Methods of armed struggle. On the question of the forms and methods of warfare. Modern means of warfare. The striking factors of modern weapons
Weapons appeared in the history of mankind in primitive society. Prehistoric warriors were armed with clubs, wooden spears with tips made of bone or stone, bows, and stone axes. Then there were bronze and iron swords, spears with metal tips. With the discovery of gunpowder, firearms were invented. One of the first examples of such weapons is considered to be a modf (metal tube) attached to the shaft. It fired round metal cannonballs and was used by the Arabs in the 12th – 13th centuries. In the XIV century. firearms appeared in Western Europe and Russia. Since its inception, firearms have been constantly improved as the most effective means of engaging the enemy. In the XVI century. the first samples of rifled weapons (squeak, fitting) were created. In the second half of the XIX century. rapid-fire, and then automatic weapons and mortars appeared. During the First World War, aviation and depth charges began to be used. During the Second World War, rocket launchers, guided missile aircraft (V-1) and ballistic missiles (V-2) were used for the first time.
The era of great discoveries in nuclear physics (late 19th - early 20th centuries) gave rise to a new weapon of enormous destructive power based on the use of intranuclear energy released during the fission chain reactions of heavy nuclei of some isotopes of uranium and plutonium. The first test of the new weapon was carried out by the United States of America on July 16, 1945 in the state of New Mexico at a special training ground. These weapons were used by the United States at the end of World War II against the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Hiroshima was subjected to atomic bombing on August 6, 1945, and Nagasaki on August 9, 1945. As a result of these bombings, a significant part of Hiroshima was destroyed, more than 140 thousand people died and were injured, in Nagasaki almost a third of buildings and structures were destroyed, killed and about 75 thousand people were injured.
At present, of all existing weapons, weapons of mass destruction (nuclear, chemical and bacteriological) and conventional weapons are distinguished according to the degree of their impact on the enemy's manpower, equipment and weapons.
Nuclear weapon
A nuclear weapon is a weapon whose destructive effect is based on the use of intranuclear energy released during a chain reaction of fission of heavy nuclei of some isotopes of uranium and plutonium or during thermonuclear reactions of fusion of nuclei of light hydrogen isotopes.
It includes a variety of nuclear weapons, their means of delivery to the target (carriers) and control facilities. Nuclear weapons include missile and torpedo warheads, bombs, artillery shells, depth charges, mines (land mines). Carriers of nuclear weapons are airplanes, surface ships and submarines equipped with nuclear weapons and delivering them to the place of launch (firing). There are also carriers of nuclear charges (missiles, torpedoes, shells, aircraft and depth charges), delivering them directly to targets. The power of a nuclear weapon is characterized by TNT equivalent, which is equal to the mass of TNT, the explosion energy of which is equal to the explosion energy of a given nuclear weapon. In terms of TNT equivalent, nuclear munitions are subdivided into 5 groups: ultra-small (up to 1 kt), small (1-10 kt), medium (10-100 kt), large (100 kt - 1 Mt), super-large (over 1 Mt).
By the striking factors of nuclearexplosion are shock wave, light radiation, penetrating radiation, radioactive contamination and an electromagnetic pulse.
Shock wave- the main damaging factor of a nuclear explosion, since most of the destruction and damage to structures and buildings, as well as the damage to people are caused, as a rule, by its impact. It is an area of sharp compression of the medium, propagating in all directions from the explosion site at supersonic speed. The front boundary of the compressed air layer is called front shock wave. The damaging effect of a shock wave is characterized by the magnitude of the excess pressure - the difference between the maximum pressure in the front of the shock wave and the normal atmospheric pressure in front of it. At an overpressure of 20–40 kPa, unprotected people can get light injuries (bruises and contusions). Exposure to a shock wave with an excess pressure of 40-60 kPa leads to moderate injuries (loss of consciousness, damage to the hearing organs, severe dislocation of the limbs, bleeding from the nose and ears). Severe injuries occur when the overpressure is over 60 kPa. Extremely severe lesions are observed at an overpressure of over 100 kPa.
Light emission- a flow of radiant energy, including ultraviolet and infrared rays. Its source is a luminous area formed by hot explosion products and air. This radiation spreads almost instantly and lasts, depending on the power of a nuclear explosion, up to 20 s. Its strength is such that it can cause burns to the skin and damage (permanent or temporary) to the organs of vision of people, as well as the ignition of combustible materials and objects. Light radiation does not penetrate opaque materials, therefore any obstacle capable of creating a shadow protects against direct action of light radiation and excludes injury. Dusty (smoky) air, fog, rain, snowfall significantly weaken the light radiation.
Penetrating radiation is a flux of gamma rays and neutrons. It lasts 10-15 s. Passing through living tissue, this radiation ionizes the molecules that make up the cells. Under the influence of ionization, biological processes arise in the body, leading to disruption of the vital functions of individual organs and the development of radiation sickness. As a result of the passage of ionizing radiation through environmental materials, their intensity decreases. The weakening effect of materials is usually characterized by a half-weakening layer, that is, such their thickness, passing through which the radiation intensity decreases by 2 times. For example, the intensity of gamma rays is halved by a layer of steel 2.8 cm thick, concrete - 10 cm, soil - 14 cm, wood - 30 cm.Open and especially blocked slots significantly reduce the effect of penetrating radiation, and shelters and anti-radiation shelters practically completely protect from it.
Radioactive contamination terrain, the surface layer of the atmosphere, airspace, water and other objects occurs as a result of the fallout of radioactive substances from the cloud of a nuclear explosion. At the same time, a high level of radiation can be observed not only in the area adjacent to the explosion site, but also at a distance of tens and even hundreds of kilometers from it. Radioactive contamination of the area can be dangerous for several weeks after an explosion.
Electromagnetic pulse- This is a short-term electromagnetic field that occurs during the explosion of a nuclear weapon as a result of the interaction of gamma rays and neutrons emitted with the atoms of the environment. The consequence of its impact can be burnout and breakdowns of individual elements of electronic and electrical equipment.
The most reliable means of protection against all damaging factors of a nuclear explosion are protective structures. In open terrain and in the field, strong local items, reverse slopes and terrain folds can be used for cover.
When operating in contaminated areas, special protective equipment should be used to protect the respiratory system, eyes and open areas of the body from radioactive substances.
Chemical weapon
The action of this weapon is based on the toxic properties of certain chemicals. The main components of these weapons are chemical warfare agents and their means of application, including carriers used to deliver chemical munitions to targets.
According to the effect on the body, combat toxic chemicals (BTXV) are subdivided into nerve-paralytic, skin-blistering, asphyxiant, general poisonous, irritating and psychochemical.
BTXV nerve agent(Vi-X, sarin) affect the nervous system, acting on the body through the respiratory system, penetrating in a vaporous and liquid-droplet state through the skin, and also entering the gastrointestinal tract along with food and water. Their durability in summer is more than a day, and in winter it is several weeks or even months.
Signs of damage by these substances are salivation, constriction of the pupils, difficulty breathing, nausea, vomiting, convulsions, paralysis.
As personal protective equipment used mask and protective clothing. To provide the affected with first aid, they put on a gas mask and inject an antidote to him. If substances come into contact with the skin or clothing, the affected areas are treated with a liquid from an individual anti-chemical package (PPI).
BTXV blistering action(mustard gas) have a multifaceted damaging effect. In a droplet-liquid and vapor state, they affect the skin and eyes, when vapors are inhaled, they affect the respiratory tract and lungs, and when they enter the body with food and water, the digestive organs. A characteristic feature of mustard gas is the presence of a period of latent action (the lesion is not detected immediately, but after a while - 2 hours or more). Signs of damage are skin redness, the formation of small blisters, which then merge into large ones and burst after two or three days, turning into ulcers that are difficult to heal. With any local lesion, these substances cause general poisoning of the body, which manifests itself in an increase in temperature, malaise. To protect against BTXV blistering action, it is necessary to use a gas mask and protective clothing. If droplets of a toxic substance come into contact with skin or clothing, the affected area is immediately treated with liquid from the PPI.
BTXV asphyxiating action(phosgene) affect the body through the respiratory system. Signs of defeat are a sweetish, unpleasant taste in the mouth, cough, dizziness, general weakness. After leaving the focus of infection, these phenomena disappear, and the victim within 4-6 hours feels normal, unaware of the lesion received. During this period of latent action, pulmonary edema develops, which leads to a sharp deterioration in breathing, the appearance of a cough with profuse sputum, headache, fever, shortness of breath, palpitations. When providing assistance, they put on a gas mask on the victim, take him out of the infected area, cover him warmly and provide him with peace. In no case should artificial respiration be given to the affected person!
BTHV of general poisonous action(hydrocyanic acid and cyanogen chloride) are only affected by inhalation of air contaminated with their vapors (they do not act through the skin). Signs of damage are a metallic taste in the mouth, throat irritation, dizziness, weakness, nausea, vomiting, violent convulsions, paralysis. To protect against these substances, it is sufficient to use a gas mask. To help the victim, it is necessary to crush the ampoule with the antidote, insert it under the helmet-mask of his gas mask. In severe cases, the victim is given artificial respiration, warmed and sent to a medical center.
Irritant BTXV(CS, CS, adamsite) cause acute burning and pain in the mouth, throat and eyes, severe tearing, coughing, difficulty breathing.
BTXV psychochemical action(Bi-Zeta) have a specific effect on the central nervous system and cause mental (hallucinations, fear, depression) or physical (blindness, deafness) disorders. In case of damage to toxic substances of irritating and psychochemical action, it is necessary to treat the infected parts of the body with soapy water, rinse the eyes and nasopharynx thoroughly with clean water, and shake out the clothes or brush them off.
Bacteriological weapon
Biological weapons are intended for mass destruction of manpower, farm animals and crops. The damaging effect of this weapon is based on the use of the pathogenic properties of microorganisms - pathogens of diseases of people, animals and agricultural plants. As bacterial agents, pathogens of various infectious diseases can be used: plague, anthrax, brucellosis, glanders, tularemia, cholera, yellow and other types of fevers, spring-summer encephalitis, typhus and typhoid fever, influenza, malaria, dysentery, smallpox and etc. In addition, botulinum toxin can be used, which causes severe poisoning of the human body. For the destruction of animals, along with the causative agents of anthrax and glanders, viruses of foot and mouth disease, rinderpest and poultry can be used, and for the destruction of agricultural plants - causative agents of rust of cereals, potato late blight and some other viruses. Disease of people and animals occurs as a result of inhalation of contaminated air, ingestion of microbes or toxins on the mucous membrane and damaged skin, eating contaminated food and water, bites of infected insects and ticks, contact with contaminated objects, injury from shrapnel of ammunition equipped with bacterial agents, and also as a result of direct contact with sick people or animals. A number of diseases are quickly transmitted from sick people to healthy people and cause epidemics (plague, cholera, flu, etc.).
Most characteristic features of bacteriological (biological) weapons are:
The ability to cause massive infectious diseases of humans and animals when ingested in negligible amounts;
The ability of many infectious diseases to quickly spread from sick to healthy;
Long duration of action (for example, spore forms of anthrax microbes retain their damaging properties for several years);
The presence of a latent (incubation) period of the disease;
The ability of contaminated air to penetrate into various non-pressurized rooms and infect people and animals there.
As a result of the use of biological weapons and the spread of pathogenic bacteria on the ground, zones of biological contamination and foci of biological damage can be formed. If you detect at least one of the signs of the use of biological weapons, you must immediately put on a gas mask (respirator, anti-dust cloth mask) and skin protection. After that, you should take refuge in a protective structure. To ensure protection against biological weapons, it is of great importance to carry out anti-epidemic and sanitary-hygienic measures in advance, as well as strict adherence to the rules of personal hygiene.
Conventional weapons
Conventional weapons are based on the use of energy from explosives and incendiary mixtures. It includes artillery, missile and aviation ammunition, small arms, land mines, mines and other means. The most common ammunition that can be used to bomb cities and towns are fragmentation, high-explosive and ball bombs, volumetric explosion ammunition, incendiary mixtures and compositions.
Shrapnel bombs used to kill people and animals. When such a bomb explodes, a large number of fragments are formed, which scatter in different directions at a distance of up to 300 m from the explosion site. The fragments do not break through brick and wooden walls.
High-explosive bombs designed to destroy all kinds of structures. Compared to nuclear weapons, their destructive power is small. Unexploded bombs pose a great danger. Most often they have delayed action fuses, which are triggered automatically some time after the bomb is dropped.
Ball bombs are equipped with a huge amount (from several hundred to several thousand) of lethal elements (balls, needles, arrows, etc.) weighing up to several grams. Ball bombs ranging in size from tennis to soccer balls can contain up to 300 metal or plastic balls with a diameter of 5–6 mm. The radius of the damaging effect of such a bomb is up to 15 m.
Volumetric blast ammunition dropped from an aircraft in the form of cassettes. There are three rounds of ammunition in the cassette, each containing about 35 kg of liquid ethylene oxide. Ammunition is separated in the air. When they hit the ground, a fuse is triggered, which provides a spread of liquid and the formation of a gas cloud with a diameter of about 15 m and a height of about 2.5 m. This cloud is undermined by a special delayed-action device. The main damaging factor of such a munition is a shock wave propagating at a supersonic speed, the power of which is 4-6 times higher than the explosion energy of a conventional explosive.
Incendiary weapon subdivided into petroleum-based incendiary mixtures (napalms), metallized incendiary mixtures, thermite compounds, white porcelain. The means of using incendiary weapons can be aerial bombs, cassettes, artillery incendiary ammunition, flamethrowers. These mixtures and formulations, getting on open skin areas, clothing, cause very severe burns and burnouts. In the process of burning these agents, the air quickly heats up, which leads to burns of the respiratory tract. In addition, the use of incendiary means causes massive fires.
Precision weapons the most modern type of conventional weapon. It includes fire and strike weapons using guided and homing ammunition and missiles capable of hitting targets from the first shot or launch. High accuracy of destruction is achieved by aiming ammunition and missiles at a visually observed target, homing by reflection from the target's radar surface and combined guidance.
Concluding the consideration of the issue of modern means of destruction, it should be noted that, despite the positive changes taking place in the world to reduce the likelihood of a large-scale war against Russia, the threat to the country's national security in the military sphere remains. The most real threat is posed by hotbeds of local wars and armed conflicts near the state borders of the Russian Federation.
A serious threat is posed by the proliferation of nuclear and other types of weapons of mass destruction, technologies for their production and delivery vehicles to countries adjacent to or close to Russia.
At the same time, the range of threats associated with international terrorism is expanding, including the possible use by terrorists of nuclear and other types of weapons of mass destruction. Therefore, the task of ensuring the security of the rear of the country and the population from the dangers arising during the conduct of hostilities or as a result of these actions remains relevant.
16. Modern means of warfare. Striking factors of modern weapons.
CLASSIFICATION OF MODERN WEAPONS
In terms of the scale and nature of the destructive action, modern weapons are divided into:
1.Weapons of Mass Destruction:
Chemical
Bacteriological (biological)
2. Conventional weapons,
including:
Cluster munitions
Precision weapons
Volumetric blast ammunition
Incendiary mixtures
3. Weapons based on new physical principles:
Laser weapon
Beam weapon
Microwave weapon
4. Non-lethal weapons.
5. Genetic weapons.
6. Ethnic weapons.
7. Information weapons, etc.
Nuclear weapons is called a weapon, the destructive effect of which is based on the use of intranuclear energy released during a nuclear explosion.
Nuclear weapons are based on the use of intranuclear energy released during chain reactions of fission of heavy nuclei of isotopes of uranium-235, plutonium-239, or during thermonuclear reactions of fusion of light nuclei-isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium and tritium) into heavier ones.
These weapons include various nuclear warheads (warheads of missiles and torpedoes, aircraft and depth charges, artillery shells and mines), equipped with nuclear chargers, control devices and their delivery to the target.
The main part of a nuclear weapon is a nuclear charge containing a nuclear explosive (NEX) - uranium-235 or plutonium-239.
The damaging factors of a nuclear explosion
When a nuclear weapon explodes, a colossal amount of energy is released in a millionth of a second. The temperature rises to several million degrees, and the pressure reaches billions of atmospheres.
The main damaging factors of a nuclear explosion are:
1.shock wave - 50% of explosion energy;
2. light radiation - 30-35% of the explosion energy;
3. Penetrating radiation - 8-10% of the explosion energy;
4. radioactive contamination - 3-5% of the explosion energy;
5.Electromagnetic impulse - 0.5-1% of the explosion energy.
Chemical weapon- these are toxic substances and means of delivering them to the target.
Poisonous substances are toxic (poisonous) chemical compounds that affect people and animals, contaminating the air, terrain, water bodies and various objects on the ground. Some toxins are intended to damage plants. The means of delivery include chemical artillery shells and mines (VAP), missile warheads in chemical warheads, chemical land mines, checkers, grenades and cartridges.
Poisonous substances can have various states of aggregation (vapor, aerosol, liquid) and affect people through the respiratory system, gastrointestinal tract, or on contact with the skin.
According to the physiological effect, OM are divided into groups :
1) OV nerve-paralytic action - herd, sarin, soman, Wi-X. They cause disturbances in the functions of the nervous system, muscle cramps, rash and death;
2) OV skin-blistering action - mustard gas, lewisite.
3) Generally poisonous agent – hydrocyanic acid and cyanogen chloride. Damage through the respiratory system and when it enters the gastrointestinal tract with water and food.
4) OV of suffocating action– phosgene. Acts on the body through the respiratory system. In the period of latent action, pulmonary edema develops.
5) OV of psychochemical action - Bi-Zet. It affects the respiratory system. Violates coordination of movements, causes hallucinations and mental disorders;
6) Irritating agents - chloroacetophenone, adamsite, CS (Ci-Es), CR (Si-Ar). Irritating to respiratory system and eyes;
Biological weapons (BW)- these are special ammunition and combat devices with delivery vehicles equipped with biological agents.
BO is a weapon of mass destruction of people, farm animals and plants, the action of which is based on the use of the pathogenic properties of microorganisms and their metabolic products - toxins.
The pathogens of plague, cholera, anthrax, tularemia, brucellosis, glanders and smallpox, psittaccosis, yellow fever, foot and mouth disease, Venezuelan, western and eastern American encephalomyelitis, epidemic typhus, CU spotty fever, mountains and fever of tsutsugamushi, coccidioid mycosis, nocardiosis, histoplasmosis, etc.
The main ways of using BO are as follows:
a) aerosol - contamination of surface air by spraying liquid or dry biological formulations;
b) transmissible - dispersion of artificially infected blood-sucking vectors in the target area;
c) sabotage method - contamination of air, water, food with the help of sabotage equipment.
Conventional means of attack, precision weapons.
The main role of the carrier of conventional weapons is played by aviation as the most mobile component of the entire NATO military machine. Their planes are equipped with high-precision guided weapons - air-to-ground missiles, guided aerial bombs (conventional aerial bombs, high-explosive, armor-piercing, cumulative, concrete-piercing, incendiary, volumetric explosion, etc.).
Ammunition of a volumetric explosion is also referred to as common types of modern weapons. The damaging factors of volumetric explosion ammunition are shock wave, thermal and toxic effects. Buildings, structures, buried objects can be destroyed as a result of the action of a shock wave, as well as the leakage of a gas-air mixture (DHW) into the entrances, air supply channels, communications with the subsequent detonation of the DHW.
Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 contains part 3 of sect. I "Methods and means of warfare". However, the norms of this section (Articles 35 - 47) require careful study and research, taking into account the development of modern weapons, on the one hand, and the level of development of the science of international law, on the other. In this chapter, weapons are understood as means designed to destroy manpower, equipment, structures and other enemy targets, component parts of these means and components; military equipment includes technical means intended for combat, technical and logistic support of the activities of troops, as well as equipment and apparatus for monitoring and testing these means, components of these means and components.
The rapid progress in the field of armaments, the improvement of military equipment (and its sale to third countries) are now far ahead of the development of international law.
Are new weapons permissible, the use of which in the event of an armed conflict has not yet been regulated by international law? Do the armed forces of a belligerent state have the right to use all means not specifically prohibited by IHL? This chapter is devoted to finding answers to these questions.
Prohibited means of warfare
Article 36 of Additional Protocol I contains a rule that states that when studying, developing, acquiring or adopting new types of weapons, means or methods of warfare, states are obliged to “determine whether their use, under some or all of the circumstances, falls under prohibition of "norms of international law. The article is of the most general nature, and the solution to the issue is left to the sovereign states themselves. No supranational organization was created to exercise control in this area.
To avoid unnecessary suffering, unjustified civilian casualties associated with hostilities, IHL sets limits on the choice of belligerents in the means and methods of warfare. This principle is expressed in the formula: "the belligerents do not enjoy an unlimited right in choosing the means of harming the enemy" (Article 22 of the Convention on the Laws and Customs of War on Land of October 18, 1907). This provision was confirmed in
Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions for the Protection of Victims of War (1949): "the right of parties to a conflict to choose the methods or means of warfare is not unlimited" (Art. 35).
Means of warfare - weapons and other means used by the armed forces of the belligerents to harm and defeat the enemy. In the Military Doctrine of the Russian Federation in 2010 (clauses 15, 16), it is noted that military operations will be characterized by the increasing importance of high-precision, electromagnetic, laser, infrasonic weapons, information control systems, unmanned aerial vehicles and autonomous sea vehicles, guided robotic samples. weapons and military equipment. Nuclear weapons will remain an important factor in preventing the outbreak of nuclear military conflicts and military conflicts using conventional weapons (large-scale war, regional war). In the event of a military conflict with the use of conventional means of destruction (large-scale war, regional war), which endangers the very existence of the state, the possession of nuclear weapons can lead to the escalation of such a military conflict into a nuclear military conflict.
The document "Fundamentals of the Policy of the Russian Federation in the Field of Nuclear Deterrence" signed by the President of the Russian Federation on February 5, 2010 together with the Military Doctrine, which is closed for publication, defines the position of the Russian Federation regarding the essence of nuclear deterrence, its role and place in the general system of ensuring the national security of the state. developed the provisions of the Military Doctrine in this area. According to the document, the nature and scale of Russia's use of nuclear weapons in response to aggression depend primarily on the effectiveness of the political, diplomatic, military and other measures taken prior to the use of nuclear weapons. The use of nuclear weapons is carried out exclusively by the decision of the President of the Russian Federation. Considering the extremely small time interval from the moment the launch of foreign ICBMs is detected to their impact on targets on the territory of Russia (no more than 30 minutes), the response options on the part of Russia in each specific case should be determined in advance and regulated in detail. An obvious transition of Russia to the use of nuclear weapons in response to aggression, even with the use of conventional weapons, is to strike at the most important political, administrative and economic centers of the country, at the objects of the missile attack warning system and the orbital constellation of military satellites, at the system of central command posts of the General Staff of the Armed Forces. RF and RF Armed Forces services, Strategic Missile Forces position areas, strategic aviation base airfields, strategic submarine bases, as well as during the attack of Russian nuclear submarines in the World Ocean during their patrol. Nuclear weapons can also be used by Russia during the invasion of enemy ground forces into its territory if the RF Armed Forces fail to stop the advance into the interior of the country by conventional methods of warfare.
IHL classifies the prohibited means of warfare as those that cause unnecessary suffering by their destructive properties: a) bullets that easily unfold or flatten in the human body; b) shells weighing less than 400 grams, stuffed with explosive or flammable substances; c) poisons or poisoned weapons; d) shells that have a single purpose - to distribute toxic substances; e) asphyxiant and other poisonous gases and bacteriological agents; f) bacteriological (biological) and toxin weapons; g) means of influencing the natural environment that have broad, long-term or serious consequences as methods of destruction, damage or harm; h) specific types of conventional indiscriminate weapons and weapons the use of which causes undue injury or suffering. Let's consider them.
1. Bullets easily deployed or flattened in the human body. The Hague Declaration of 1899 specifically prohibited the use of such bullets. For more than 100 years, this Declaration has been largely respected - at least in its literal sense: the bullets specifically referred to in it have almost never been used in wars.
The ban on the use of weapons and ammunition capable of causing excessive damage and unnecessary suffering was confirmed by Art. 35 of Additional Protocol I and is regarded as a rule of customary international law. The Hague Declaration sets a minimum standard level for what is meant by "excessive damage" and "unnecessary suffering". Other small caliber projectiles causing the same damage should be considered prohibited under customary international law.
During the preparation of the UN Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Conventional Weapons (1981), the question was raised of including a provision prohibiting the use of high velocity bullets, or "tumbling" bullets, bullets with a displaced center of gravity. But agreement was not reached, and the use of such bullets remains unregulated to this day.
The meaning of the new proposals in the field of prohibiting the use of weapons systems and small-caliber ammunition for them is to prohibit ammunition, which, at a firing range of 25 meters or more, release more than 20 joules of energy for every centimeter of the first 15 centimeters of the bullet's path inside the human body. It is necessary to confirm or deny that the principles laid down in the Hague Convention on the Prohibition of Dum-Dum Bullets (1899) are also applicable in the conditions of modern armed conflicts.
When a projectile (bullet or bomb fragment) hits the human body and penetrates its tissues, its kinetic energy (energy of motion) is partially or completely transferred to these tissues, tearing them apart at the speed of an explosion. The more energy is transferred, the more tissue is destroyed. In elastic tissues such as muscles, the rapid transfer of energy results in an abrupt and violent formation of a "temporary cavity". Before collapse, the "temporary cavity" expands and contracts several times at high speed around the "permanent cavity", or the wound channel, remaining behind the passed projectile. According to results from Princeton's serious World War II wound ballistics research program, "Examination and measurement of a large number of temporary cavities shows that the total volume of the cavity is proportional to the amount of energy transmitted by the bullet." As the study at Princeton shows, stretching and displacement of tissues during the formation and contraction of a "temporary cavity" can cause serious damage to a large area around the channel formed by the projectile. Tissues are torn and shredded, capillaries rupture, nerves lose their ability to transmit impulses, soft organs can be damaged, gas-filled pockets of the intestine are torn, and bones not directly exposed to impact are broken.
Consequently, the larger the size of the "temporary cavity", the more extensive the damage and the greater the likelihood of damage to a vital organ that is not directly in the path of the projectile.
It has long been recognized that the transfer of energy is a major factor in projectile injury.
For example, in 1969, when studying the lethality of the M16 rifle ammunition in the laboratory of the US Army, this factor was taken into account as the main one. The test report noted that "previous researchers who studied the lethality of fragments, conventional and arrow-shaped bullets, it was quite logical to assume that the degree of loss of combat capability of a soldier as a result of a bullet hit is proportional to the amount of energy released by the bullet in the target" - or disagreement with this statement.
The bullet is aerodynamically designed in such a way that the air resistance during its flight is minimal. The high speed rotation imparted to it in the gun barrel provides its stability so that it moves with the head part forward. The human body is much denser than air, however, with the correct shape, solid construction and high speed of rotation of the bullet, it continues to move in it with its head part forward, without losing a lot of energy and not forming an extensive wound, except in cases of shooting at close range, due to nutation. But the "dum-dum" bullet, when hitting the body, takes a mushroom shape, the area of its contact with the body, on the tissues of which it exerts the strongest pressure, increases; the energy of the bullet is quickly transferred to the body, resulting in a massive wound.
Thus, if a bullet does not deform like a dum-dum bullet, but nevertheless quickly transfers its energy to the body in some other way, it should also be considered as subject to the prohibition of international law.
For many years, the standard caliber of small arms in the armies of NATO and Warsaw Pact countries was 7.62 mm. Since 1957, the US Army has adopted the 7.62 mm M14 rifle. But the American firm "Armalite" reduced the caliber of its rifle, adapting it to fire modified hunting ammunition with a diameter of 5.56 mm (0.22 inches). The new rifle, called the AP15, from a military point of view, had the following advantages: it was a quarter lighter than the M14 rifle, the ammunition for it was also lighter, which made the recoil weaker when firing and made it possible for the soldier to carry more cartridges. In the early 60s. the US military department purchased and shipped several thousand AP15 rifles to Vietnam for testing in combat conditions. According to unofficial data published in the American magazine "Armie" in August 1963, a light bullet of the AP15 rifle, flying at a speed of 3300 feet per second (1000 m / s), when it enters the human body, begins to somersault, causing an extremely serious injury, completely not like a small 0.22 inch diameter bullet wound. In the US Army, the A15 rifle was assigned the M16 code, and in 1967 it was adopted as the primary infantry weapon of the US non-NATO armed forces. By 1978, these rifles were exported to 21 countries, and in three more countries they were manufactured under license.
However, to establish a ban on the use of such bullets, it took the development of the science of bullet wounds - ballistics of wounds. But it was these data that turned out to be classified. In order for the bullet of the AR15 (M16) rifle of 5.56 mm caliber to have the required range and to have a sufficiently flat flight path that ensures the required accuracy of hitting the target, the designers increased its speed. The muzzle velocity (muzzle velocity at the exit from the barrel) of the M16 rifle is 980 m / s, while this speed for the M14 rifle is 870 m / s, and for the Soviet AK47 carbine of 7.62 mm caliber - 720 m / s. At a distance of 100 m from the trunk, these speeds are 830, 800, and 630 m / s, respectively. From this, it was concluded that the severity of the injuries is due to the high velocity of the bullet, which tends to tumble and deform upon contact with the human body or after penetration into it.
In 1976, at the Conference of Governmental Experts on the Use of Specific Conventional Weapons in Lugano, experts from the governments of Sweden and Switzerland presented blocks of soap showing the results of bullet tests. The blocks, cast in the shape of a human thigh, were shot with various bullets and then dissected so that cavities formed in them could be seen, which were believed to correspond to permanent and temporary cavities formed in the human body as a result of similar shots, and, therefore, the volume of tissue damage.
Tests have shown that while some bullets leave a narrow channel along the entire length, from others it is narrow at the entrance, and then sharply expands in the place where a volume of soap the size of a fist is forcefully scattered to the sides as the bullet passes. However, the reasons for this remained unclear.
In 1994, the Swiss ballistic scientist B.P. Kneubel and the German professor of forensic medicine C.G. Sellier published a textbook on injury ballistics, which describes the mechanism of a bullet wound and the design parameters on which its severity depends.
When moving inside a person, a bullet can somersault, as a result of which he is seriously injured, since at the moments when it moves inside the body not with the head part forward, but with a large angle of attack, the area over which pressure is transmitted to the tissues is relatively large, and therefore, a lot of energy is transferred to the tissues.
According to the theory of Sellier and Kneubel, a bullet enclosed in a solid metal shell (and such are almost all modern rifle ammunition), after penetrating the human body to any depth, begins to rotate about the transverse axis. The speed of rotation increases rapidly, the angle of attack reaches 90 degrees, the bullet continues to turn until it begins to move almost with its tail part forward (last position). Depending on the design, a bullet with a solid metal shell can deform and collapse under the influence of the loads it experiences during rotation; the deformation and destruction of such a bullet, being only a consequence of this rotation, and not an independent process, nevertheless increase its ability to inflict injuries, since as a result of deformation or destruction, the area of the bullet material, which transfers pressure to tissues, increases.
Thus, turning or rolling the bullet is the main factor in causing severe injury, and the likelihood of the latter depends on how deeply the bullet penetrates the body before it begins to turn. The tendency to somersault immediately upon penetration into the human body depends on the angle of encounter upon impact with the body, the shape of the bullet head and its gyroscopic stability, which, in turn, is determined by factors such as the speed of rotation around the longitudinal axis, moment of inertia and geometric parameters bullets. The higher the gyroscopic stability of the bullet (for example, due to the high rotation speed), the further it penetrates the body without turning; the shorter the bullet is in relation to its diameter, the lower the likelihood that it will start tumbling.
In 1981, NATO announced its decision to adopt a new standard for small arms caliber. This new caliber - 5.56 mm - was the same as that of the M16 rifle. But the Belgian SS109 ammunition was adopted as the standard NATO small arms ammunition. The high speed of rotation of the bullet is given to it due to the reduced pitch of the barrel: one turn per 7 inches, while the M16 rifle has one turn per 12 inches. It should be pointed out that the term “small caliber weapon systems” should encompass both the ammunition and the weapon from which it is fired. The nature of the injury may depend on such technical characteristics of the weapon as the parameters of the barrel cutting.
According to the test results, the CC109 bullet begins to quickly release energy (with an intensity of 50 or more joules per centimeter), only going deeper by 14 or more centimeters; for 20 or more centimeters of the path, it gives up to tissues only 600 joules of energy. At the same time, the bullet of the Russian AK74 machine gun of 5.45 mm caliber begins to quickly release energy, going deep into the body only 9 cm, and it gives 600 joules of energy to tissues at 14 centimeters of travel. According to some reports, the AK74 bullet inflicts a serious wound much closer to the surface of the body than the CC109 bullet.
Small-caliber projectiles also include an arrow-shaped bullet - a small pointed rod with several stabilizer feathers at the blunt end. In the early 60s. the US Army began a program to develop small arms that hit with arrow-shaped bullets (the so-called individual special-purpose weapons). In 1966, the AAI Corporation developed a concave-compound finned projectile and a multiple hardness pointed finned projectile.
The purpose of these two inventions was to deform the warhead on impact, resulting in somersaulting bullet tumbling.
In the US Army Ballistics Research Laboratory, another design was tested for lethality - a bimetallic arrow-shaped bullet. On impact, the two metals should have separated from each other, significantly increasing the area of transfer of pressure on the tissue.
The deformation of such bullets is very close to unfolding or flattening, in the terminology of the Hague Declaration, dum-dum bullets.
Thus, when developing and adopting new models of small arms, the following indicators should be taken into account: 1) the maximum caliber at which the weapon belongs to small-caliber systems (12.7 mm); 2) firing range (more than 25 m); 3) the minimum length of a narrow canal (15 cm); 4) the maximum amount of energy released in a narrow channel (more than 20 joules of energy for each centimeter of the first 15 cm of a bullet's path inside the human body).
As part of the progressive development of the norms of international humanitarian law, it seems necessary to establish a strict ban on the use of modern dum-dum bullets, which would provide protection against excessive suffering caused by particularly dangerous small-caliber weapon systems.
Indicative is the discussion on the pages of the "Independent Military Review" on the suitability of 5.45-millimeter assault rifles and light machine guns in service with the RF Armed Forces for confrontation with troops equipped with army body armor of the highest degree of protection. In the 60s and 70s. virtually all militarily and economically leading states switched to low-impulse cartridges. In the USSR, in 1987, the 7N6 cartridge with a heat-strengthened core appeared. In 1992, a 5.45-mm cartridge with a bullet of increased penetration 7N10, in which a stamped pointed core is used, was developed and put into service; bullet weight is 5% more. In 1994, a cartridge with a modernized 7N10 bullet of increased power was developed and adopted for production, the main difference of which is that the cavity in the head part is filled with lead. In 1998, a 5.45 x 39 mm cartridge with a 7N22 armor-piercing bullet was developed and adopted, in which a pointed core made of U12A high-carbon armor-piercing steel was used. The authors note that the reserves of the 5.45 mm caliber in terms of increasing the effectiveness of the destruction of obstacles are far from being exhausted.
The development of 9-mm bullets for the PM pistol takes place in a similar way. In the early 90s. a new high-impulse cartridge for the PMM-57N181SM pistol has appeared, which has a more powerful powder charge and provides a conical bullet lightweight up to 5.5 g with a speed of about 45 m / s.
However, while this cartridge cannot be used in standard PM pistols.
2. Projectiles weighing less than 400 g, filled with explosive or flammable substances.
2. Prohibition of the misuse of the distinctive signs of the medical service, civil defense, cultural values, installations and structures containing dangerous forces, the white flag of the parliamentarian, as well as other generally recognized distinctive signs and signals (for example, for demilitarized zones, undefended areas).
Analysis of the norms contained in Art. Art. 35, 53, 75, 85 of Additional Protocol I, allows to distinguish the following groups of prohibited methods of warfare.
1. Directed against enemy combatants: a) treacherous killing or wounding of persons belonging to the enemy troops; b) the murder of the envoy and accompanying persons (trumpeter, bugler, drummer); c) killing or wounding enemy persons who, having laid down their arms or not being able to defend themselves, surrendered; d) an attack on persons who are disabled due to illness or injury, as well as on persons who have left an aircraft in distress (with the exception of persons belonging to the airborne forces); e) forcing persons of the opposing side to take part in hostilities directed against their country; f) giving an order not to leave anyone alive, to threaten it or to conduct military operations on this basis; g) taking hostages.
2. Directed against the civilian population: a) the implementation of genocide, apartheid; b) terror against the local population; c) the use of hunger among the civilian population.
Specific legal requirements that will ensure the achievement of the goal are indicated in paragraphs 2 and 3 of Art. 54 of Additional Protocol I, as well as Art. 55, which provides for the obligation to protect the natural environment, in Art. Art. 68 - 71 - on assistance to the civilian population and in the 1925 Geneva Protocol prohibiting the use of bacteriological and chemical weapons.
3. Directed against objects: a) attack, bombardment or destruction of sanitary facilities, hospital ships (ambulances), ambulance planes with proper distinguishing marks; b) bombardment by military aircraft, naval ships of unprotected cities, ports, villages, dwellings, historical monuments, temples, hospitals, provided that they are not used for military purposes; c) destruction of cultural values, historical monuments, places of worship, etc., constituting the cultural or spiritual heritage of the people, as well as their use to ensure success in hostilities.
4. Directed against property: a) the destruction or seizure of enemy property, except when such actions are caused by military necessity; b) seizure of vessels intended for coastal fishing or the needs of local navigation; hospital courts, as well as courts performing scientific and religious functions; c) plunder of a city or area.
A very important problem is the legal regulation of the methods of conducting indiscriminate hostilities, i.e. adherence to the principle of distinction. Acceptance of the prohibition, enshrined in paragraph 5 "a" of Art. 51 of Additional Protocol I, was an important humanitarian achievement. The authors of the article considered that there was no need to refer to "massive" bombing, to "zone bombing" or "bomb mats" from the moment this prohibition became fully applicable to them, and reference to such expressions could be interpreted as limiting the protection of civilians from other types of bombing. It should be noted that the prohibition is limited to situations in which humanitarian requirements are paramount, as it applies to areas where civilians or objects are concentrated. Other areas are not covered by this prohibition. How far apart should military targets be?
The criteria of “clearly distinct” and “distinguishable” raise a number of questions when determining whether separate attacks should be carried out. The current regulations do not provide an answer to these questions. Of course, the problem is related to precision weapons, and difficulties of interpretation cannot justify barbaric methods. What is the extent of the military advantage achieved as a result of the attack? By what measure should the loss of civilian lives be determined? Only the courts in their decisions, world practice and world public opinion can answer these questions.
The provisions of Art. 57 of Additional Protocol I are aimed at eliminating two more cases of violation of the principle of distinction: (a) incorrect identification of military objects prior to the attack on them; b) attacks that can accidentally cause extremely large damage to the civilian population and damage to civilian objects. These provisions are addressed primarily to those who prepare or make decisions about the attack. Those who carry out an attack in practice are often unable, using modern means and methods of warfare, to timely recognize the objects that are planned to be attacked. If "it becomes clear that the target is not military", "the attack is canceled or suspended." But even if the target is declared a military one, an attack on it may be prohibited, for example, because the target conceals dangerous forces or is necessary for the survival of the civilian population, and in cases where the attack would cause excessive civilian casualties.
Note that the parties are required to give "timely warning" of attacks that pose a danger to civilians, if circumstances permit this.
The instructions on the methods of conducting combat operations are usually contained in the administrative documents (orders) of the military command and control bodies, therefore it is in them that all the precautions that are necessary during the operation should be provided. In this case, the knowledge possessed by legal advisers (assistant commanders for legal work) should be used. At the same time, a number of violations can be prevented only if there is a sufficient level of organization and discipline of subordinates.
The rules of engagement (rules of attack) are rules for the use of force to achieve a set goal (accomplishment of a combat mission) and must comply with IHL norms. They must meet the following requirements: 1) be accessible, i.e. communicated in a concise and understandable language; 2) be reasonable, i.e. take into account all situations that may arise when performing a task; 3) be realistic, i.e. must not expose personnel to unreasonable risks in performing them. Every soldier must know the rules of IHL at a sufficient level, corresponding to his military rank and official position.
The elementary rules are based on the principles of humanity and are as follows:
- you can only fight with those who have weapons in their hands;
- only military objects are allowed to be attacked (for example, military bases, warehouses, fuel supplies, ports, take-off sites, cars, ships, aircraft, weapons, equipment, buildings and objects that are used by the enemy for military purposes);
- the attack should not be directed at persons and objects that have a protective status, civilians and civilian objects should be spared;
- no more damage can be inflicted than is required to complete the combat mission, indiscriminate attacks are prohibited;
- undefended terrain and neutral zones must not be attacked;
- objects containing dangerous forces (nuclear power plants, dams, dams) should not be attacked;
- taking hostages is prohibited;
- persons and objects marked with protective signs and emblems should be treated with respect;
- medical personnel and clergy, wounded and sick enemy soldiers, civilians, personnel of civil defense units (firefighters, sappers, search and rescue squads), parliamentarians with a white flag should not be the target of an attack;
- the surrounded enemy must be given the opportunity to surrender, the order not to take prisoners is a serious war crime;
- prisoners of war should be treated humanely, they are obliged to provide information only about their identity;
- should refrain from any acts of retaliation, respect the property rights of the civilian population;
- it is necessary to comply with the indicated rules themselves and require this from colleagues, since their violation entails
INTRODUCTION
Analysis of the military-political situation in the world shows that the beginning of the 21st century will be characterized by the manifestation of two main trends in domestic and international relations:
The first one is a departure from military-power politics to the development of relations of trust and cooperation in the military-political field.
The second is the opposite tendency, consisting in the expansion of the reasons and reasons for the use of military-power policy. The crisis nature of the economic development of a large group of states, the real growth of the gap between economically developed and backward countries, provoke the political regimes of some countries to try to solve economic and internal political problems by armed means.
These trends are due to the following reasons:
· Growing deficit of raw materials and energy in developed countries;
· Transfer of social-class confrontation to the area of national contradictions;
· Intensification of the struggle for leadership in a new order in the regions and in the world as a whole;
· The growing need to reform the existing world order by changing the status of the new world powers;
· Entering the political arena of forces professing terrorism as a way to change the world order.
The existing contradictions between states and peoples will push various radical and extremist movements to use force.
Consequently, even the final receding into the past of relapses of the Cold War does not mean that military-political confrontation will be excluded from international practice. Refusal from ideological confrontation will not cancel geopolitical interests, as well as national priorities in the foreign policy of any state.
3.2 POSSIBLE CHARACTER OF A FUTURE WAR
When analyzing threats to Russia's security, one should dwell on the sources of military danger, which can develop into military threats of various scales (global, regional, local).
The global military threat to Russia comes and will continue to come from countries possessing strategic nuclear weapons (USA, China, France, Great Britain, Pakistan). In turn, Russia, which possesses the same weapons, is a source of global military danger in relation to other countries of the world. At the same time, the military-strategic situation in the world shows that the potential military threat on a global scale is decreasing and has all positive tendencies towards a further decrease.
Thus, the military-strategic situation in the world at the beginning of the 21st century is characterized by a tendency towards a decrease in the military threat that exists for Russia from the countries possessing nuclear weapons. Likewise on the part of Russia - these countries.
The characteristic features of modern wars today include:
· Application of various forms and methods of combat operations, including non-traditional ones;
· Combination of military actions (conducted in accordance with the rules of military science) with partisan and terrorist actions;
· Widespread use of criminal groups;
· The transience of hostilities (30-60 days);
· Selectivity of destruction of objects;
· Increasing the role of long-range remote combat with the use of high-precision radio-controlled means;
· Inflicting pinpoint strikes on key objects (critical elements of objects of the economy);
· A combination of powerful political, diplomatic, informational, psychological and economic impact.
The sources of potential regional danger for Russia and other neighboring countries are the states bordering on the territory of the former USSR in the south, which are capable of separately creating quite powerful groupings of troops against their northern neighbors. In addition, the growing territorial and confessional contradictions in the northwest and east of Russia are a source of regional military danger. At the same time, regional military dangers of various natures have been smoothed to a certain extent by bilateral agreements and have practically not grown into a military threat to Russia, although they have a great explosive potential.
Local military danger is currently more mobile, more pronounced and specific symptoms of contradictions and a shorter process in terms of time of transition to an immediate military threat or armed conflict.
Currently, an increasing role is played by the tendencies of the growing military threat within the CIS and Russia, which can develop into armed conflicts of various scales and intensity.
A) The first is the discrepancy between the ethnic and administrative boundaries of a number of CIS states and Russia. The same problem occurs within the Russian Federation and between its subjects.
B) Second, political and economic contradictions both within Russia and with the CIS states can provoke armed conflicts.
C) Third - the aspiration of the power nationalist structures of some autonomies for full sovereignty and the creation of their own national formations.
Thus, for Russia at present there are sources of military danger in the European, Central Asian, Asia-Pacific regions.
A brief analysis of the trends in the development of military-political relations between states and sources of military danger shows that with an unfavorable development, a sharp exacerbation of the existing contradictions between Russia and the states of the near and far abroad is possible. This can lead to the emergence of armed conflicts (wars), different in their goals and scales.
Based on military threats, dangers and measures to ensure the security of Russia, the alignment of military and political forces in the world and the states adjacent to Russia, as well as the possible geopolitical goals of the aggressor, military conflicts at the beginning of the XXI century can develop according to Fig. one
Military conflicts will be characterized as:
· border wars- where the aggressor will pursue goals: breaking through the state border for the passage of smugglers, terrorists or a stream of refugees; implementation of territorial claims against Russia; support for separatist movements in the adjacent territory; provoking NATO to enter the conflict on the side of the aggressor; gaining access to the resources of the economic zone of Russia;
· local wars that can be untied with the goals: implementation of territorial claims against the Russian Federation; support for armed separatist movements on Russian territory with the task of separating individual regions from it, as well as ousting peacekeeping contingents and Russian military bases in other states;
· regional wars- wars of a larger scale, which will be conducted with the following goals: defeat of the main military forces of the Russian Federation on the territory of the theater of operations; capture of a large territory; weakening the military-political leadership of the state and promoting the territorial disintegration of the Russian Federation; weakening of the international positions of the Russian Federation; the final erosion and disintegration of the CIS and the system of international relations;
· large-scale (world) war where the aggressor - a state, a coalition of states or their bloc, will pursue the goals of military and economic defeat of the Russian Federation and its allies, dismemberment and liquidation of Russia as a state - a subject of international relations.
The sources of military danger for Russia can be roughly divided into two groups: A) existing within the CIS and Russia, and B) emanating from other states.
Currently within the CIS and Russia The following contradictions persist, which determine the tendencies for an increase in the military danger, which can develop into armed conflicts of various scales and intensities:
1) The discrepancy between the ethnic and administrative borders of a number of CIS states and Russia (the same problem also occurs within the Russian Federation between its subjects).
2) Political and economic contradictions both within Russia and with the CIS states.
3) The desire of the power nationalist structures of some autonomies for full sovereignty and the creation of their own national formations.
| International armed conflict | ||
| Local war in one strategic direction | ||
| Regional conflict in 2-3 strategic directions | ||
| World War Using Only Conventional Means of Destruction | ||
| 2-3 weeks | 2-3 months | |
| The escalation of a war with the use of conventional weapons into a war with the limited use of nuclear weapons and other means of mass destruction | ||
| World nuclear war |
Options for the development of a military conflict
From the side states of the so-called far abroad the most probable is the military threat of a border, local and regional war.
A border and local military threat can now arise in any region that has an important economic or political significance. This military danger has a more mobile character, more pronounced and concrete symptoms of contradictions and a shorter process in terms of time of transition to an immediate military threat or armed conflict.
The sources of potential regional danger for Russia and other neighboring countries are the states bordering on the territory of the former USSR in the south, which are capable of separately creating quite powerful groupings of troops against their northern neighbors. In addition, the growing territorial and confessional contradictions in the northwest and east of Russia are a source of regional military danger.
At the same time, regional military dangers of various natures have been smoothed to a certain extent by bilateral agreements and have practically not grown into a military threat to Russia, although they have a great explosive potential.
However, one should not forget that, based on military threats, dangers, the alignment of military and political forces in the world and neighboring states, as well as the possible geopolitical goals of the aggressor, military conflicts at the beginning of the 21st century can develop up to a world war with the use of all types of weapons. ...
What will be the nature of each specific war is determined by: the capabilities of the states participating in it, the military-political goals and the strategic tasks set for their achievement.
Thus, for Russia at present there are sources of military danger in practically all regions surrounding the state: in the European, Central Asian, and Asia-Pacific regions.
The strategic nature of modern wars is determined by the capabilities of the states participating in them, military-political goals and the strategic tasks set for their achievement.
It is important to note that modern wars are fundamentally different from all previous wars in the history of wars. The characteristic features of modern wars today include:
1) the secrecy of preparation and the suddenness of the unleashing of aggression, elements of which have already been observed in the wars of the twentieth century;
2) the transience of hostilities (30-60 days);
3) the constant threat of the expansion of the scale of the conflict;
4) the conduct of armed warfare in all spheres of the globe - on land, in the air, at sea, with the increasing role of aerospace attack weapons;
5) the use of various, both classical and previously unknown forms and methods of warfare, including non-traditional ones;
6) selectivity of destruction of objects;
7) the massive use of high-precision weapons, electronic warfare, and, in the future, weapons based on new physical principles;
8) increasing the role of long-range remote combat with the use of high-precision radio-controlled means;
9) fire destruction of the most important objects and elements of the infrastructure of the state and grouping of troops to the entire depth of their construction; maneuvering actions of troops with the widespread use of airmobile forces, assault forces and special forces;
10) inflicting pinpoint strikes on key objects (critical elements of economic objects);
11) a combination of military actions (conducted in accordance with the rules of military science) with partisan and terrorist actions;
12) widespread use of criminal groups;
13) active struggle for gaining strategic initiative and superiority in management;
14) a combination of powerful political, diplomatic, informational, psychological and economic impact.
Their most characteristic features will be: the secrecy of preparation and the suddenness of the unleashing of aggression; massive use of high-precision weapons, electronic warfare equipment, and, in the future, weapons based on new physical principles; the use of previously unknown forms and methods of warfare; the conduct of armed struggle in all spheres - on land, in the air, at sea, with the increasing role of aerospace attack weapons; active struggle to gain strategic initiative and superiority in management; fire destruction of the most important objects and elements of the infrastructure of the state and group of forces to the entire depth of their construction; maneuvering actions of troops with the widespread use of airmobile forces, assault forces and special forces; the constant threat of the expansion of the scale of the conflict. All this puts forward new requirements for the structure of the military organization of the state, including for civil defense and the system of medical support for the population in wartime.
A characteristic feature of modern wars is the fact that even with the participation of large military formations in large territories, as a rule, war is not declared, martial law is not introduced in the state, and full-scale mobilization measures are not carried out. In other words, there is no clear legal line between peace and martial law in a country in which there is essentially a war.
In the same time, even with limited military conflict the state should take measures to protect civilians, material and cultural values from the impact of enemy weapons, i.e. spend civil defense activities and use her forces and means.
All this puts forward new requirements both for the structure and organization of the work of military units, formations and formations of the state, and for the structure and organization of the work of forces and means of civil defense.
In recent years, there has been a sharp increase in the combat potential of developed countries due to the quantitative and qualitative build-up of conventional weapons. The priority role is assigned to the use of high-precision conventional weapons, mainly by remote method from long distances, with little or no full-scale ground operations.
In a probable war, the decisive role will be assigned to high-precision weapons and weapons based on new physical principles of destruction, and created on the basis of the latest technologies. The development of weapons based on new physical principles is being carried out most intensively. Their striking properties and combat effectiveness have sharply increased. Further development of scientific and technological progress in the military field finds its concentrated expression in the computerization of the armed forces. A new term "computer-technotronic war" has been introduced into everyday life.
These types of weapons will significantly devalue the role of nuclear weapons, destroy the barrier that has long separated nuclear and conventional weapons.
These weapons will inevitably change the nature of war and, as a result, require changes in the organization of the work of civil defense.
Thus, it is obvious that probable wars against Russia will be carried out with the use of modern conventional weapons. Qualitatively new means of warfare, created on the basis of the latest technologies, will inevitably change the nature of war. The decisive role is assigned not to manpower, not nuclear, but high-precision conventional weapons and weapons based on new physical principles. These types of weapons will significantly devalue the role of nuclear weapons, destroy the barrier that has long separated nuclear and conventional weapons.
3.3 NUCLEAR WEAPONS. ITS HITTING FACTORS. BRIEF CHARACTERISTIC OF THE FOCUS OF NUCLEAR DAMAGE
Nuclear weapons have a special place in modern warfare. It is the main means of destruction, the main means of waging war. The tactical, technical and military-economic characteristics can make it possible to widely use nuclear weapons both for striking industrial, political and administrative centers, transport hubs and military facilities deep in the enemy's territory, and for destroying the population. According to their purpose, they distinguish between strategic and tactical nuclear weapons. This distinction is to a certain extent arbitrary, since the same nuclear weapons can be used for different purposes.
Table 10
Indicators of sanitary losses during the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Table 11
Structure of sanitary losses during the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (in%)
The development and improvement of nuclear weapons have a great influence on the means and methods of warfare, which in turn affects the organization and equipment of the armed forces, strategy, operational art and tactics of warfare, including medical support for troops, as well as for medical support of the civilian population affected by hostilities or as a result of these actions
Nuclear weapons are ammunition (bombs, shells, missile warheads, landmines, etc.), the damaging effect of which is due to intranuclear energy released during explosive nuclear reactions. Obtaining nuclear energy is achieved through the fission of the nuclei of atoms of some heavy elements (uranium, plutonium) or the synthesis of the nuclei of atoms of the lightest elements into heavier ones, for example, hydrogen isotopes into helium.
Type of nuclear weapon
- Nuclear weapons (charge up to 500 Kt of TNT equivalent)
Fission chain reaction of heavy element nuclei
U 233, U 235 (30 kg), Pu 238 (60 kg)
- Thermonuclear weapon
Synthesis of nuclei of light elements H 2 + H 3 = He 4 + n 0
- Combined charges (charges up to 50-100 Mt of TNT equivalent)
- Neutron weapon
- Radiological weapon
Atomic ammunition
In atomic munitions, nuclear fission and the release of intranuclear energy are carried out due to the action of neutrons on the nuclei of atoms. In this case, the core of a heavy element breaks up, as a rule, into two "fragments", which are the nuclei of elements located in the middle part of Mendeleev's periodic system, and more energy is released.
That is, an atomic bomb is two masses of nuclear matter, each less than the critical mass, which, during the use of weapons, quickly combine, causing a nuclear explosion.
The fission reaction emits two or three neutrons that can cause further nuclei to fission. If the generated neutrons are captured by other nuclei, which in turn fission with the release of 2-3 new neutrons, it will spontaneously grow like an avalanche. As a result, a chain reaction will occur with an instantaneous release of energy, i.e. nuclear explosion.
Some of the neutrons can fly out of the reaction sphere without causing fission of atoms.
The critical mass required for an explosion can be obtained from the non-critical mass in two ways: either by adding a certain amount of fissile material, or by increasing its density.
For this, subcritical fissile material is placed in the center of a spherical charge of an ordinary explosive, detonated from the outside by a system of detonators. An inward-directed detonation wave arises, which compresses the fissile material, as a result of which its mass becomes supercritical and a nuclear explosion occurs.
Thermonuclear ammunition
3 1 H + 2 1 H 4 2 He + 1 0 n
In thermonuclear ammunition, the release of an intranuclear reaction occurs when the nuclei of light elements merge to form heavier nuclei. These reactions can take place at ultra-high temperatures (several tens of millions of degrees).
The main part of the initial reagents in large-caliber thermonuclear ammunition is represented by lithium deuteride. Under the action of neutrons formed during the explosion of an initiating charge based on a fission reaction, a reaction occurs with the formation of tritium from lithium:
lithium + neutron --- helium + tritium + 4.8 MeV
As a result, the components necessary for the development of various thermonuclear reactions are obtained. The reaction between deuterium and tritium is most easily initiated:
In general, fusion reactions release about three times more energy than fission reactions with the same amount of uranium or plutonium.
Thus, a thermonuclear munition combines in one body a charge acting on the basis of a fission reaction and a charge based on a fusion reaction, and a thermonuclear explosion has two instantaneous phases: fission of uranium-235 (plutonium-239) nuclei + fusion of helium nuclei from isotope nuclei hydrogen.
In ammunition of the combined type, the thermonuclear charge is enclosed in a shell of uranium-238. This makes it possible for high-energy neutrons released during thermonuclear reactions to cause fission of uranium-238 nuclei, which is hundreds of times cheaper fissile material than all the others, because it remains as a waste in the nuclear industry during the production of the isotope uranium-235.
Thus, the explosion develops in three stages: chain reaction of fission of uranium-235 (plutonium-239) - fusion of helium nuclei from nuclei of hydrogen isotopes - chain reaction of fission of uranium-238 nuclei of the shell. Moreover, it should be noted that more than 80% of the explosion energy of the combined munition is released precisely due to the fission of uranium-238 nuclei.
Neutron ammunition
Neutron munitions are low and ultra low power thermonuclear devices. Unlike large-caliber thermonuclear and combined charges, the main part of their charge consists of heavy isotopes of hydrogen - tritium and deuterium. A fission chain reaction or a special laser device can be used to heat a mixture of deuterium and tritium to the temperature at which the fusion of their nuclei begins.
A thermonuclear reaction has the following character:
deuterium + tritium --- helium + neutron + 17.58 MeV
The chain reaction takes place in 2 stages:
1. Fission of 235 U or 239 Pu
2.Hydrogen synthesis with the formation of a large number of neutrons
Conventional weapons and their varieties
The term "conventional weapons" came into use after the emergence of nuclear weapons with immeasurably higher combat properties. However, at present, some samples of conventional weapons, based on the latest achievements of science and technology, are very close to weapons of mass destruction in terms of their effectiveness.
Conventional weapons comprise all fire and strike weapons employing artillery, anti-aircraft, aviation, small arms and engineering ammunition and rockets in conventional equipment, incendiary ammunition and fire mixtures.
Conventional weapons can be used independently and in combination with weapons of mass destruction to destroy enemy manpower and equipment, as well as to destroy and destroy various particularly important objects (chemical enterprises with SDYAV, nuclear power plants, hydraulic structures, etc.).
The most effective means for engaging small-sized and dispersed targets in combat operations using conventional weapons are fragmentation, high-explosive, cumulative, concrete-piercing, incendiary ammunition and volumetric explosion ammunition.
Cluster and cumulative munitions
Cluster munitions are primarily intended to engage people. The most effective ammunition of this type is ball bombs, which are dropped from aircraft in cassettes containing from 96 to 640 bombs. Above the ground, such a cassette is opened, and bombs scatter and explode over an area of up to 250 thousand square meters. The destructive force of the striking elements (metal balls with a diameter of 2-3 mm) of each bomb remains within a radius of up to 15 m.
In addition to balls, cluster munitions can also be loaded with needles, shrapnel, etc.
Cumulative ammunition designed to engage armored targets. Their principle of operation is based on burning through an obstacle with a powerful jet of explosive detonation products with a temperature of 6 - 7 thousand degrees and a pressure of more than 5 · 10 to 5 degrees. kPa (5 - 6 thousand kgf / cm2).
Focused detonation products are capable of burning holes in armor ceilings several tens of centimeters thick and causing fires.
To protect against cumulative ammunition, screens made of various materials can be used, located at a distance of 15 - 20 cm from the main structure. In this case, all the energy of the jet is spent on burning the screen, and the main structure remains intact.
Concrete-piercing ammunition designed to destroy high-strength reinforced concrete structures, as well as to destroy airfield runways. The ammunition housing contains two charges - a shaped charge and a high-explosive charge and two detonators. Upon encountering an obstacle, an instant detonator is triggered, which detonates a cumulative projectile. With some delay (after the passage of the ammunition through the overlap), the second detonator is triggered, undermining the high-explosive charge, which causes the main destruction of the object.
Volumetric blast ammunition.
The principle of operation of such an ammunition is as follows: liquid fuel with a high calorific value (ethylene oxide, diborane, acetic acid peroxide, propyl nitrate), placed in a special shell, is sprayed, evaporated and mixed with atmospheric oxygen during an explosion, forming a spherical cloud of fuel-air mixtures with a radius of about 15 m and a layer thickness of 2 - 3 m. The resulting mixture is undermined in several places by special detonators. In the detonation zone, a temperature of 2500 - 3000 ° C develops in a few tens of microseconds. IN
the moment of explosion, a relative void is formed inside the shell from the fuel-air mixture. There is something similar to the explosion of the shell of a ball with evacuated air ("vacuum bomb").
The volumetric explosion ammunition has only one damaging factor - the shock wave. They have no fragmentation, cumulative effect on the target.
In terms of its power, volumetric explosion ammunition occupies an intermediate position between nuclear and conventional (high-explosive) ammunition. The excess pressure in the front of the CWA shock wave even at a distance of 100 m from the center of the explosion can reach 100 kPa (1 kgf / cm2). Ammunition of a volumetric explosion is 5-8 times more powerful than conventional explosives in shock wave strength and has a colossal lethality. However, they are not a universal tool and the degree of their application depends on what type of ammunition, weapon is appropriate and most effective in each specific case.
For a volumetric explosion, a large free volume and free oxygen are required; with a strong wind, heavy rain, the fuel-air cloud either does not form at all, or is strongly dispersed.
Precision weapons
Precision weapons began to be actively developed in the 60s of the last century. Its goal is to destroy small, well-defended targets using a minimum amount of military equipment.
It includes such weapon systems in which the accuracy of determining the coordinates of targets, the reaction time of the weapon and the quality of guidance ensure that the target is hit by the first shot or salvo with a probability of at least 0.5. This is achieved by the high speed and technical perfection of automated reconnaissance means and the use of guided or homing ammunition and missiles.
Precision weapons include:
Reconnaissance and strike (fire) complexes (RUK);
Anti-tank missile systems (ATGM);
Field artillery homing shells. At present, such systems include the Smelchak and Centimeter artillery complexes. As a means of guidance, they use a laser beam for a few seconds after the shot, pointing to the target. In 2-3 sec. before approaching the target, the automatic guidance system is activated in the artillery shell, the trajectory of movement is automatically adjusted and the target is hit with a coefficient of about 0.3;
Guided missiles of various classes;
Guided aerial bombs and cassettes.
The newest type of high-precision weapons are reconnaissance and strike complexes (RUK). When creating this weapon system, military specialists set themselves the goal of achieving guaranteed destruction of small, well-protected objects with minimal means. In them, high-precision reconnaissance and high-precision weapons are united by an automated control system, which makes it possible to solve reconnaissance and destruction tasks practically simultaneously.
According to the foreign press, RUK, designed to combat radio-emitting targets (objects), is capable of hitting 150-180 targets in one hour.
RUK, designed for the detection and destruction of group armored objects of the second echelons and reserves - 150-300 targets such as tank, infantry fighting vehicles with a probability of hitting 0.8-0.9.
The complexes include four conjugated basic elements:
1.automated reconnaissance and guidance system (automated fire control system);
2. mobile ground control center (fire control point);
3. high-precision weapons;
4. a system for accurately determining the location of the elements of the complex.
The accuracy of determining the coordinates of the RUK targets is 10-30 m. Aiming accuracy is 10-50 m; target reconnaissance range up to 600 km. Reconnaissance assets are usually deployed on aircraft that fly at altitudes up to 25 km with a range of 100-150 km from the contact line of the parties.
The RUK control center can be located at a distance of up to 300 km from the contact line of the parties.
Homing and guided surface-to-surface and air-to-air missiles, guided cluster aviation bombs with self-guided warheads are the high-precision weapons of destruction of the RUK.
Nuclear weapons and their damaging factors.
Nuclear weapon- explosive weapons of mass destruction based on the use of fission energy of heavy nuclei of some isotopes of uranium and plutonium, or in thermonuclear reactions of fusion of light nuclei of hydrogen isotopes of deuterium and tritium into heavier nuclei of helium isotopes.
Nuclear charges can be supplied to warheads of missiles and torpedoes, aircraft and depth charges, artillery shells and mines. By power, nuclear weapons are distinguished: ultra-small (less than 1 kt), small (1-10 kt), medium (10-100 kt), large (100-1000 kt) and super-large (more than 1000 kt). Depending on the tasks to be solved, it is possible to use nuclear weapons in the form of underground, ground, air, underwater and surface explosions. The peculiarities of the destructive effect of nuclear weapons on the population are determined not only by the yield of the ammunition and the type of explosion, but also by the type of nuclear device. Depending on the charge, there are: atomic weapons, which are based on the fission reaction; thermonuclear weapons - when using a fusion reaction; combined charges; neutron weapons.
It includes such weapon systems in which the accuracy of determining the coordinates of targets, the reaction time of the weapon and the quality of guidance ensure that the target is hit by the first shot or salvo with a probability
Striking factors of a nuclear explosion.
The damaging factors of a nuclear explosion are: shock wave, light radiation, penetrating radiation, radioactive contamination and electromagnetic pulse.
Shock wave. The main damaging factor of a nuclear explosion. It consumes about 60% of the energy of a nuclear explosion. It is an area of sharp air compression, spreading in all directions from the explosion site.
The damaging effect of the shock wave is characterized by the magnitude of the excess pressure. Overpressure is the difference between the maximum pressure in the front
shock wave and normal atmospheric pressure in front of it. It is measured in kilo pascals - 1 kPa = 0.01 kgf / cm2.
With an overpressure of 20-40 kPa, unprotected people can get light injuries. Exposure to a shock wave with an overpressure of 40-60 kPa leads to moderate lesions. Severe injuries occur at an excess pressure of over 60 kPa and are characterized by severe contusions of the whole body, fractures of the extremities, ruptures of internal parenchymal organs. Extremely severe injuries, often fatal, are observed at an overpressure of over 100 kPa.
Light radiation. It is a stream of radiant energy that includes visible ultraviolet and infrared rays. Its source is a luminous area formed by hot explosion products. Light radiation spreads almost instantly and lasts up to 20 s, depending on the power of a nuclear explosion. Its strength is such that, despite its short duration, it can cause fires, deep skin burns and damage to the organs of vision in humans.
Light radiation does not penetrate opaque materials, so any obstruction that can create a shadow protects against the direct action of light radiation and prevents burns. Light radiation is significantly weakened in dusty (smoky) air, fog, rain.
Penetrating radiation. This is a flux of gamma radiation and neutrons. The impact lasts 10-15 seconds. The primary effect of radiation is realized in physical, physicochemical and chemical processes with the formation of chemically active free radicals (H, OH, HO 2) with high oxidizing and reducing properties. Subsequently, various peroxide compounds are formed, inhibiting the activity of some enzymes and increasing others, which play an important role in the processes of autolysis (self-dissolution) of body tissues. The appearance in the blood of decay products of radiosensitive tissues and pathological metabolism when exposed to high doses of ionizing radiation is the basis for the formation of toxemia - poisoning of the body associated with the circulation of toxins in the blood. Disturbances in the physiological regeneration of cells and tissues, as well as changes in the functions of regulatory systems, are of major importance in the development of radiation injuries.
Radioactive contamination of the area. Its main sources are fission products of a nuclear charge and radioactive isotopes formed as a result of the acquisition of radioactive properties by elements from which nuclear weapons are made and which are part of the soil. A radioactive cloud is formed from them. This cloud is transported by air masses over considerable distances. Radioactive particles falling from the cloud to the ground form a zone of radioactive contamination, the length of which can reach many kilometers.
A type of nuclear weapon is a neutron weapon, which is a small-sized thermonuclear ammunition with a capacity of up to 10 kt, designed mainly to destroy enemy personnel through the action of neutron radiation. Neutron weapons are tactical nuclear weapons.
the tendency of radioactive properties by the elements from which the nuclear weapon is made and included in the composition of the soil. A radioactive cloud is formed from them. It rises to a height of many kilometers, and is transported with air masses over considerable distances. Radioactive particles, falling out of the cloud to the ground, form a zone of radioactive contamination (trail), the length of which can reach several hundred kilometers. The greatest danger radioactive substances pose in the first hours
after loss, since their activity is highest during this period.
Electromagnetic pulse... This is a short-term electromagnetic field that occurs when a nuclear weapon explodes as a result of the interaction of gamma radiation and neutrons emitted during a nuclear explosion with atoms in the environment. The consequence of its impact is the burnout or breakdown of individual elements of electronic and electrical equipment.
The defeat of people is possible only in those cases when they come into contact with the wire lines at the time of the explosion.
Biological weapons, the concept of quarantine and observation
Biological weapons- these are special ammunition and combat devices with delivery vehicles equipped with biological agents.
BO is a weapon of mass destruction of people, farm animals and plants, the action of which is based on the use of the pathogenic properties of microorganisms and their metabolic products - toxins. In 1972, the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Biological and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction was signed. However, as often happens, this only gave a new impetus to the development and production of tank weapons in many states. In this regard, the threat of its use in modern wars and armed conflicts continues to persist.
The basis of the damaging effect of BW are biological agents specially selected for combat use - bacteria, viruses, rickettsia, fungi and toxins.
The pathogens of plague, cholera, anthrax, tularemia, brucellosis, glanders and smallpox, psittaccosis, yellow fever, foot and mouth disease, Venezuelan, western and eastern American encephalomyelitis, epidemic typhus, rocky fever and heels tsutsugamushi fever, coccidioidomycosis, nocardiosis, histoplasmosis, etc. Among microbial toxins, botulinum toxin and staphylococcal enterotoxin are most likely to be used for biological warfare.
The ways of penetration of pathogenic microbes and toxins into the human body can be as follows:
1. Aerogenic - with air through the respiratory system.
2. Alimentary - with food and water through the digestive system.
3. The transmission path is through the bites of infected insects.
4. Contact way - through the mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, eyes, as well as damaged skin.
The main ways of using BO are:
a) aerosol - this way of application is the main one. With the help of special devices, surface air is contaminated by spraying liquid or dry biological formulations. At present, the potential enemy has a modern system of technical means for the application of biological formulations and means of their delivery to the target;
b) transmissible - dispersion of artificially infected blood-sucking vectors in the target area;
c) sabotage method - contamination of air, water, food with the help of sabotage equipment.
BO is intended for mass destruction of troops and population, weakening of military-economic potential, disorganization of the system of state and military control. The weapon tank has a number of significant advantages:
Its production is the cheapest of all weapons;
High efficiency;
The difficulty of timely diagnosis, the possibility of the spread of the epidemic beyond the affected area;
The strongest psychological impact on the population at risk of infection;
The ability to use various types of combat recipes to create a suitable type of hearth;
The diversion of significant organizational, financial, medical forces and funds to eliminate the consequences of using the tank. weapons;
At the same time, the tank weapon is not without its drawbacks, they are associated with:
Difficulty in the practical study of its combat properties;
Limited shelf life of combat recipes;
Great dependence on natural and climatic conditions during its application (wind direction, temperature, air humidity, etc.).
Characteristics of the focus of bacteriological infection.
A hotbed of bacteriological contamination is a territory with people on it that has been exposed to bacteriological weapons.
Depending on the type of combat formula used, lesions will form. They can be divided into two types.
In the first, in the combat formulation, pathogens of highly contagious especially dangerous infections are used - plague, natural smallpox, anthrax, etc. In this case, persistent foci are formed with a tendency to spread due to the transmission of infection from the affected population outside the lesion focus.
In the second, pathogens of non-contagious, or slightly contagious infectious diseases are used in the combat recipe. These include tularemia, brucellosis, myeloidosis, cholera, epidemic typhus and others. In this case, the disease occurs upon inhalation of virulent doses of pathogens, or after drinking contaminated water and food. Further spread of infection from sick healthy people does not occur, and if it does, then through the involvement of intermediate hosts in the epidemic process - rodents, arthropod insects, or in case of gross violation of sanitary norms and rules.
The main anti-epidemic measures in the event of an epidemic focus are:
1) registration and notification of the population;
2) conducting sanitary and epidemiological reconnaissance;
3) identification, isolation and hospitalization of the sick;
4) regime - restrictive or quarantine measures;
5) general and special emergency prevention;
6) disinfection of the epidemic focus;
7) identification of bacteria carriers and enhanced medical supervision;
8) sanitary and educational work.
Organization and implementation of isolation and restrictive measures.
Isolation and restrictive measures include quarantine and observation.
Quarantine Is a complex of strict regime-restrictive measures aimed at complete isolation, localization and elimination of the lesion focus.
Quarantine is established in military units by the order of the commander of the formation, among the civilian population by the head of the region when the enemy uses OOI pathogens as a bacteriological weapon.
To organize quarantine measures, a headquarters is created, the necessary forces and means of the medical service are involved, an armed guard of the quarantine zone is appointed. The main activities carried out in the quarantine zone include:
Establishing a strict anti-epidemic regime;
Active identification of cases, their isolation, hospitalization and treatment in specialized medical institutions deployed in the quarantine zone;
Isolation of persons at risk of infection in provisional hospitals deployed in the outbreak. Medical supervision of contact, in order to timely identify sick people;
Conducting emergency, specific and non-specific prophylaxis;
Fencing the quarantine zone and setting up armed guards.
Quarantine is established for a period of at least two maximum incubation periods after the last sick person is cured.
If a pathogen of a not particularly dangerous infection is used as a weapon tank, an observation mode is introduced in the focus.
Observation- it is a complex of organizational, restrictive, medical and anti-epidemic measures aimed at preventing the spread of the focus, its early localization and elimination.
Observation includes the following activities:
Strengthened medical supervision of persons at risk of infection in order to timely identify sick people among them;
Isolation, hospitalization and treatment of the sick;
Conducting specific and non-specific prophylaxis;
Strengthening the sanitary and epidemic regime.
Non-lethal weapons and their types.
Military experts note that in the last decade, when developing the concept of modern wars, the NATO countries attach more and more importance to the creation of fundamentally new types of weapons. Its distinctive feature is the damaging effect on people, which, as a rule, does not lead to fatal outcomes.
Non-lethal weapon is a weapon capable of neutralizing or depriving the enemy of the opportunity to conduct active hostilities without significant irretrievable losses of manpower and destruction of material assets.
Non-lethal weapons include:
Laser weapons;
Electromagnetic pulse weapon;
Sources of incoherent light;
Electronic warfare equipment;
Microwave weapon;
Meteorological, geophysical weapons;
Infrasound weapon;
Biotechnological products;
New generation chemical weapons;
Means of information warfare;
Psychotropic weapons;
Parapsychological methods.
New weapons of warfare, according to military experts, will be used not so much for conducting military operations as to deprive the enemy of the possibility of active resistance by hitting his most important objects of the economy and infrastructure, destroying the information and energy space, disrupting the mental state of the population. ...
Beam weapon is a set of devices (generators), the damaging effect of which is based on the use of highly directed beams of electromagnetic energy or a concentrated beam of elementary particles, accelerated to high speeds. The damaging effect of the laser beam is achieved as a result of heating the materials of the object to high temperatures, leading to their melting. The action of the laser beam is distinguished by its secrecy, high accuracy, straightforwardness of propagation, and almost instantaneous action.
RF weapon- means, the damaging effect of which is based on the use of electromagnetic radiation of ultra-high (microwave) or extremely low frequency (the ultra-high frequency range is in the range from 300 MHz to 30 GHz, extremely low frequencies are less than 100 Hz).
The object of destruction by radio-frequency weapons is living force, which means the known ability of ultra-high and extremely low-frequency radio emissions to cause damage to vital organs and systems of a person - such as the brain, heart, central nervous system, endocrine system and circulatory system.
Radio frequency radiation can also affect the human psyche, disrupt the perception and use of information about the surrounding reality, cause auditory hallucinations, synthesize disorienting speech messages introduced directly into the human mind,
Geophysical weapons- a set of various means that make it possible to use for military purposes the destructive forces of inanimate nature through artificially induced changes in physical properties and processes occurring in the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere of the Earth.
The possibility of large-scale changes in the temperature regime by spraying substances that absorb solar radiation, reducing the amount of precipitation calculated for adverse weather changes for the enemy (for example, drought) is being studied. The destruction of the ozone layer in the atmosphere can presumably make it possible to direct the destructive effects of cosmic rays and ultraviolet radiation from the sun into areas occupied by the enemy.
Meteorological weapon It was used during the Vietnam War in the form of seeding of supercooled clouds with microcrystals of silver iodide. The purpose of this type of weapon is to purposefully influence the weather in order to reduce the enemy's capabilities to meet his needs for food and other types of agricultural products.
Climatic weapon is a means of influencing for military purposes on the local or global climate of the planet and is intended for long-term changes in the characteristic weather patterns in certain territories. Even small climate changes can seriously affect the economy and living conditions of entire regions - lead to a decrease in the yield of the most important agricultural crops, a sharp increase in the incidence of diseases of the population.
At present, the methods (by conducting underground explosions) of artificial initiation of volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunami waves, avalanches, mudflows and landslides, and other natural disasters that can lead to massive losses among the population have been theoretically substantiated.
Conclusion:
Knowledge of the features of modern wars and conflicts, as well as the types and damaging factors of the means of armed struggle, will be able to help medical specialists of a number of specialties better understand the features of combat trauma, the mechanism of its occurrence and indicate the further direction of development of medical science aimed at saving the lives of people affected by wars and armed conflicts.
Control questions
1. The main goal of the development of the military organization of the state.
2. The basic principles of the development of the military organization of the state.
3. The main priorities for the development of the military organization of the state.
4. The main directions of development of the military organization of the state.
5. The structure of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation.
6. Basic principles of ensuring the military security of the Russian Federation.
7. Purpose of the use of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation
8. Definition of a local war.
9. Definition of regional war.
10. Definition of large-scale war.
11. Conventional weapons, types of conventional weapons.
12. Characteristics and purpose of cluster and cumulative munitions.
13. Characteristics and purpose of concrete-piercing ammunition. fourteen.
14. Characteristics and purpose of volumetric explosion ammunition,
15. Characteristics and purpose of high-precision weapons, types of high-precision weapons.
16. Brief description of nuclear weapons, their purpose, types of nuclear weapons.
17. Striking factors of a nuclear explosion.
18. Biological (bacteriological) weapons, their purpose, methods of use.
19. Formulations (pathogens) used as biological weapons.
20. The focus of bacteriological infection. Anti-epidemic measures carried out in the focus of bacteriological infection.
21. Definition and concept of observation and quarantine.
22. Non-lethal weapons, their types.
23. Beam weapons, their types.
24. Geophysical weapons,
25. Meteorological and climatic weapons.
Literature
Mobilization preparation of health care. Tutorial. Ed. Yu.I. Pogodina - M. 2006.
Organization of the Civil Defense Medical Service of the Russian Federation. Textbook. Ed. Pogodina Yu.I., Trifonova S.V. - M. 2002.
Mobilization preparation of the economy of the Russian Federation. Textbook. Vorobiev Yu.L. - M. 1997.
Russia (USSR) in local wars and armed conflicts in the second half of the twentieth century. Zolotarev V.A. - M. 2000.
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