The sound side of speech is a form of its material existence. From the materialistic doctrine of language and thinking, it follows that sound language has become the most important means of human communication. The sound side of speech is a complex phenomenon, the research aspects of which are physical, physiological, linguistic *.

The importance of work on improving the sound side of speech can hardly be overestimated. High quality speech sound has social significance, as it ensures the effectiveness of communication, contributes to better transmission and adequate perception by the interlocutors of their thoughts and feelings. No less significant and aesthetic value the sound side of oral speech, which is an important indicator of the general speech culture of a person, which is, first of all, sounding speech. Finally, the sound quality of spoken language has educational value, plays an essential role in the assimilation of the content of many academic subjects, since the educational process in primary school takes place in the mode of oral and speech activity.

Work on the sound side of speech is aimed at the formation of pronunciation culture as a set of oral and speech skills necessary for speech in accordance with the literary norm.

Work on the development of students' speech is based on the identified L.P. Fedorenko patterns of mastering speech and principles of teaching-.“The patterns of speech acquisition are a statement of the objectively existing relationship between the results of a student's speech development (his acquisition of speech) and the improvement of his speech-making system. The principles of the methodology are the rules (requirements) of how a teacher should act in order to ensure the development of one or another organ of the student's speech-making system and their coordination. " The first pattern of speech assimilation: speech is acquired when the ability to control the muscles of the speech motor apparatus is acquired. The effectiveness of improving the organs of speech depends on the speech environment in which the child grows up, on the developing potential of the speech environment, the degree of attention of adults to the pronunciation of sounds by children. In a situation where the child independently assimilates the correct pronunciation of sound, special intervention of the educator is unnecessary, however, children can also adopt incorrect pronunciation (blurred, lethargic, pattering, burr, lisp, etc.). Thus, that part of the speech-making system that produces speech movements is quite material, it works according to the laws, which are based on the instinct of imitation, adjustment. From the first pattern of speech assimilation (speech is acquired when the ability to control the muscles of the speech motor apparatus is acquired) follows the principle of attention to the matter of language. This rule (requirement) orients the teacher to be attentive to the development of the student's speech and motor apparatus, to monitor the correct pronunciation, pronunciation of words, intonation of a single sentence, text. According to this principle, the teacher chooses the language material, methods, teaching methods, mainly based on imitation (creating an exemplary speech environment, using sound samples, etc.).

The most important means of creating the developmental potential of the speech environment is the pronunciation culture of the teacher's speech, which implements the principle of focusing on the ideal. The speech ideal is the idea of ​​good speech, historically formed in the national Russian culture; the ideal of pronunciation culture is a harmonious combination of dictional clarity, adherence to the orthoepic norm, intonational expressiveness.

The work on the development of the sound side of the speech of schoolchildren is based on the data of the pronunciation style, involves the implementation stylistic approach: practical, without the introduction of terms, familiarization with pronunciation styles; development of students' sense of style in pronunciation as the child's ability to intuitively correlate the pronunciation of a statement and a communication situation.

Within the framework of literary speech, from the standpoint of phonetics, complete and colloquial styles of pronunciation are distinguished; beyond the boundaries of the literary language, the vernacular style remains. Full pronunciation style is the main one in teaching the Russian language, literary reading. This style is characterized by a somewhat slow, distinct, careful pronunciation in accordance with the current literary norms. The skills of the full pronunciation style are formed in schoolchildren in the process of purposeful teaching of oral monologue speech intended for public speaking. Situations of the implementation of the full pronunciation style in the educational process: the student's answers to the teacher's questions in the lesson; retelling of a fictional or scientific-educational text; reading a poem by heart, etc.

Conversational pronunciation style manifests itself in everyday dialogical speech, communication with friends, close people. Conditions for the implementation of the conversational style: relaxed, informal atmosphere; communication not prepared in advance; everyday topics of communication. The spoken pronunciation style is characterized by normativity, however, in contrast to the full style, it has the following features: accelerated by those of pronunciation, less tension of articulation. The result is an increase in the reduction of vowels, a more noticeable change in consonants (assimilation, loss), which are perceived as fuzzy pronunciation.

The features of the colloquial style in the oral speech of schoolchildren are characterized by A. A. Bondarenko. In the field of consonants:

  • 1) loss of consonants in the position between vowels (ska / z / ala, dya / d / enka) ;
  • 2) simplification of consonant groups (groups of two or three sounds are simplified) ( adult, c / frighten off, red / n / little);
  • 3) replacement and- non-syllable vowel sound [and], as a result of which the word is pronounced with an additional syllable (pool instead of pool).

In the vowel area:

  • 1) loss of vowels ( because, yet)]
  • 2) contraction of vowels in the pre-stressed part of the word ( z [a] park, with [a] bshat, [e] rodrom).

Beyond the limits of the literary language remains colloquial pronunciation, including marked forms: means A, traNway, DIELECTOR, coLidor, put, RINGS. Colloquial forms are not systemic; it is a set of features that reveals itself only in the speech of the bearers of the vernacular.

Directions of work on the formation of pronunciation styles.

  • 1) the development of skills for the ideal design of oral speech within the full style;
  • 2) improving the skills of the normalized conversational style;
  • 3) assistance in overcoming non-standard dialectal and narrow social (slang, everyday, etc.) pronunciation.

Among the modern factors in the formation of the pronunciation culture of primary schoolchildren is the multicultural nature of the educational environment. Migration processes have led to the spread of joint education of Russian-speaking children and children for whom Russian is not their mother tongue in general education schools in large cities. These students think in their native language (Tatar, Georgian, Lithuanian, etc.), the laws of which often contradict the norms of the Russian language.

There are two groups of students for whom Russian is not their mother tongue. Firstly, these are bilingual children who often speak two languages ​​from the moment of birth: in their native language and in Russian as the language of the country of residence, the state language of the Russian Federation. The benefits of bilingualism are significant: bilingual children are receptive to other people and other cultures; they are sociable, open to communication; these children have a more developed metalinguistic perception, they easily switch from one language to another; bilingual children are better able to focus, perform several tasks at the same time; their thinking is flexible, divergent and imaginative.

The second group of students, for whom Russian is not their native language, are foreign children, whose parents, as a rule, have the status of migrants. Foreign students speak Russian at the threshold level, the level of urban communication (everyday). Modern researchers state that foreign children are in a very difficult situation of constantly overcoming the language barrier. On the one hand, in families of migrants, as a rule, it is customary to communicate in their native language, therefore, foreign children often do not understand the meaning of many of the Russian words they use; on the other hand, in an educational institution, these children should only use Russian. In the speech of children-foreigners, interference errors occur, which are the result of false correspondences, which the learners themselves establish between the units of two language systems - the systems of the native and Russian languages. Therefore, in the process of improving the pronunciation side of speech of non-Russian students, it is necessary to take into account the peculiarities of the phonetic and phonological systems of the Russian and native languages ​​of students, since as a result of incorrect pronunciation of Russian sounds, students acquire an accent. Speakers of different languages ​​should be taught to hear Russian sounds, to articulate them correctly. A favorable psychological environment is important, since children of migrants often have a fear of making a mistake, and as a result, they refuse to communicate.

An equally important factor in the formation of pronunciation culture is the impact of the media. The positive features of the media are: the democratization of the language; strengthening of the "conversational stream"; general revitalization of the language, the naturalness of its sound. A negative feature is the "loosening" of linguistic norms, Russian cultural and speech traditions. Typical violations of pronunciation norms in modern media include: a general decline in the level of pronunciation culture of leading television programs; too high rate of speech with indistinct diction and monotonous intonation. Often, in the speech of TV journalists, there are violations of orthoepic norms when pronouncing both native Russian words and borrowed words ( more beautiful, pamper, defys, dispensary, is calling,

catalog, sorrel, blinds and etc.). Also, journalists often copy the intonation pattern of the English language.

The tasks of forming a pronunciation culture highlight the need to implement the method of relying on speech ear.

Speech hearing - auditory sensitivity, the ability to perceive by ear the peculiarities of the sound design of a phrase. S. F. Ivanova defines verbal hearing as the psycholinguistic ability of a person, when perceiving speech, to catch by hearing, at the same time to reproduce in internal speech all the phonological means of language, articulating and intonating the audible speech.

Speech hearing has a complex structure, each of its components, being developed in one way or another, determines the degree of development of speech hearing. To ensure targeted work on the development of speech hearing, the teacher must know its components:

  • 1) physical (the ability to adequately perceive sounding speech);
  • 2) phonemic (the ability to distinguish the sounds of speech, correlating them with the phonetic system of the language);
  • 3) pitch, in unity with the sense of tone (the ability to feel its melody and tone, or timbre coloring in speech);
  • 4) a sense of rhythm in close unity with a sense of tempo (the ability to feel the pace and rhythm required by the situation).

Recommendations for the development of speech hearing proposed by S. F. Ivanova. At first, it is necessary to study the state of speech hearing in each student and, based on the data of this analysis, group students in such a way that it is possible to work on improving speech hearing in a differentiated manner. Secondly, work on improving speech hearing must be carried out wherever there is an observation of the intonation and sound side of speech. Thirdly, in the construction of a system for the development of speech hearing, one should strictly observe the sequence from observing the sound of speech to understanding its features. Fourth, sound visualization, technical teaching aids should be used. Fifth, it is necessary to teach schoolchildren to be attentive not only to the content of the utterance, but also to the intonational-sound design of the speaker's speech. Finally, the full pronunciation style should be adopted as the standard for sounding speech.

Methodologists (A. V. Bogdanova, A. Yu. Chirvo, A. I. Shpuntov and others) recommend using a sound sample to solve the problems of improving the pronunciation culture - an audiovisual didactic tool containing speech material that allows purposeful work on observation and comprehensive analysis pronunciation features of oral speech. The sound sample is considered as an important means of creating the developmental potential of the speech environment.

Receiving analysis of sound samples is the leader, since speech is initially acquired by children by imitation, imitation. Analysis of the sound sample helps students to find their own pronunciation shortcomings, to prevent the emergence of new pronunciation errors. The experience of analyzing the sound side of speech under the guidance of a teacher creates favorable conditions for the formation of students' critical, conscious attitude to the speech of interlocutors, their own speech.

Requirements for a sound sample ^:

  • 1) the sample must be a record of classic works of children's literature;
  • 2) the text of the sample must be accessible, interesting in content;
  • 3) the sample should contain a recording of the speech of professionals (readers, artists) with impeccable pronunciation, intonation design of oral speech;
  • 4) each specific sample is designed to analyze one pronunciation feature of speech (diction, adherence to the norms of spelling, tempo, emotional intonation, etc.);
  • 5) a particular feature of the sound of speech can be presented from different sides: positive, negative.

Organization of work with a sound sample determined by A. Yu. Chirvo. This work can take up to 10 minutes at the beginning (speech exercise), middle (rest, change of activity), end (summing up) of the lesson. Before listening to a sound sample, it is necessary to prepare students for perception, set a learning task, for example: "Today in the lesson we will learn what helps to make speech more intelligible and understandable to our interlocutors." The primary perception of the sound sample should not be disturbed by remarks, comments, other verbal and non-verbal actions. The sound of a separate sample fragment should not last more than two or three minutes, since with prolonged listening, the attention of children is scattered, the quality of perception of the sound side of the speech of the utterance deteriorates. Discussion (analysis) of the heard sound sample involves questions to identify the emotional reaction, understanding the actual content and the general meaning of the text. Secondary listening presupposes a set to detect and become aware of the pronunciation features of the sample. Depending on the content of the text of the sound sample, simultaneous work with the sound fragment and the written text can be carried out in order to carry out its marking, reflecting the sound. Finally, training exercises are carried out aimed at practicing one or another component (diction, orthoepic, intonation) of the pronunciation skill. The work with the sound sample ends with a clear and correct reproduction of the listened fragment close to the text (or by heart).

To occupy this position, freed the college of strategists from the control of the Areopagus).

As the leader of the so-called naval party, which reflected the interests of the trade and craft layers and the poor, Themistocles, in contrast to his main political rival Aristides, who advocated building up land military potential, sought to turn Athens into a naval power. Among the transformations undertaken by Themistocles on the eve of the invasion of the Persian king Xerxes in 480 BC. BC, the strengthening of the harbor of Piraeus and the building up of the combat potential of the Athenian navy from 70 to 200 triremes were of great importance.

Themistocles played an important role in organizing the general Greek forces of resistance to the Persians. When the Persian army approached, he decided to leave Athens, realizing that he could only win at sea. The Athenian fleet under the leadership of Themistocles won a number of decisive victories over the Persians (including at Salamis in 480 BC), for which they were honored even in Sparta. After the defeat of the Persians, he initiated the creation in 478/477 BC. NS. Delian Union, achieved the construction of the Long Walls by Athens, connecting the city with the port of Piraeus.

In 471 BC. NS. As a result of the intrigues of the Athenian aristocracy, Themistocles was ostracized, later accused of friendship with the Persians (Midism), in a secret connection with the Spartan commander Pausanias and convicted. After long wanderings, he fled to the Persian king Artaxerxes I, and received from him a number of cities in Asia Minor.

Early years. A family

Themistocles was born in Athens around 524 BC. NS. His father, the Athenian Neocles ( Νεοκλῆς ) came from the rural deme of Frearra (English) Russian and belonged to the noble priestly family of the Likomids. Themistocles' mother, according to Plutarch, was either a fractional Abrotonon or a woman from Halicarnassus Euterpe. Regardless of which city the mother of Themistocles came from, after the Citizenship Law of Pericles 451 BC. NS. her son would have been illegitimate, but Themistocles' life came at a time when the mother's parentage was not taken into account, which allowed him to obtain civil rights in the policy and take the post of eponymous archon, to which illegitimate children were not allowed.

Later, Themistocles' origin also determined his civil position. Most of the Athenian noble families had kinship and / or friendly relations with other states. Themistocles were alien to such predilections. He tended to rely on internal forces, without concluding close alliances with other states. He strove for Athenian isolationism.

In his youth, during his holidays, unlike other children, Themistocles considered and composed speeches. In them, he either accused or defended one of his peers. The teacher of the future Athenian strategist, according to Plutarch, predicted that "Out of you boy, nothing mediocre will come of, but something very great - either good or evil!" ...

In his youth, according to a number of ancient authors, Themistocles led a riotous lifestyle. Because of this, his father even deprived him of his inheritance. Plutarch confirms the existence of such rumors, while refuting them. Plutarch himself at the end of his work "Themistocles" tells about 10 children of Themistocles, of whom only three (Archentolus, Polyeuctus and Cleophantus) were from the first wife of Archippa.

The situation in Athens before the beginning of the political activities of Themistocles

Themistocles grew up in the face of frequent power changes in Athens. After the death of the tyrant Pisistratus in 527 BC. NS. power passed to his sons Hipparchus and Hippias. After the assassination of Hipparchus in 514 BC. NS. the survivor Hippias surrounded himself with mercenaries, with the help of which he hoped to maintain power. In 510 BC. NS. the Spartan king Cleomenes undertook a military campaign against Athens, as a result of which the tyrant was overthrown. A representative of the Alcmeonid family, Cleisthenes, returned to Athens. He was charged with preparing new laws. The innovations implemented by him made Athens a democracy (ancient Greek. δημοκρατία ). He was also ostracized - the expulsion from the city by voting of prominent citizens who threatened democracy. Cleisthenes' innovations did not like the representatives of the Athenian aristocracy - the Eupatrides. Having managed to elect their representative Isagoras as archon, they expelled Cleisthenes and canceled his reforms. Isagoras and his followers were supported by the Spartans. The people opposed this change and managed to expel both Isagoras and the Spartans from Athens.

After the expulsion of the tyrants from Athens, the city's power began to grow. As Herodotus wrote:

“Freed from tyranny, they took an undoubtedly superior position. Therefore, under the yoke of the tyrants, the Athenians were apparently unwilling to fight like slaves working for their master; now, after his release, everyone began to strive for their own well-being. "

The new political system opened the way to power for people who were previously deprived of the opportunity to achieve it. Among them was the illegitimate Themistocles. Participation in the new political realities of Athens required the ability to persuade, speak before a national assembly, be constantly in sight - those traits that a young Athenian politician possessed. He also gained popularity among the people thanks to his memory - he called every citizen by name - and because he turned out to be an impartial judge in private matters.

So, according to Plutarch, when the famous ancient Greek poet Simonides of Keossky asked Themistocles for something illegal, he was refused. The Athenian strategist replied that, just as he, Simonides, would not have been a good poet if he did not observe the laws of versification in his poems, so he, Themistocles, would not have been a good ruler if he had acted against the law to please someone.

Archonship

In 494 BC. NS. Themistocles took up a very high and honorable post of archon. In the wake of its popularity in the next 493 BC. NS. he became an eponymous archon - the head of the executive branch of ancient Athens. During his archonship, Themistocles began to carry out a series of reforms that in the future ensured the Greeks victory over the Persians and the rise of Athens over other ancient Greek states. The archon made every effort to make Athens a strong maritime state. To this end, he began the construction of a new port at Piraeus. The old port at Falera, although located much closer to the city center, was unsuitable for the maintenance of a large fleet. The construction of Piraeus became the cornerstone of the future greatness of Athens.

Themistocles' innovations to strengthen the sea power of Athens had long-term significance, not only in the context of the Greco-Persian wars, but also in the political structure of the state. According to Plutarch:

“By this he strengthened the demos against the aristocracy and gave him courage, since the power passed into the hands of the oarsmen, Keleustians and helmsmen. For this reason, and the rostrum on Pinks, arranged so that it faced the sea, thirty tyrants subsequently turned to face the land: they thought that domination of the sea gives rise to democracy, and the oligarchy is less burdensome for the farmers. "

From the Battle of Marathon to the second Persian invasion of Hellas

In 490 BC. NS. the army of the Persians under the command of Datis and Artaphernes landed near Athens on the plain near the city of Marathon. During the battle that took place, the Persians suffered a crushing defeat. The commander-in-chief of the Athenians was the commander Miltiades. The victory at Marathon awakened ambition in Themistocles, who also wanted to achieve military success. Since then, he has often repeated, "The Laurels of Miltiada do not let me sleep." This phrase later became a catch phrase.

A year later, Miltiades was defeated and seriously wounded in the siege of the island of Paros. Taking advantage of the incapacity of the commander, representatives of the noble family of the Alkmeonids brought him to trial. The Athenian aristocrats were jealous of Miltiades' fame and influence. On charges of “violating the people's trust,” Miltiades was sentenced to a hefty fine of 50 talents at the time and imprisoned. A few weeks later, the famous commander died.

After the death of Miltiades, Themistocles, using his influence on the poorest segments of the population, became one of the most influential politicians in Athens. His rival was Aristide, around whom the aristocracy united. In contrast to Themistocles, he was honest, virtuous and just. Aristide's followers gave him the nickname "Fair". Plutarch, referring to the philosopher Ariston, writes that the enmity between Aristides and Themistocles began in their youth on the basis of the attachment of both to a certain native of the island of Keos Stesilai. When Aristides was entrusted with overseeing public revenues, he caught many influential figures, including Themistocles, of huge embezzlements. Themistocles managed not only to extricate himself from the current situation, but also to win the court against Aristide, finding minor inconsistencies in his reports. The Athenians were outraged, and the defeated Aristides "Fair" was re-appointed to his previous position. According to Plutarch:

“This time, pretending to repent of his former behavior, he showed much more condescension and liked the embezzlers of the treasury, whom he now did not expose and did not bother with investigations, so they, filling their wallets with public money, scattered in praise of Aristide , with considerable zeal convincing the people to re-elect him again. Before the very beginning of the vote, Aristides addressed the Athenians with the following reproach: “When I ruled you in good faith and honestly, I was disgraced, and now, when I allowed thieves to profit from a considerable amount of public good, I am considered an excellent citizen. But I myself am more ashamed of the present honor than the condemnation of that time, and I regret you: you are more willing to approve of the one who pleases the scoundrels, rather than guarding the state treasury "".

Themistocles continued his policy of creating a powerful fleet in Athens. The Athenians had a custom of dividing the proceeds from the silver mines in Lavrion among themselves. The state owned these mines. In Athens, after the fall of tyrants, state property began to be considered the property of all citizens. If, after covering all state needs, significant amounts remained in the cash desks, then this surplus was divided among all citizens. Themistocles proposed to use the funds received for the construction of ships. The proposal was received very ambiguously. By accepting it, every Athenian was deprived of, albeit a small, but true monetary benefit provided by the state. Preparing ships for the war with the Persians, Themistocles understood that the Athenians would not agree with his proposal, since they did not consider the barbarians defeated at the Marathon as a serious threat. Therefore, he convinced his fellow citizens that new ships and a powerful fleet were necessary for the war with Aegina, an island that waged a continuous war with Athens.

These plans were opposed by the aristocracy led by Aristides. The implementation of Themistocles' plans to create 200 ships led to an increase in the daily wages, as well as a rise in the cost of life. Disagreements between the two parties - the aristocratic and the popular - escalated so much that it was decided to conduct an ostracism procedure in order to restore calm in the city. During the voting procedure, according to Plutarch, Aristides once again lived up to his nickname "The Just":

After the removal from the city of Aristide (in 484 or 483 BC), Themistocles, on the eve of the invasion of the troops of Xerxes, became the main politician of Athens.

Persian invasion of Hellas

In 481 BC. NS. a congress of 30 ancient Greek states was held, at which it was decided to jointly reflect the upcoming invasion of the Persians. In this alliance, Athens and Sparta had the greatest military power. At the same time, the Spartans had a strong ground army, and the Athenians had a navy, created as a result of the reforms and innovations carried out earlier by Themistocles. Corinth and Aegina, other Greek states with a strong navy, refused to place it under the command of the Athenians. As a compromise, command of the naval forces was entrusted to Sparta and its warlord, Euribias.

Congress met again in the spring of 480 BC. NS. Representatives from Thessaly suggested that the Greeks make an attempt to stop the army of Xerxes in the narrow gorge of Tempe (English) Russian on the border of Thessaly and Macedonia. 10 thousand hoplites were sent to Thessaly by sea to protect the gorge. Sympathetic to the Greeks, Alexander, the king of Macedonia, which had previously recognized the supreme power of the Persian king, warned the army of the Greeks about the existence of a detour. A few days later the Greeks sailed back. Shortly thereafter, Xerxes and his army crossed the Hellespont.

After that, the Athenian strategist Themistocles proposed another plan of action. The path to southern Greece (Boeotia, Attica and Peloponnese) passed through the narrow Thermopylae gorge. In it, the Greek army could hold outnumbered enemy forces. To prevent bypassing the gorge from the sea, the Athenian and allied ships had to control the narrow strait between the island of Euboea and mainland Greece (later, almost simultaneously with the Battle of Thermopylae, the naval battle of Artemisia took place there). This strategy was approved by the Pan-Greek Congress, although representatives of some Peloponnesian cities did not agree with this decision. They believed that it would be best to direct all their forces to protect the Corinthian isthmus, which connects the Peloponnesian Peninsula with the mainland. They offered women and children from the abandoned Athens to be evacuated to other cities.

Battle of Artemisia

According to Herodotus, in the strait between the island of Euboea and the mainland, near Cape Artemisium, 271 Greek ships gathered. During this battle, the weather conditions for the Greeks were extremely favorable. On the way to Artemisia, the Persian fleet was caught in a violent storm, during which many ships crashed. When the Greeks saw a huge enemy fleet, they were afraid and decided to flee. Themistocles strongly opposed this proposal. He managed to convince the Hellenes to wait in the following way. The inhabitants of the island of Euboea asked to wait with the sail, as they needed to ferry the women and children to safety. The departure of the Greek fleet meant the imminent sack of the island by the Persians. Themistocles took 30 talents from them, of which he gave 5 to Eurybiades, and to the commander of the Corinthians, Adimant 3. Plutarch also mentions 1 talent given to the triarch of one of the Athenian ships, which required an immediate departure. Themistocles kept the rest of the money for himself.

Seeing a small Greek fleet in front of them, the barbarians considered their victory undeniable. In order to prevent the flight of the Greeks, they decided to send 200 ships bypassing Euboea. The plans of the Persians became known to the Greeks from a defector. Without waiting for the encirclement, the allied fleet of the Hellenes unexpectedly for the Persians attacked their main forces and inflicted significant damage on them. With the onset of darkness, a storm began, as a result of which 200 Persian ships on the high seas, sailing to encircle the Greeks, crashed on the coastal cliffs.

The Greeks continued to successfully attack the Persian fleet for 2 days, until they received a message about the death of Tsar Leonidas and 300 Spartans in the Battle of Thermopylae. After this sad news for the Hellenes, they began to retreat.

After the start of the retreat, Themistocles undertook the following trick, aimed at either driving off the Ionians, related to the Athenians, from the Persian army, or sowing mistrust towards them on the part of the Persians. During the retreat on a high-speed ship, he entered all the bays where there was fresh water, and left inscriptions on the stones:

Jonah! You are acting unfairly by going to war against your ancestors and helping to enslave Hellas. Come over to our side soon! If this is not possible, then at least do not fight against us yourself and beg the Carians to do the same. And if you cannot do either one or the other, if you are bound by too heavy a chain of coercion and cannot throw it off, then fight like cowards when it comes to battle. Never forget that you descended from us and that because of you, initially, we started our enmity with the Persian king.

Battle of Salamis

After the defeat of the Greeks at Thermopylae, the way to Athens and the Peloponnese was opened for the Persians. Warriors from the Peloponnesian cities began hastily to gather on the Isthmus of Corinth and strengthen it. From Artemisia, the allied ships sailed to the island of Salamis. Themistocles had a plan of action that ultimately ensured the victory of the Greeks over the Persians. To bring it to life, he had to show all his cunning and oratorical gift.

Shortly before the Persians entered the territory of Attica, the Athenians sent ambassadors to Delphi to ask the oracle about further events. The prophecy turned out to be the darkest and foreshadowed inevitable death. This response from the oracle deeply saddened the ambassadors. They decided to return to the oracle as "pleading with the god for protection." The next divination by the pythia was not much better. However, the oracle contained phrases that Themistocles then successfully used to persuade the Athenians to move to the island of Salamis located near Athens:

Themistocles was able to convince the Athenians at a popular meeting that the "wooden walls" are Athenian ships, and the "death of sons" refers to the Persians, since otherwise the oracle would have said "unfortunate Salamis" and not "divine." In 1960, a tablet with Themistocles' decrees was found and published. Its content largely coincides with the records of the ancient classics. It talks about the mobilization of the entire male population, about the evacuation of women, old people and children to the island of Salamis and Trezen, about the return of citizens expelled from Athens for a common struggle.

During the general confusion, both the sacred serpent and the precious aegis of Athena disappeared from the temple. Themistocles also managed to use these events to implement his plans. He explained the disappearance of the snake by the fact that the goddess left the city and showed the Athenians the way to the sea. To search for the jewel, Themistocles ordered to search the luggage of citizens and seize an excessive amount of money that the residents fleeing from the city took with them. These funds passed into public use, and they paid salaries to the crews of ships.

Plutarch describes in great detail the hesitation of the Greeks in the days leading up to the battle. The chief commander of the fleet was the Spartan Eurybiades. He wanted to weaken anchor and sail to the Isthmus of Corinth, on which the Peloponnesian army was stationed. Themistocles understood that the narrow straits would neutralize the numerical superiority of Xerxes' fleet. Accordingly, he objected to Eurybiades. During their dispute, phrases were said that later became winged:

Euribiades told him: "Themistocles, in the competition they beat the one who runs ahead of time." “Yes,” Themistocles replied, “but the one who is left behind is not awarded a wreath.” Eurybiades raised his stick to hit him, and Themistocles said: « Hit but listen » […] Themistocles began to repeat his previous proposal, but then someone said that a person who does not have a city of his own should not persuade those who have one to leave and abandon the fatherland to the mercy of fate. Then Themistocles turned to him and said: “You wretch! Yes, we left houses and walls, not wanting to be slaves because of soulless things, but we have a city, more than any other city in Hellas, two hundred triremes, which now stand here to help you if you want to seek your salvation; and if you leave for the second time and betray us, then now some of the Hellenes will learn that the Athenians acquired both a free city and land no worse than the one they lost. "

With his arguments, Themistocles was able to delay the departure of the allied fleet for several days. However, when the enemy fleet approached Faler's harbor, and a huge Persian army appeared on the coast, the Greeks decided to flee. Themistocles, unhappy that the Greeks would miss the opportunity to take advantage of the location and narrow straits, decided on a cunning unprecedented in world history. He sent one of his trusted slaves, Sikinn, a Persian by birth, to Xerxes with the message:

Xerxes ordered to convene a council of war and discuss plans for the further conquest of Greece. Most of the generals advised that the Greeks should fight in the narrow straits near Salamis. Only Queen Artemisia, accompanying the Persian army, advised to abandon the battle. According to Herodotus, her arguments were very similar to those of Themistocles. She asked to convey to Xerxes that, according to her opinion, the Greek fleet would not be able to resist for a long time and the Greeks would soon scatter to their cities. The advance towards the Peloponnese and the Isthmus of Corinth will bring the army of the Persians an unconditional victory. Xerxes decided to follow the opinion of most of the military leaders and impose battle on the Hellenes. While the generals of the Hellenes continued a heated argument, the barbarians began to encircle them. During these disputes, Aristides arrived from Aegina, barely escaping the pursuit of the Persian patrol ships. When the Greeks realized that they were surrounded, they had no choice but to prepare for battle.

According to Plutarch, with reference to the historian Phanius, before the battle, one of the priests demanded that Themistocles make human sacrifices. Three Persian captive youths were sacrificed to Dionysus Omest. As a result of the battle, the Greeks, using the narrow straits, were able to defeat the superior forces of the Persians.

The Battle of Salamis was a turning point in the Greco-Persian Wars. Many historians cite the Battle of Salamis as one of the most important battles in history. The Greeks, previously inferior to the Persians in both land and sea forces, gained an advantage at sea. According to Herodotus, Xerxes feared that Greek ships would sail to the Hellespont and block his return. According to Plutarch, a council took place after the battle between the Greek generals. Themistocles proposed to destroy the bridges in the Hellespont in order to "take over Asia in Europe." Aristides opposed him:

Now we were at war with a barbarian devoted to bliss; and if we lock him in Hellas and a person who has such powers under our power, we bring fear to the last extreme, then he will no longer sit under a golden canopy and calmly look at the battle, but will do anything, himself, in the face of danger, participates in all actions, corrects omissions and takes the best measures to save everything in general. Therefore, Themistocles, - he added, - we should not destroy the existing bridge, but if possible, build another one and quickly throw this young man out of Europe.

Themistocles agreed with Aristides and in order to quickly expel Xerxes from Greece, he took another trick. He sent a spy to the king with a message that the Greeks wanted to destroy the bridges. Frightened, Xerxes hastily retreated.

From the battle of Salamis to exile

One of the main commanders of Xerxes, Mardonius, turned to the king with a request to leave him part of the ground army for further war. After some deliberation, Xerxes agreed. Mardonius and his army settled for winter quarters in Thessaly and Boeotia, and the Athenians were able to return to the plundered city. In the winter, the Greek allies gathered again in Corinth to celebrate the victory and discuss further hostilities.

At the meeting, it was decided to determine the most valiant military leader by secret ballot. Most of the generals submitted the first stone for themselves, and the second for Themistocles. As a result, he received a second award. The Spartans, on the other hand, appreciated Themistocles' contribution to the victory over the Persians at Salamis and gave him great honors. According to Plutarch, they brought him to Sparta, where they presented him with an olive wreath as a reward for his intelligence, presented the best chariot and sent an escort of 300 Spartans to escort him to the border.

Upon his arrival from Lacedaemon to Athens, one of Themistocles' enemies began to criticize him, saying that he owed the gifts of the Spartans only to Athens, but not to himself. To this the strategist, according to Herodotus, replied:

Despite such impressive services of Themistocles to the Athenians, he was removed from the supreme command over the troops. So, Aristides became the head of the land forces, and Xantippus of the naval forces. In ancient sources, there is no evidence of Themistocles' activities, up to the battle of Plataea. The Battle of Plataea ended with a crushing defeat for the Persians.

After defeating Xerxes, Themistocles laid the foundation for the future rise of Athens. After the battles of Marathon and Salamis, the fame of the Athenians among other Greek states increased significantly. Also, Athens had the most powerful fleet. Foreseeing possible disagreements and enmity in the future with Athens, the Spartans forbade the inhabitants to erect walls around their city. According to Plutarch, with reference to the historian Theopompus, and Cornelius Nepotus, Themistocles undertook to resolve the issue. The politician ordered the citizens to build the wall as quickly as possible, sparing neither private nor public property, and he himself went to Sparta. In Lacedaemon, he was in no hurry to visit the officials - the Ephors. Learning that the fortifications were almost completed, Themistocles came to the Lacedaemon Ephors, who had supreme power, and began to assure them that the information they had received was false and therefore it was necessary to send ambassadors to Athens to confirm his innocence. The Spartans sent ambassadors from among the highest officials. They, by the preliminary order of Themistocles, were detained by the Athenians. After that, the Ephors were warned that the hostages would be released only when Themistocles arrived back in Athens.

Themistocles laid the foundation for the formation of the Delian Sea Union, which included the coastal and insular Greek city-states; Athens played a decisive role in this alliance. This union during the time of Pericles and the Peloponnesian War largely ensured the power of Athens.

When the Hellenic fleet, after the retreat of Xerxes, entered the harbor near Athens and stopped for the winter, Themistocles, in one of his speech to the people's assembly, said that he had a plan that would be useful and saving for the Athenians, but that one should not talk about it in front of everyone. The Athenians invited him to communicate this plan to Aristides alone and, if he approves of it, to carry it out. Themistocles informed Aristides that he planned to set fire to the Hellenic fleet in his parking lot. Aristides declared in the popular assembly that there is nothing more useful, but at the same time more dishonorable than what Themistocles intended. After this, the Athenians refused the offer of Themistocles.

Themistocles' activity caused criticism among the cities from which he collected tribute. So, according to Herodotus, demanding money from the inhabitants of Andros, he received the following words from them in response. He said he brought with him two gods, Conviction and Compulsion; and they answered that they have two great goddesses, Poverty and Need, who prevent them from giving him money. He was also reproached for solving many issues for bribes. The Athenians, out of envy, believed in the slander against the savior of their city and all Hellas from the Persians. Also, according to Plutarch, he ultimately bored fellow citizens with frequent reminders of his merits. As a result, he was ostracized and exiled from the city for 10 years.

Exile

After being ostracized, Themistocles lived for some time in Argos. At this time, the winner of the Battle of Plataea, the Spartan regent Pausanias, had serious disagreements with the Ephors. He began secret negotiations with the Persians. Seeing the disgrace of Themistocles, the commander invited him to participate in treason. Themistocles refused to cooperate, but did not give out the plans of the Spartan regent, with whom he had a good relationship. When Pausanias' conspiracy was uncovered, letters were found among his documents in which Themistocles was mentioned. The former military leader, who played a significant role in the victory over the Persians, was convicted in absentia in Athens. Messengers were sent for him to Argos.

Themistocles did not wait for the execution and fled to Kerkyra, whose inhabitants he once rendered a service in their dispute with Corinth. From there, pursued by the Spartans and the Athenians, he moved to Epirus, ruled by King Admet, and then to Syracuse. After the tyrant of Syracuse Hieron refused Themistocles, he went to Asia. The Persian king Artaxerxes had previously promised a very large sum of 200 talents for the head of the man who played a significant role in the defeat of the army of his father Xerxes. However, in the Achaemenid empire, Themistocles was more secure than in his homeland. With the help of his friends, he was taken to the king and fell on his face before him. The surprised king, seeing the once most iconic enemy of the Persians bowed before him, not only saved his life, but also granted several cities to rule - Magnesia-na-Meander, Lampsak, Miunt, and according to Fania, also Percot (English) Russian with Paleoskepsis.

For some time Themistocles lived quietly in one of the cities granted to him. However, according to Plutarch's testimony, the king ordered him to fulfill earlier promises and lead the war against the Greeks. According to Plutarch, Themistocles, having received these orders, took poison. However, most likely, he died of old age.

Political and military legacy

Themistocles' greatest achievement is the complete victory of the Greeks over the army of Xerxes. Despite the overwhelming numerical superiority of the army of the Achaemenid Empire, Greece held out. The doctrine of the sea power of Athens, their transformation into one of the strongest ancient powers had a number of important historical consequences. In 478 BC. e., shortly after the victory over the Persians, the alliance of the Hellenes was created again, but without the Peloponnesian city-states. In the new, Delian alliance, Athens played a leading role. Under the leadership of Pericles, the Delian League became the Athenian Empire. The islands included in the union were obliged to pay tribute to the Athenians and did not have the opportunity to conduct an independent foreign policy. The rise of Athens, due to the activities of Themistocles, led at first to a deterioration in relations with other Greek city-states, in particular with Sparta, which resulted in a long Peloponnesian War.

The image of Themistocles, as a man who played a key role in the victory over the enemy, and then forced to ask him for shelter, was used by Napoleon. The French emperor, in his letter to the British about surrender, compares himself to Themistocles, surrendering to the mercy of a former enemy.

The image of Themistocles in art

The eponymous opera by Johann Christian Bach is dedicated to the ancient Greek strategist. Events take place in 470 BC. NS. Themistocles fled Greece and ended up in Susa, at the court of the Persian king. The opera was written in 1772 in Mannheim.

Several historical novels are devoted to the ancient Greek strategist, in particular "The Hero of Salamis" by L. Voronkova and "Themistocles" by V. Porotnikov.

Notes (edit)

  1. , with. 140.
  2. , with. fourteen.
  3. , with. 159.
  4. , with. 17.
  5. , with. 13.
  6. Themistocles(English). website www.livius.org. Retrieved October 30, 2011. Archived January 24, 2012.
  7. Hornblower Simon, Spawforth Anthony. Themistocles // The Oxford Classical Dictionary. - Oxford University Press. - 1996 .-- ISBN 9780198661726.
  8. Plutarch... Themistocles. I
  9. Surikov I.E. New observations in connection with the onomastic-prosopographic material of the Athenian ostracons // Problems of epigraphy. - M., 2009. - Issue. 3. - S. 102-127.
  10. Zelinsky, Faddey Frantsevich. History of ancient religions. Volume 1-3. - SPb. : Publishing project "Quadrivium"; Aletheia, 2014 .-- S. 195 .-- 864 p. - ISBN 978-5-9906155-9-5.
  11. Cornelius Nepos... Themistocles. 1
  12. , with. 153.
  13. Plutarch... Themistocles II
  14. Libanius... Speeches IX-X
  15. Plutarch... Themistocles III
  16. Plutarch... Themistocles XXXII
  17. , p. 122.
  18. , pp. 126-131.
  19. // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron
  20. // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - SPb. , 1890-1907.
  21. Herodotus. History. V. 78
  22. , pp. 164-167.
  23. Plutarch. Themistocles V
  24. V. V. Stavnyuk Socio-political activity of Themistocles. - M. :: Abstract for the degree of candidate of historical sciences, 1988. - pp. 9-10.
  25. , with. 240.
  26. , with. 166.
  27. Plutarch. Themistocles XIX
  28. Serov Vadim. Laurels of Miltiada keep me awake (unspecified) ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of winged words and expressions. Date of treatment August 29, 2011.
  29. , pp. 214-217.