a country of people, a populated area?) Are the descendants of the Katai-Chinese.

Fig. 12 Ket

The language of this tiny people (about 1084 people according to the 1989 census), the bulk of which lives in the middle reaches of the Yenisei, and most of all the Kets in the Turukhansk Territory, is absolutely unique for these places. It has nothing to do with the languages ​​of the surrounding peoples. Structurally and morphologically, it is close to the language of the TIBETS, BIRMANTS, GEORGIANS, BASKS and NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. Transport reindeer herding by the Kets was borrowed from the Nenets, but part of the people (a group of Zemshaks in the lower reaches of the Podkamennaya Tunguska) never adopted it. That is, initially the chum salmon were not reindeer breeders, but, it seems, because of the climate, they must have been, like all the surrounding peoples.

Rice. 13 Modern chum salmon

Remezov has a curious message for 1713: "The Chinese embassy traveling through the Siberian cities to Moscow, in which the main ambassador was Tulishen of the Mungal breed, as it was in Yeniseisk, such a rumor spread falsely: the ambassadors, as if, asked the voivode for permission to bow to Krasnoyarsk district to the coffins of their ancestors ... ". It turns out that these "mungals" of Yenisei-Krasnoyarsk origin ?!

Christopher Columbus once sailed to Katay, to the Great Khan. Andres Bernaldes, chaplain of the Grand Inquisitor and Archbishop of Seville, Diego de Desa, the closest adviser to Queen Isabella, wrote in his History of Catholic Kings:

“Thus, Admiral [Columbus], following from the east and leaving the land of Juana on his right hand, set off on a journey, suggesting to go around it, and then go further to see the object of his desires, and he wanted to find the region and the city of Cathay. that Katay is the possession of the great khan and that this country can be found in the direction [where he went].

This is the richest land in the world, which can be read about from Juan de Mandeville and others who have seen this country; gold and silver are there in the greatest abundance, as well as all kinds of metals and silk. But all the inhabitants of Katay are pagans and warlocks, people of a subtle mind, knowledgeable in all crafts, and chivalrous. Much has been written about them, worthy of surprise, judging by the story of the noble English gentleman Juan de Mandeville, who went there, saw the great Khan and spent some time in his domain. And whoever wishes to know for sure all this, let him read about it in his book, in chapters 85, 87 and 88, and he will be convinced that the city of Katay is very rich and famous and that the whole region is called the same. And the city of Katay and the region of Katay are part of Asia, which lies close to the lands of Presbyter John of India, on the side that dominates in the north and faces to the north. And that's why the admiral was looking for her in the north.

So, it took a long time to find this country, because the great khan in ancient times was the ruler of the Tatars. And the great Tataria is located on the outskirts of Rusha and Bahia, and we can say that the great Tataria begins from Hungary [Ugra], and that if you look from Andalusia, its lands will be located in the direction where the sun rises in the month with the longest days in year, and in this way (to the east) merchants usually go to that land. "

Today we will talk about old Russian maps. The post will be short. Simply because, in general, they simply do not exist. I have seen thousands, if not tens of thousands, of foreign maps from this period. The stranger is the situation with our cards.
The first Russian atlas, which is in the public domain, is Kirilov's Atlas, created between 1724 and 1737. (Download link) The atlas is not complete, unfortunately, there are not maps of all regions and localities of our country. But this is essentially the beginning of Russian cartography, as strange as it sounds.
There is, however, the so-called Drawing Book of Siberia (1699-1701) by Remezov. (Download link) As well as the "Chorographic Book of Siberia" (1697-1711). Here are just their dating and the relevance of reality, I personally raise a lot of questions. As an example, I cite a map of Perm the Great from the Drawing Book. All pictures are clickable up to large sizes.

These are the cards drawn by children in grade 1. The north is here on the right (but this is very conditional). In general, in his works, Remezov clearly did not bother with orienting his "maps" to the cardinal points. From map to map, they are constantly jumping on the sides of the sheet. Such concepts as scale, proportion are absent from the word at all. At the same time, in the West, maps are already being created that are almost close in accuracy to modern ones.
User palexy one excerpt:
I have a map of D.G. Messeshmidt of 1721 (a section of the Ob tributaries of the Tom and Ini) which almost completely copies the map Remezova... The date of Messerschmidt's expedition is indisputable since the documents on it were piled up, but here is an excerpt from the diary cited by Nevlyanskaya: “Captain Tabbert went today with the cornet Iorist to one artist named Remezov, from whom he saw a map of Tomsk district drawn with oil paints; he skimmed through it, but found nothing in it that would be portrayed correctly". (Novlyanskaya M.G. Philip Johann Stralenberg. M .; L., 1966. S. 36.) .

Well, finally, on this map there are no cities and cities that I have discovered. Hundreds of foreign cards have them, but Remezov does not. Peter the First in 1708 They are mentioned in. But in fairness, I must say that it was on this map that I found the Molozhek River,.

There is such a Drawing of the Siberian land, drawn up in 1667 under the leadership of the Tobolsk governor, stolnik Pyotr Ivanovich Godunov. From S. U. Remezov's service drawing book (Manuscript Department of the State Public Library named after M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, Hermitage Collection, No. 237, sheet 31, spread).

The north is down here. Of course, they got excited about Remezov's drawing book. As I already wrote, there was no orientation to the cardinal points at all.
And another version of the same map:

There is a more detailed version of this map (I wanted to write a perfect one, but this is not so), which is also attributed to Remezov. If you look from the point of view of the absence of any scales and proportions, then yes, Remezov agrees. But the clear presence of the cardinal points suggests otherwise.

Looking for materials on the city of Velikaya Perm I came across a small fragment of a map from the server of the Ural State University , which is designated as - Map of Perm the Great. XVI century Reproduction.

Again, the North is down here. And the city of Perm is. There he is, under the word "Cheremis". Unfortunately, we could not get the whole map. And from where they dug it there and did not find it.
I saw several more similar cards on the network, but they are too muddy and terribly primitive. Therefore, I did not even bother to save them.
Now comes the fun part.

Here it is in full size:

Do you feel the difference? Heaven and Earth with Remezov's drawings. Even the parallels are correct. Unfortunately, the resolution of the map is not very high and many small inscriptions are not visible at all. But you can learn something.
Belgorod Horde on the territory of modern Odessa region of Ukraine:

Little Tartaria (exactly what Tartaria) in the Black Sea steppes.

And to the right of it, separated by a border, is an area called the Yurts of the Don Cossacks, and it stretches right up to the Volga, most likely.

By the way, I will give a part of one map from 1614 from my post:.

Those. a hundred years earlier, these two areas were a single state. And precisely from his "Tatar yoke".
By the way, the Cossacks used to be called the Tatars. I have about this. There, at the end, it is directly written that the Little Russian Cossacks live on the lands where the Tatar Cossacks used to live. Or maybe they were their descendants. Who knows.

That's all.

And finally, the Book: Ancient Russian Hydrography,: Containing a description of the Moscow state of rivers, channels, lakes, wells, and what cities and tracts are along them and at what distance. - St. Petersburg: Published by Nikolai Novikov: [Type. Acad. sciences], 1773 ... Now it is better known under the name "The Book of the Big Drawing. This is the same map of the 16th, early 17th century, only handwritten. Actually, it is possible that Remezov drew his drawings precisely from such texts."
By the way, there is an interesting passage in the preface:

That's exactly the same situation with us with maps. They just weren't there. More precisely, probably all the same were. But either they were destroyed, or they lie deep in the archives. Simply because there is a completely different history of Russia. Where were the cities rediscovered by me,. By the way, the latter, but this did not prevent contemporary historians from stubbornly repeating that he did not exist.

Yesterday I was told that as many as 10,000 old maps are kept in the archives of the RAS Library. I do not yet know exactly what kind of maps they are, ours or foreign, and of what centuries, but I really hope that there will be Russian old maps of the 16-17 and early 18 centuries. My friends are now trying to scan all this and put it on the network. God grant that they would succeed. And then we will learn a little more truth about the history of that time.

Addition :

Today we will look at two Russian maps of the early 18th century from the archives of the Russian National Library. Although the word "let's see" is very arbitrary here. I have a very strong desire to put the entire leadership of this library against the wall and shoot them with a heavy machine gun. They are laborers, not scientists.

Let's see firstA map of the hemispheres of 1713, published by the Civil Printing House of V.O. Kipriyanova... The card is large and the resolution of the picture, on the contrary, is small. Therefore, it is fashionable to watch only very large records. On click, it will open in a higher resolution. But something can be pulled out of it. Pay attention to Antarctica. She's gone. I somehow specially looked at such atlases of Western cartographers. Antarctica is not there either until the beginning of the 19th century, when our sailors discovered it. Therefore, if you see an old map where Antarctica is present, then you should know that it was made in the second half of the 19th century. Or later.
I would like to draw your attention to the high degree of skill of the then Russian cartographers. ... And I repeat my thought - these are not maps, but children's drawings at the elementary school level.

And one more map by the same author: The geographic globe, that is to say, the land-descriptive one from "shows the four parts of the earth, Africa, Asia, America, and Europe, inhabited below, and even we are from everywhere about" emlet. By command in the civil printing house of the Lord's Summer: 1707. In the reigning City of Moscow, by the Vain of Vasily Kiprianov. Under the auspices of His Excellency Mr. Lieutenant General Jacob Willimovich Bruce.
Its here at this link more or less can be considered. But after that I want to strangle the local programmers with my bare hands, for a long time. You can't drag the entire map out of there, so I took a few screenshots from there. And on them we are waiting for several interesting discoveries. Namely, the word - "Sarmat" right under the letter M of the word Moscow. And above it is visibleOcean Sarmatian.

Here is another excerpt Scythian was added to the Sarmatian Ocean. To the right of the name "M. Moskovskoe". I did not understand what it means. The word TARTARIA is written in big letters. Through "r". Slightly above the beginning of this word, the names are visible - Scythia. But above the letter "I" in the word "Siberia" the river "Tatar" is visible. Above the word "MOSCOW" it seems to be written -Sarmatia. Again, why is Russia or Rus not written? But what the word "Asinsky" means is not clear.

Oh, it was not in vain that Lomonosov wrote in his book:. A short Russian chronicler with a genealogy, St. Petersburg: Under the Imp. Acad. Sciences, 1760.

And lastly, Description of Europe. The truth is very poorly visible. Gaul is written instead of France. There is also some kind of Dacia. Poland is written without a soft sign. At the very end, it seems, it is written to Ellad. For information ... But Russia is here. And she, as I understand it, is in European Moscow and Tartary, as well as in Turkiye. Or are these separate states on the continent?

There is a very interesting line in the description:
Drawings: over the hemispheres, the coat of arms of the Russian Empire against the background of an ermine mantle supported by archangels with swords in their hands; framed by the mantle, figures of Mars, Apollo, banners and other military paraphernalia;
And here they are. And this is far from an isolated case. By name ... And it's all very good to lay down in mine , which we called simply - the Golden Woman.

If someone can pull out the whole card from here in more or less good resolution, I will be very grateful.

Supplement: The world is not without kind people and thanks to a respected prostoyoleg we can see the whole map with you. The truth is in the same not very high resolution.

Addition.

And these are separate files.

The midnight ocean is cool.

Strange, yes, the Adriatic Sea or the Western Ocean?

And here is Ocean Devkalisky. In general, before, the sea and the ocean were called, as it seems to me, slightly different types of water area.

Addition .

The National Library of Russia, St. Petersburg, is slowly digitizing its collections. And even puts them out for everyone to see.
P. Picart of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania drawing / By the decree of his most sovereign imperial majesty, Peter Picart worked in Moscow; [Cartouche eng. A. Shkhonebek]. - Moscow: Armory, ... But the map itself was accurately drawn much earlier. Kiev on it is still part of Lithuania, while according to the official history it became part of the Moscow state in 1667. Moreover, I have a strong feeling that in Moscow it was only engraved and created in the same principality of Lithuania, in the middle of the 17th century.

Opens on click in high resolution.

There are a lot of unknown place names. Crimea is written here as Tartaria. As on the Russian map of the end of the 17th century from my main post. And only in the 18th century Tartaria began to be called Tataria. Pay attention to Crimea, except for Kafa and Perekop, not a single familiar name. the sea turns out to be formerly called the Eastern Lake.

Notice how Koenigsberg is called on this map. I went to Wiki and found an amazing text there:
For a long time, starting from the 13th century, the castle and the area around it have been mentioned under the name of Korolevets (Korolevets) or Korolevits in various Russian sources: chronicles, books, atlases. In Russia, this name was widely used before Peter I and, occasionally, in a later period, up to the beginning of the 20th century, including in fiction, for example, in the texts of M. Saltykov-Shchedrin. However, after Peter I and before the renaming in 1946, the Russians more often used the German version..
Heh, it was not in vain that I argued in my investigation that the Slavs lived there.

In general, if you study and compare the map with the official history, then there will be more than a dozen pages of list of non-connections. Well, this is a trivial matter for our history.

Addition :

There was such a city as Byzantium. Here is his plan

The plan of Constantinople or Tsar Grad like the formerly popularized Byzantium, anciently Vigos was conquered by Muhammad the second of the Lord's summer 1453 in the month of May on the 29th day] / [Drawn by Prince Dimitri Cantemir]; Grydor. Alexy Zubov in San [kt] P [eter] burg. - St. Petersburg: [Petersburg Printing House],.

V ... The French were not too lazy and sorted them all. Even the plans of Konigsberg are. Well, of Ukraine, of course. And there are several dozen maps of various localities of Russia, drawn, judging by the titles, in 1724-1729 by our cartographers. True, in English. Well, that's okay. The main thing here is that until now, some of the earliest maps of areas were considered Kirilov's maps, 1722-1731 ... They are there, by the way, too, partly. there is. And here is a completely new cartographic material, still unseen by anyone. And there I found the town of Staraya Rezan.

The north is here on the left, which is one of the signs, as I understand it, of the maps of the 17th century. Already at 18 it became the rule to orient maps of specific areas to the north. And before that, cartographers drew them, to whom it is more convenient. The most vivid example is Remizov's maps. There the north "walks" in a circle just chaotically. You will break your brains while you understand what and how is drawn on a particular map. In general, Russian maps of the 17th century, for the most part, are oriented to the south. Like a map of Siberia and the Far East by the same Remezov. At least he is credited with this card.
As for Europe, I will give an example from my old posts - ... There, the north is also not static. years, everything settled down and adopted a modern framework.
I have a very reasonable suspicion that all the maps that we now know were made not earlier than the end of the 17th century. True, according to the old originals, which by that time were simply dilapidated and worn out. Well, some of course were simply forged in the 18th century. 19th centuries. This can be seen from the correct proportions and contours of the terrain. When you look at Russian maps, pay attention to two things. The Caspian should be round and not elongated. And in the Crimea, the Kerch region should be, as it were, chopped off and not stretched to the left, as it is now.

So we see the cities of Kolomna and Kashira. Further along the Oka river, the city of Pereslavl-RI amZanskaya. And behind him is Old Retake Please note that the old name contains the letter "e". Somewhere before the beginning of the 18th century, we almost did not have the letter "I". Therefore, there was, among other things, Eroslavl.
The town of Staraya Rezanj has a complicated history. At first it was destroyed at the end of the 16th century by the Tatars, then it existed, along with the new Rezany, as a small village. But already at the beginning of the 18th century it expanded to a city. Pay attention to the city icon and a footnote to the map. In this form it existed somewhere until the middle of the 18th century and then disappeared again. The authorities announced that it was destroyed by Batu in the 13th century, and in this format it still exists as an archaeological monument. But there you can still see pieces of temples from the 18th century.
And in 1781, Catherine II, renamed Pereslavl-Ryazan into simply Ryazan, which still exists today. Thanks to her for that. Otherwise, the toponym could have gone into history almost without a trace, like the city of Bulgar and Bulgaria. And then Batu, he is like Shurik, you can blame everything on him.

This is an addition to my post. In short, they are practically nonexistent. Everything begins only in the 18th century. And before that there was almost emptiness and complete darkness, as well as the complete dominance of foreign cartographers. But, slowly, Russian maps and even small atlases appear. Here is such an atlas. I want to introduce. I will not write anything special, I will just post it in good resolution. And you enjoy it.

The National Library of Russia, St. Petersburg, is slowly digitizing its collections. And even puts them out for everyone to see .That's where I saw such a thing as: Zubov A. New and reliable all Europe map = Europe / Gryd. Alexey Zubov. [and] P. Picard. - Moscow: Armory Chamber, Workshop of P. Picart, ... The link allows you to watch everything online.
But, apparently, the map was only published, possibly anew, at the beginning of the 18th century. Judging by the way the Kama river, the Vyatka river and some other features are drawn, I can clearly say that these are maps from somewhere in the middle of the 17th century. The more valuable is the information that is on them.

Link to download the atlas in pdf format.

And these are separate files.

The midnight ocean is cool.

Strange yes, the Atlantic Sea or the Western Ocean?

General history. History of Modern Times. Grade 7 Burin Sergei Nikolaevich

§ 19. Political map of Europe in the 18th century

New features in the foreign policy of European countries

In Europe, the 17th century was rich in turbulent events: the English Revolution, the Thirty Years' War, the military rivalry between England and the Netherlands, France and Spain ... stability on the continent and in the world in general. At the same time, the most powerful states naturally felt a desire to designate their advantage not only in the sphere of economy and trade, but also in new colonial conquests, expansion of their zones of influence, etc. At the same time, in contrast to the Middle Ages, when wars began and seizures were carried out by the right of the strong, in modern times the concepts and practice of international law began to strengthen. Even strong powers could no longer base their actions on the "principle" of the Wolf from the fable of I. A. Krylov: "You are to blame for the fact that I want to eat." Whatever the true goals of the state in wars, conquests, etc., it needed to create a legal basis for its actions.

That is why in the XVIII century. dominated by the so-called dynastic wars, which were formally waged for the approval of the throne of this or that country of the next "legitimate" dynasty or "legitimate" claimant. With a strong desire, it was not so difficult to find a reason for justifying the right to the throne. Suffice it to recall, for example, the unlucky Duke of Monmouth, and even more so William III of Orange. And yet the desire of the conflicting parties to give their actions the appearance of legitimacy was a very significant phenomenon. In relations between European states, principles were established that subsequently led to the triumph of international law.

Spanish ambassadors at Versailles invite the grandson of Louis XIV - Philip of Anjou to the Spanish throne

In the XVIII century. the former Franco-Spanish and Franco-Dutch rivalry faded into the background. It was replaced by a long struggle between England and France, under the sign of which the entire period of the 18th - early 19th centuries passed. And enmity arose at the end of the 17th century, when England joined the alliance of states that fought against France. In the XVIII century. The Anglo-French rivalry for domination in Europe largely determined the development of all international relations.

What, in your opinion, was the basis of what began at the end of the 17th century. Anglo-French rivalry (apart from specific wars and other conflicts)?

War of Spanish Succession and its results

Although the Spanish Habsburgs in the XVI-XVII centuries. lost the northern provinces of the Netherlands and ceded a number of territories to France, their possessions by the beginning of the 18th century. were still huge. In addition to the south of the Netherlands and Italian lands, Spain still held vast colonies in America.

Charles II, the last of the Spanish Habsburgs, died in 1700. He had no children, but a month before his death, the king, under pressure from the French, bequeathed his throne to the grandson and heir of Louis XIV Philip of Anjou: he was also the grandson of a Spanish princess. Therefore, in the future, the unification of the thrones of Spain and France could take place. Such an outcome of the case could only suit the French.

In this situation, the desire to establish a balance of power immediately worked. The Austrian Habsburgs also nominated their claimant for the vacated throne - the grandson of the previous Spanish king. But Louis XIV has already sent his own grandson to Spain, declaring: "No more Pyrenees!" And of course, it would not have been difficult for France to subjugate a weakened Spain.

Battle of the War of the Spanish Succession

But together with Austria, England, the Netherlands, Denmark, Portugal and a number of German states came out against the French. The War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) began, engulfing a large part of continental Europe. Almost simultaneously with it, another war, the Northern War (1700-1721), was going on in eastern Europe. In it, Russia, in alliance with Denmark and the Elector of Saxony (who was also the king of Poland), fought against Sweden.

Thus, these two wars actually became the second all-European war (after the Thirty Years). In the Northern War, Russia won a landslide victory, which significantly strengthened its position in Europe. And in the War of the Spanish Succession, the arrogant French king barely escaped defeat. As a result, Philip of Anjou was allowed to remain on the Spanish throne, but only on the condition that he renounced his rights to the French throne.

The signing of the Peace of Utrecht, which ended the War of the Spanish Succession

So the long-standing dream of all the kings of the Bourbon dynasty to unite France and Spain collapsed. Spain itself suffered great damage in the war. Almost all of the Spanish possessions in Italy, as well as the southern Netherlands, went to the Austrian Habsburgs. England got the Spanish fortress of Gibraltar? R, which "blocked" the way from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic. The British also received a monopoly right to trade in black slaves, exported from Africa to the Spanish and other colonies in America. Previously, this right belonged to the Spaniards themselves. As a result, England further strengthened its position as "ruler of the seas". Spain, on the other hand, was finally pushed back to the outskirts of Europe, “driven behind the Pyrenees,” as the French king Henry IV once dreamed of.

If in the conditions of the beginning of the XVIII century. united the thrones of Spain and France, which of the two countries would benefit more from this? Justify your answer.

New dynastic wars

In 1733-1735. another dynastic war broke out - for the Polish inheritance. In it, Austria and Russia fought with France and Spain. Each side supported its claimant to the Polish throne. Formally, the victory remained with the Austro-Russian group. But at the same time, Austria had to abandon Lorraine and the south of Italy, occupied by its rivals during the war. These lands went to the French and Spanish Bourbons, respectively.

And soon a new, much larger war broke out. This time the Austrian inheritance was shared. After the death of the Archduke of Austria and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI, the throne passed to his daughter Maria Theresa. But her rights were immediately challenged by the Elector of Bavaria. He was supported by France and Spain, who had fought more than once against the Austrian Habsburgs, as well as Saxony. Prussia, Austria's main rival in the struggle for supremacy in Germany, also intervened in the dispute. Having just become a Prussian king, 28-year-old Frederick II has already gained fame for his belligerence. Europe also knew him as a subtle diplomat and an excellent commander. But the diplomacy and politics of the King of Prussia were aggressive, and sometimes just arrogant.

Maria Theresa

Having violated his promise to recognize all the rights of Maria Theresa, Frederick II treacherously seized the rich Austrian province of Silasia. The War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) exacerbated the Austro-Prussian rivalry. As a result of the war, the Austrian throne remained with Maria Theresa, but Silesia - with Prussia. This infuriated the Archduchess. She stated that she would return Silesia, "even if for this it would be necessary to give up the last skirt."

And soon the energetic Maria Theresa managed to create an anti-Prussian coalition, which included France and Russia. And on the side of Prussia, England unexpectedly came out, which in the previous war supported Maria Theresa. The fact is that at that time the British were concerned not so much with European affairs as with France's successes in the struggle for colonies (India, Canada, etc.). Therefore, the main focus of the wars of England was then not for someone, but against France. And as soon as France became an adversary of Austria to become her ally, the British did the same, only in the reverse order.

Seven Years War and the Strengthening of Russia

When these two hostile groups took shape, the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) began, which became the third all-European war. And in a sense, it can also be called the prototype of the world wars of the 20th century: echoes of this war reached even North America and Asia (India). The Seven Years' War fundamentally changed the balance of power in Europe. An unexpected alliance was not only England and Prussia, but also Austria and France - sworn enemies in a number of previous wars. Maria Theresa even promised to give the Netherlands "her" to the French, if only she would be helped to return Silesia.

Frederick II

One of the main surprises of the war was the sharply increased military power of Russia. Russian troops inflicted several heavy defeats on the "invincible" Prussian army, on the maintenance of which Frederick II spent fabulous means. In 1760, Russian troops even briefly entered Berlin, the capital of Prussia. But the very next year, under the name of Peter III, the Holstein duke Karl Peter Ullrich, the grandson of Peter I, entered the Russian throne. war.

As a result of the Seven Years War, European borders remained unchanged. However, England did not manage to get large French possessions in India and simply gigantic ones in North America - Canada and Louisiana. This brought a decisive turning point in the rivalry between England and France. England became the leading trading and colonial power in the world. By the end of the era of Louis XV (reigned in 1715-1774), France had noticeably weakened not only from wars. The country's economy could hardly bear the constantly growing costs of maintaining the royal court and the highest aristocracy.

Without giving Russia any specific acquisitions, the Seven Years War significantly strengthened its authority in Europe. From now on, the influence of the Russian Empire on international affairs began to grow steadily. Two Russian-Turkish wars soon followed (1768-1774 and 1787-1791), as a result of which Russia received important lands for her in the Northern Black Sea region and in the Caucasus. This gave the empire the opportunity to create a powerful fleet on the Black Sea and practically decided in its favor the long-standing rivalry with Turkey.

What, in your opinion, were the main results of the Seven Years War for the further history of Europe?

Partitions of Poland

Against the background of the formation of the bourgeois order in a number of European countries, Poland's lagging behind became more and more noticeable. By the middle of the 18th century. this state found itself in a secondary position. Meanwhile, in addition to Polish, it also included Lithuanian, Ukrainian and Belarusian lands. The Polish and, to a lesser extent, the Lithuanian gentry (i.e., the nobility) were in a privileged position, and the peasants bore numerous duties. The most difficult was for the Orthodox Ukrainian and Belarusian peasants: they experienced oppression both from the gentry and from the Catholic Church, which dominated Poland.

The latter became the reason for the intervention in the Polish affairs of the strengthened eastern neighbor - Russia. Back in 1767, she demanded that the Orthodox in Poland be equal in rights with the Catholics. The Polish authorities agreed, but part of the gentry opposed this. As a result, the Russian army entered Poland in 1772, easily breaking the resistance of the Polish troops. Empress Catherine II wanted to occupy all of Poland, but Russia did not have the strength for this at that moment: the main troops and navy were fighting another war with Turkey.

Meanwhile, Poland's western neighbors, Prussia and Austria, also had their own plans for it. Frederick II insisted on the allocation of "shares" from the weakened Poland for Prussia and Austria, and not just for Russia alone. Later, two more partitions of Poland took place (in 1793 and 1795), and for many years the country ceased to exist as an independent state. The monarchs of Russia, Prussia and Austria simply divided its territory among themselves. Russia got mainly Ukrainian, Belarusian and Lithuanian lands, while Prussia and Austria got Polish ones.

Europe in the second half of the 18th century

Find on the map the designations of the partitions of Poland. For which country (countries) were the results of these sections most beneficial? Explain your answer.

Let's sum up

During the wars of the XVIII century. the rivalry between England and France for trade, economic and military primacy in Europe and in the world as a whole was decided in favor of the British. The international position of Prussia, Austria and especially Russia, which significantly expanded its borders in the west, strengthened the army and navy, noticeably strengthened.

1701 – 1714 - War of the Spanish Succession.

1756 -1763 - Seven Years War.

1772 , 1793 and 1795 - three partitions of Poland.

(This is what King of Prussia Frederick II advised other monarchs in the middle of the 18th century)

1. Why exactly in modern times (and not earlier or later) in relations between states began to strengthen the norms of international law? What was the reason for this process and when, in your opinion, did it begin (approximately)?

2 *. What did not allow England and France (for example, during the wars for the Polish, and then for the Austrian inheritance) to be in the same group? Wasn't it more profitable to have a strong state as an ally than as an adversary?

3. Why did Russia's successes in the Seven Years War come as a complete surprise to other leading powers in Europe? Why didn't they see Russia as a serious rival (or partner) before?

4. How did it happen that the European powers, who had recently fought for one or the other throne, did not support Poland during the period of its partition? Why was Poland left to fend for itself?

1. Based on the materials of the textbook, fill in the table "Wars of the 18th century."

2. Polish thinker S. Konarsky in the early 1760s. wrote:

“We complain about unfair and often shamelessly corrupt courts, about perjury that have become almost a habit with impunity, about intolerable insults from the more noble and powerful, about the fact that there are many tyrants and tyranny over the weaker ones ... he does not think about his friend, if only he would feel good, and let the others perish ... The state treasury is poorer and worse organized than in many foreign towns. Trade in the country fell completely ... The serfs became extremely impoverished. Cities and towns have been devastated ... Boundless despair throughout the country from the fact that it will never be better and cannot be ... "

Please rate the given words. To what extent did the situation that Konarsky writes about influenced the further fate of Poland?

3. Divide into three groups, each of which will defend the particular importance of wars for Europe: for the Spanish inheritance; for the Polish inheritance; for the Austrian inheritance. Give reasons for your position. Discuss your findings.