Morphological norms of the Russian language are norms associated with the peculiarities of the formation of forms of various parts of speech.

Difficult cases of using a noun

gender of nouns

In Russian, the gender of nouns is determined not only by its meaning, that is, on the basis of the real gender of the persons or animals called the noun, but also on the basis of the formal factor - at the end of the nominative singular.

There are 4 groups of nouns in relation to the gender category: masculine, feminine, neuter and common.

Masculine nouns are nouns that end in a solid consonant ( verb, wolf) or suffix -tel ( guardian, denominator), borrowed words in –l, -r, -n ( aerosol, shampoo), as well as the names of the months; feminine gender includes nouns ending in -а, -я and ending in a soft consonant and hissing ( rye, corn); neuter gender includes nouns ending in -o, -e ( removal, minority), on –me ( banner, time) and the word child.

Common nouns include words with the ending -а, -я, which can denote both female and male persons, depending on who is being discussed ( grump, greedy, bully, touchy, rake, dupe, clever). If common nouns denote persons as male, then they agree with adjectives, pronouns and verbs in the masculine gender, if they denote female persons, then, accordingly, they agree with these parts of speech in the feminine gender ( Kolya is such a know-it-all. Lena is such a sweetheart).

Masculine nouns denoting females by profession, occupation ( doctor, professor, accountant, cashier, director, architect, librarian, deputy, foreman, veterinarian, manager etc.) can be consistent with the verb in the feminine form, and in recent decades this tendency has prevailed in the literary language ( Our strict director has always taken discipline seriously).

Kind of abbreviations most often determined by the key word ( IMF (fund) received interest on loans). In some cases, if a word has a long tradition of use, is difficult to decipher by a native speaker, and resembles a word of some kind in appearance, its gender can be determined by analogy. (The Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Ministry) received a note of protest).

Gender of borrowed nouns, if they are indeclinable, is determined primarily by the meaning of the word, correlated with the category of animation - inanimateness. Most indeclinable inanimate nouns of foreign origin are neuter, for example: bureau, ghetto, depot, jelly, mango, metro, coat, puree, stew, sago, jam, dressing table, fillet, jury, slang, foyer, interview.

An exception are nouns, the gender of which is determined by the gender of similar Russian words. These are nouns avenue (cf. street - f.r.), kohlrabi (cf. cabbage - f.r.), penalty (cf. free kick - m.r.), salami (cf. sausage - f.r.).

Pay special attention to the noun coffee, which for centuries should have been used in Russian only as a masculine word (once, in the 18th century, this word was pronounced and written as a masculine word - coffee or coffee). In the modern literary language, it is considered acceptable in colloquial speech, by analogy with other borrowed nouns, to use coffee as a neuter word. However, it should be taken into account that educated, intelligent people still use this word more often in the masculine gender.

Animated borrowed indeclinable nouns are masculine or feminine, depending on the gender of the designated person. Therefore nouns attache, bourgeois, dandy, impresario, entertainer, croupier, maestro, rentier, porter- masculine and lady, frau, madam, miss, pani- female.

Animated borrowed indeclinable nouns denoting animals are masculine, unless it is specifically stated that female is meant. For instance: A white cockatoo was sitting on a branch, a little pony was walking, a pink flamingo could be seen in the distance; but A hummingbird laid a tiny egg, a kangaroo carried a baby in a pouch.

Borrowed indeclinable nouns denoting geographical names belong to the same gender as nouns - generic concepts ( lake, mountain, city etc.): picturesque Missouri, full-flowing Orinoco, beautiful Ontario, lively Montevideo.

In Russian, there is a group of nouns whose gender cannot be determined, since they do not have a singular form: gate, name day, holidays, trousers and etc.

Exercises.

Exercise 1.Make up the phrases "noun + adjective" with the given words, independently choosing adjectives of the appropriate gender.

Avenue, aerosol, parcel, meringue, borjomi, sconce, bourgeois, veil, riding breeches, house, jury, cockatoo, kohlrabi, coffee, lady, salmon, menu, callus, mocha, moth, penalty, pony, purse, salami, tulle, flamingo, foyer, frau, tsetse, shampoo, San Francisco, Nagasaki, Mississippi, Tbilisi, Tokyo, Ontario, Delhi.

Exercise 2. From the following nouns, write out the indeclinable ones, determine their gender. Which words have gender fluctuations? Which words only have a plural form?

Curler, bikini, biennale, bureau, whiskey, tour, ghetto, depot, child, domino, blinds, jelly, koala, coffee, mango, subway, coat, jam, journeyman, puree, stew, soprano, spaghetti, dressing table, fillet, hippie.

Exercise 3. Divide nouns into three groups: 1) feminine nouns; 2) masculine nouns; 3) common nouns.

Attache, author, jury, bulldozer, mediocrity, grouche, counterpart, bigwig, doctor, head, thug, dandy, greedy, victim, bully, arrogant, boss, snake, impresario, incognito, cockatoo, hummingbird, entertainer, croupier, maestro, touchy, rake, porter, protégé, dupe, pig, sweet tooth, servant, penny, jersey, daredevil, warden, judge, toastmaster, travesty, smart girl, chimpanzee, sneak, taxi, Hindi.

Exercise 4Define the type of abbreviation. Decipher these abbreviations

UN, USA, RUVD, HPS, ZhEK, ZhSK, SPbSPU, CIS, BDT, FIFA, VGTRK, STSI, minimum wage, GDP, LDPR, IMF, ZAGS, OVIR.

Declension of nouns

proper names. Some difficulties in declension of nouns can arise in connection with proper names, since not all proper nouns change in cases. This applies primarily to Russian surnames ending in -yh, -ih, -ago, -yago, -evo, and Ukrainian surnames ending in -ko, for example: Black, Bad, Durnovo, Zhivago, Solovago, Chernenko, Vasilenko, Kovunenko, Shevchenko.

The problem of declension of proper nouns is connected primarily with foreign proper names. It should be remembered that foreign proper nouns (names and geographical names) ending in a vowel do not change in cases, for example: Orly, Erie, Falcone, Leonardo da Vinci, Andrea del Sarto, Domenico El Greco, Filippino Lippi, Géricault, Olivier, Consuelo, Audrey, Lee. Foreign male surnames ending in a consonant, unlike surnames ending in a vowel, are inclined, for example: Peter Paul Rubens - Peter Paul Rubens, Anthony van Dyck - about Anthony van Dyck, Balzac - Balzac, Charles Dickens - Charles Dickens. Foreign female names and surnames ending in a solid consonant and foreign and Russian female surnames ending in a solid consonant also do not change in cases, for example: Kaufman, Vivienne, Carmen, Voynich, Topar, Kogan, Avlas, Windmill, Baronchuk, Bogorad, Lilich.

Exercises.

Exercise 1. Open the brackets, form the correct form of proper nouns.

I really like the works (Erich-Maria Remarque);

He never agreed with (Charles Darwin) and his theory;

Our firm signed a contract with the director of Gazprom (Alexey Miller);

Yesterday negotiations took place between the presidents of Russia and France (Dmitry Medvedev) and (Nicolas Sarkozy);

The director has already received from (Nicole Kidman) consent to participate in the filming;

This is not the first visit (Orhan Pamuk) to our country;

The duel that took place between (Pushkin) and (Dantes) ended tragically for the Russian poet;

The journalist interviewed a famous Russian artist (Andrey Makarevich), a State Duma deputy (Pavel Medvedev) and a writer (Victoria Tokareva);

She was an ardent admirer of creativity (Georges Sand).

The category of animation - inanimateness is based on the distinction between living and inanimate, but grammar does not always correspond to this principle. So, in Russian the word dead man- animated, and the word dead body- inanimate. Animate nouns have the same plural forms of the accusative and genitive cases, while inanimate nouns do not. For instance:

Exercises.

Exercise 1.Open the brackets, choose the correct form of the noun

We study (bacteria / bacteria).

"Domestos" kills (all known microbes / all known microbes).

From the crime report: “This morning, passers-by found in the park (corpse / corpse, dead / dead).

Children in the park flew (kite / kite).

It seemed to him that at the end of the alley he saw (ghost / ghost).

The writer introduced (new character / new character) into the story.

He loved (his teddy bear) so much.

The fisherman caught (three fish).

For supper he fried and ate (three fish).

As Russian souvenirs, all foreigners buy (matryoshkas).

Hello. My name is Kashurina Oksana Evgenievna. I am a Russian language teacher and Library school number 48 Prioksky district. My task is to tell you about the morphological norms of the Russian literary language and show the most common mistakes in the professional speech of teachers.

“Stupid oratorio, tongue-tied poetry, unfounded philosophy, unpleasant history, dubious jurisprudence without grammar. And although it comes from the general use of language, it nevertheless shows the way for the use itself by rules. M.V. Lomonosov.

Morphological norms of the Russian literary language are the rules for the formation and use of forms of various parts of speech. Already from elementary school, we know the main parts of speech “by sight”, but for some reason for many years we have been pronouncing and writing many of their grammatical forms with gross errors. So, for example, in a store they often offer us “good shampoo” or “beautiful tulle”, and in a pastry shop they convince us to try marmalade pies, because today they are tastier than yesterday. Such errors are very common, and you can meet them when using all independent parts of speech. Today I want to introduce you to the basic requirements of the Russian language for the formation and use of forms of nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns, verbs and service parts of speech.

Tasks:

    Identify the grammatical forms of various parts of speech that cause the greatest difficulty;

    Designate the norms for the formation and use of these forms;

    Variants of grammatical forms, their use in speech.

USE OF GRAMMATIC FORMS OF NOUNS

Usually the use of nouns in accordance with their gender does not present any particular difficulty for us. We know that an exam is a noun. Husband. Kind, control work - for women. Kinda, and the composition is average. At the same time, our knowledge is not based on the relationship between the word and the object: the division of nouns by gender does not correspond to any real division of the objects of the surrounding world, it is based only on tradition. The only exceptions are the names of people and most living beings. The nouns of all three genders are well distinguished externally - by the features of the endings in declension.

We begin to ask ourselves questions about the correctness of attributing one or another noun to a grammatical gender when we cannot determine its gender by the external, formal signs of a word. This happens when we encounter in speech with

    Abbreviations

    Nouns with subjective evaluation suffixes,

    in foreign words,

    Words that have generic variants.

VTsIOM informed public (this is the noun M.R., because the abbreviation stands for All-RussianCentre study of public opinion.

So,university refers to the masculine gender, since it has a zero ending and is declined according to the type of nouns. 2nd declension. Compare: on the website of the departmenta - on the website of the universitya . Although the main word in the abbreviation university - institution - is of the middle gender.

little coat oldoh , mind brilliantth , in the pocket remained only asand I - a little thing, but it's creepy on the streetand I mud.

You can avoid mistakes when determining the generic affiliation of a borrowed word by remembering that:

    The masculine gender includes the names of male streets or persons in general, the names of animals, winds, languages, some objects (spanish uy hidalgo, my impresario, white th flamingo, destructive th tornado, literary th hindi, black th coffee ), as well as geographical names, if they correspond to masculine nouns, for example:handsome th Nestau - cape (m.r.),sunny th Delhi – city (m.s.);

    Feminine nouns include the names of female persons, some animals (handsome and I lady, young and I miss, dangerous and I tsetse, salty and I iwashi ), besides this, geographical names and - the names of inanimate objects, correlated with feminine nouns, for example:bugle and I Hadlisau - river (female),fresh and I salami - sausage (female);

    The neuter gender usually includes nouns denoting various inanimate objects (checkered oh muffin, cocoa drunk O ), and to the common gender - nouns that can denote both male and female persons (random th vis-a-vis - pleasant and I counterpart )

An excursion into the past.

For example, inXIXcentury familiar and familiar to us nounHall belonged to the feminine. So, A.S. Pushkin when describing the ball in the novel "Eugene Onegin" we read: "In a hugeHall e everything was trembling…”. And even earlier, inXVIIIcentury, this word belonged to the middle gender and was pronounced asHall O . Thus, this noun changed its gender twice.

If a masculine noun denoting a profession or occupation names a female person, then the verb - the predicate agrees with it in the feminine gender, and the adjective, acting as a definition, in the masculine, for example:

Young Oh (m.s.)researcher (m.s.)enthusiastically told a (= female person)about the results of their work .

Experienced th (m.s.)surgeon (m.s.)Kovaleva successfully completed a (= female person)operation .

NB.

In the formation and usenumber forms of nouns You may also face some difficulties:

    It is possible to form the form of a number incorrectly;

    Often the very fact of the formation of number forms is a mistake;

    It is possible to use the number form incorrectly if two plural forms are formed from polysemantic nouns.

They belong to different th socially th Wednesdays am instead of to different Oh socially Oh Wednesdays e . Wednesday is an abstract noun and has only the formunit

Compare:depths a meaning and depth s ocean, Adyghe cheese and hard s cheese s , bright uy silk and all in silk Oh , first th snow and all around and snow a .

Our school teachers

Great teachers-philosophers of antiquity

It is interesting!

The category of number in Russian has the simplest and most common - binary - structure. However, there are languages ​​that contain dual and triple numbers. So, a special form denoting two objects exists in Slovene and Serboluzh, Khanty and Vogul languages. Trinity is known in some tribal languages ​​of Australia and New Guinea.

In Russian, too, there were not always two forms of number. As many as three such forms existed in the Old Russian language: singular (one subject– sleeve ), dual number (two objects -sleeves ) and plural (more than two items -sleeves ). Later, the dual number was lost and one of the forms became redundant. In some cases, the plural form was preserved, which expanded its meaning and began to denote the number of objects equal to two or more than two. In others, it is a form of the dual number. For example, modern formseyes, knees, shoulders - these are the former forms of the dual number, replacing the old forms of the plural:hair, knees, shoulders .

How to say correctly:

Fish don't have teeth

Fish don't have teeth

Do fish have no teeth?

VARIANTS OF FORMATION AND USE OF CASE FORMS OF NOUNS.

    Variants exist in the genitive singular of masculine nouns:

On the-u(-u) : jar of honey at , not a gram of sugar at , drink cha Yu .

On the-and I): the smell of honey a , sugar production a , the taste of cha I am .

    In the prepositional singular form, masculine nouns in combination with the prepositions в and на have variant endings–y(-y) and–e .

Case forms on–y(-y): walk (where?)in the forest at , lose (where?)in the snow at , talk (how?)on the move at .

Ending–e : role (in what?)in the forest e » A. Ostrovsky ; character (in what?)in "Hot Snow" e » Y. Bondareva ; The strength was felt (in what?)in a power move e heavyweight .

    Some masculine plural nouns have variant forms in the nominative case. Among them, two groups of words stand out:

    Nouns, the forms of which differ in meaning, which are case forms of homonyms; compare:martial order a - order of chivalry s ; school camps I am – opposing camp and ; bright tone a - tone s hearts.

    Nouns that have forms different in their style, among which equal options are revealed (spotlight s – spotlight a , tractor s - tractor a , Instructor s - Instructor a ) and valid options when the form with the ending–s(s) ( treaty s , locksmith and , editor s ) is used in book speech, and the form with the ending-and I) ( treaty a , locksmith I am , editor a ), which is also literary, is preferable in colloquial speech.

    In the genitive plural form, masculine nouns.

For instance:culture of Tatars, English; soldiers, hussars are not visible; one hundred watts, amperes; a pair of shoes, boots.

Ending–ov(s) : earth mongol ov , Yakut ov ; pictures of captain ov , colonel ov ; many kilometers ov , hundreds of bytes ov ; sale keychain ov , packing sock ov ; kilogram tomato ov , banana ov .

NB.

Nouns ending in a stressed syllable–er (-er), form a form im.p. plural with the end–s , For example:

engineer yer - engineer s , director Yor - director s .

Nouns ending in a syllable–or , form the form im.p. pl.

    With the end–s , if they denote inanimate objects or animate objects and at the same time refer to book vocabulary, for example:

Great Danes op - contract s , detection op – detector s ;

Lekt op - lecturer s , novat op - innovator s ;

    With the end-a , if they denote animated objects and refer to commonly used words, for example:

Direct op - director a , doc op - doctor a .

NB.

Nouns denoting a person by type of military service, in the form gender n. pl. have

    Ending–ov(s) if individuals are named, for example:

Several hussars ov , three grenadiers ov ;

    Zero ending if combined with words naming a military unit, for example:

Squadron of hussars, detachment of dragoons .

    Formation of genitive plural forms in feminine nouns.

No candles Her , dol Her , stat Her ;

a few handfuls Her , O trasl her , increase m O value her ;

Participation of runners, the smell of pancakes (from noun to–ya ); buying waffles, shoes, earrings; don't taste cherries, organization of customs , butmeeting of young ladies, outskirts of villages (from noun to– me ).

    Neuter nouns in the genitive plural form:

Apple harvest, no places, many crafts, towel embroidery, saucer set (from noun in –tse)

Butts of a rifle her , knee exercise her

Verkhovy ev rivers, found near swamps ev

    When declining nouns that have only the plural form.

Ending –ov(s) : wait for frost ov , choice ov ; buy chips ov ; don't wear rags ev .

Ending -her : two rakes her , nursery worker her , heroes of everyday life her .

Zero ending: don't wear shorts, eat pasta, wait for holidays.

REMEMBER:

A pair of tights, stockings, boots, sneakers, shorts, leggings, moccasins, sneakers, earrings, shoes, sandals, sandals, slippers, mittens.

A pair of jeans, clip-on earrings, stockings, socks, bracelets, key chains, pendants, breeches.

Tasks and exercises.

Give an example with an error in the use of the word.

    grandiose domina

    Extraordinary Strength

    light feather

Give an example with an error in the formation of the word form.

    historical images

    Lush and fragrant breads

    Sons of the Fatherland

    Belt reins (not true)

Give an example with an error in the formation of the form of a noun.

    Quality Printers

    Wool sweaters

    Dear players

    Russian passports (not true)

Choose an example where the norms of shaping are not violated.

    The sound of hooves

    Making blankets

    Lace weaving (not true)

    Using mirrors

Which sentence contains an erroneously formed form of a noun? Explain what caused the appearance of such forms. Can this form be used in another context?

    Her debut on the big stage was the piano in "The Cherry Orchard" by A. Chekhov.

    On the world and death is red.

    Important conversations are not carried out on the go.

    The forest was dark and gloomy.

As in the field of pronunciation, in morphology and syntax there are strong and weak norms. The strong ones are respected by everyone who speaks Russian as a native language. Weak ones are easily influenced from the outside, poorly absorbed and often distorted. Their presence is determined by many reasons, in particular, the peculiarities of the development of the phonetic and grammatical systems of the Russian language.

For example, in the Old Russian language, there were originally ten types and subtypes of declension, and the type of declension was determined by the final sound of the stem and the meaning of the word.

In modern Russian - three declensions(depending on the gender of the noun and the ending of the word). The first declension is mostly feminine nouns in -a; the second - masculine with a zero ending and the middle gender in -o and -e, the third declension - feminine nouns with zero ending. From the point of view of the distribution of nouns according to declensions, depending on the gender, the third declension turns out to be “superfluous”. That is why in speech quite often nouns of the third declension change gender and begin to decline like nouns of the second declension ( I caught a mouse). On the other hand, masculine nouns with a soft stem can change gender and decline in speech like third declension nouns ( i bought a new shampoo).

Similar reasons are due to fluctuations in the forms of the nominative plural of masculine nouns of the second declension. In modern Russian, several endings are fixed, which go back to different Old Russian forms.

The original ending -i was preserved only in a few words with a solid foundation:

hell - hell, neighbor - neighbors.

The ending -a was originally the ending of the dual number. Now it is preserved in words denoting paired concepts, but is perceived as a plural ending:

sleeves, shores, eyes.

Type forms brothers, friends, leaves ascend to forms of collective feminine nouns.

Compare: the Old Church Slavonic version of one of these forms preserved in modern Russian: monastic brethren.

note to the fact that forms in -ya retain a collective connotation of meaning (cf.: sheets - leaves; teeth - teeth).

Finally, the ending -e of nouns in -anin is native, since these nouns already in the Old Russian language belonged to the category of heterogeneous ones and had special endings in the plural:

peasant - peasants, Christian - Christians.

Many similar examples can be given for other forms and other parts of speech.

So, in common speech, the absence of alternation of consonants in the forms of the present and simple future tenses is very frequent ( water flowing instead of normative water flowing; she bakes bread instead of normative she bakes bread). This is due to the general trend towards so-called warp leveling. Already in the Old Russian period, the language sought to make the basis the same in all forms of one word.

This process went through quite consistently in nouns. And instead of the original forms - oh pastus, young pastus and- we are now using the forms - oh shepherd e, young shepherd and. In the verb, this process is much slower. In some forms, the alternation of consonants is lost (we say bake and bread instead of the original Old Russian - pie and bread), in others - the alternation of consonants is preserved in the literary language ( I baked bread; she bakes bread), but may be lost in dialects and vernacular ( she bakes bread).

There are other reasons that influence the appearance of a whole system of variants in morphology. The greatest difficulties are usually caused by the distribution of some nouns by gender, the formation of plural forms of nouns, the formation of a number of forms of verbs. Let's dwell on some of them in more detail.

No. 1. Morphological norms are the rules for using word forms of different parts of speech. Violation of these rules entails the appearance of grammatical errors. The most common mistakes include:

Violations in the use of noun forms:

a) incorrect formation of plural forms (printer, computer)", b) selection of the wrong variant of the gender form (the shoe broke)", c) incorrect formation of case forms (a set of towels)", d) violation of the norms of declension of surnames (interview with Lev Leshchenko), etc.;

Incorrect use of adjective forms: a) incorrect formation of short forms (the Hero is very courageous)",

b) errors in the formation of degrees of comparison (This dress is prettier)",

Incorrect formation of forms of pronouns (This is a stone in their garden)",

Errors in the declension of numerals (with one hundred rubles), etc.;

Incorrect formation of verb forms (Head swollen from information) and many others. etc. .

In the expressions below, taken from the rubric “Alas! How they speak and write ... "in the magazine" Russian language at school ", find grammatical errors and correct them.

1) The more I think about this situation, the more offended I become. 2) And soon the theater will celebrate its 250th anniversary. 3) Order will be provided by four thousand borders of order. 4) In the corner of a modest little room - a wooden bed with a pair of pillows, one leg of which is replaced by a log. 5) I advise you to be more attentive. 6) We are talking about nine hundred and thirty-seven names. 7) Society hates each other. 8) Most of all, he was annoyed by writers, puffed up by the greatness of the people. 9) It interfered with my perception. 10) Money in the amount of eight hundred rubles is not touched. 11) Grandfather cured the hare and began to live with him. 12) How many letters were written in the authorities, the essence of which was that "we are the best." 13) We are talking about more than two hundred children. 14) To talk about some numbers, we do not have such numbers. 15) We invited Lev Ivanovich to listen to him. 16) Everything happened because of these five hundred thousand rubles. 1 7) Petrov's case was separated into a separate proceeding because he had health problems. 18) Five tourists: two girls and three guys - got in touch. 19) After some time, it turned into one of the biggest creative festivals. 20) On his initiative, meetings were held between more than two hundred participants in the competition. 21) He really wanted the fulfillment of all his dreams. 22) The gift box is handmade by my beloved friend.

No. 2. The most important quality of an educated person is the ability to find information, and from authoritative sources. From the point of view of the culture of speech, such sources primarily include normative dictionaries, which reflect the norms of the Russian language at the present stage of development. You need to understand that the semantic volume of the expressions “look up the dictionary” and “extract information from the dictionary” does not match, because not all viewers are able to see. Therefore, in order to become a seer, it is necessary to learn how to use the code system of the dictionary language.

It is known that, as a rule, the words in the dictionary are arranged alphabetically and each word is devoted to a separate dictionary entry. “A dictionary entry in an explanatory dictionary is a portrait of a word. In order to perceive this portrait correctly, one must be able to read a dictionary entry, extracting from it all the information contained in it. In explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language, especially those created during the 20th century, linguists have developed a whole system of compact transmission of information about the properties of a word.

Read the dictionary entry ZIMA, copied from the Golk Dictionary of the Russian Language by S.I. Ozhegova and N.Yu. Shvedova. and commentary on it.

WINTER, -s, wine. winter, pl. winters, winters, winters, w. The coldest season of the year, following autumn and preceding spring. Harsh, cold Soft h. Eid winter (for the time of winter). Over the winter (during the winter). It snowed all winter.

♦ How many years, how many winters (colloquial) - a joyful greeting when meeting with someone whom you have not seen for a long time.

|| reduce winter, -and, well. Zimushka-winter (weasel).

|| adj. winter, -ya, -her. Winter sports. In winter (adv.) dressed.

1) WINTER - the heading word (title of a dictionary entry) is typed in capital letters, it must be stressed and the spelling is observed;

2) ...-s, vin. I'll take, pl. zymy, winter, winter, w. ... - grammatical characteristic of the headword; ...-s - the end of R. p. units. hours, which is also stressed, as is the ending in I. p .; wines zymu ... is a form of V. p., which is specially given to show that the stress in this case form has changed; pl. loans, winters, winters ... - additionally, plural forms are given. hours, in which the stress is also mobile; well. - gender of this noun;

3) ... The coldest time of the year, following autumn and preceding spring ... - the interpretation of the lexical meaning of the word, and it is unambiguous;

4) . .. Harsh, cold h. Soft h. On "winter (for the time of winter). Over the winter (during the winter). It snowed all winter ... - typical examples of the use of the head word are given in italics; in the last two examples it is indicated that the stress moves to the preposition, and in brackets it is additionally specified the meaning of the word in combination with each preposition;

5) ...♦ How many lay down, how many winters (colloquial) - a joyful greeting when meeting with someone whom you have not seen for a long time ...: ♦ - a special sign (rhombus) accepted in dictionaries, which indicates that there will be further stable combinations with the heading word (phraseological units) are given; How many years, how many winters ... - the idiom itself is presented in bold type to provide a quick search; (colloquial;)... - a stylistic mark is given in brackets, which indicates that the scope of use of the given stable combination is limited to the framework of colloquial style; ... a joyful greeting when meeting with someone whom I have not seen for a long time ... - an explanation is given of the meaning of a phraseological unit;

6) ...||decrease winter, -and, well. Zimushka-winter (weasel) ... - at the end of the dictionary entry, after a special sign (||), the nearest derived words are given, the lexical meaning of which is easily interpreted through the heading word; litter reduced. indicates that the word is used as a diminutive; in the most derived word zimushka, stress is shown; the following is a grammatical description: ...-i is an unstressed ending of R. p. unit. h., the rest of the cases are not indicated, because no changes occur during the declension of this word, that is, the endings are standard, the stress is fixed; ... well. - the gender of the noun; ... Zimushka-winter (weasel) - a typical example of the use of this derivative word is highlighted in italics, an evaluative mark is given in brackets, indicating that the word is used as an endearment. The second derivative word, the adjective winter, is commented in a similar way: stress, grammatical characteristic. examples in italics, marks in parentheses.

No. 3. Read the material of dictionary entries taken from the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S.I. Ozhegova and N.Yu. Shvedova, and tell us what information about the word, in addition to its lexical meaning, can be found in the explanatory dictionary.

DEPTH, -S, MN. -ins, -in, f.

1. Length, distance from the surface to the bottom or to some. dots downward. At a depth of 200 meters. G. well.

2. A place at the bottom of a reservoir, a large depression. Sea depths. Depths of the universe (trans.).

3. what. The space located inland from the border, from the edge of something. In the depths of the forest, garden. At the back of the hall.

4. trans., what. Strength, degree of manifestation of something; thoroughness. G. ideas, feelings, knowledge.

♦ In the mists of time (book) - in ancient times. From the depths of centuries (books) - from distant antiquity. In the depths of the soul - deep in the mind. From the depths of the soul - about the manifestation of hidden experiences. To the depths of the soul (touched, surprised, upset, outraged by someone) - very, extremely.

|| adj. deep, -th, -th (to 1,2 and 3 values). Depth charge (against submarines, anchor and bottom mines).

POCKER, -i, pl. -rgi, -reg, -rgam, f. A device for stirring fuel in a furnace is a thick iron rod with a straight bent end. Stir the coals with a poker.

♦ No candle to God, no hell "poker (simple joke) - about someone inexpressive and insignificant, neither this nor that.

\\reduce stalk, -i, pl. -zhkam, -zhek, -zhkam, zh.

|| adj. poker, th, th.

MAJESTIC, th, th; -vein, -vein (high). Full of greatness. Majestic accomplishments. Majestic panorama.

|| noun majesty, and

FADE, th, th; faded and FADE, th, th; faded Deprived of freshness and brightness, faded. Faded grass. Faded colors. Faded sky.

|| noun fading, and and fading, -and, well.

VACUUM, -osyu and -oshu (avoided in use), -oshu; nesov., that (colloquial). Clean with a vacuum cleaner. P. carpet.

|| owls. vacuum, -osyu and -oshu (avoided in use), -oshu.

eclipse, 1 l. units do not use, -mish; owls, someone. Surpass in some respect. 3. all with your knowledge.

|| nesov. eclipse, -ay, -ayesh.

No. 4. Read examples of dictionary entries taken from normative dictionaries. Explain, with the help of what marks compilers of dictionaries mark equal variants; acceptable options within the normal range; options that are outside the literary norm. Pay attention to the grammatical characteristics of the words in the given dictionary entries.

Avanesov (1997):

accountant, -a, pl. -s, -ov [buya]! wrong, bookkeeper; wrong, pl. accountant, -ov

mattress, -a and matra "ts, -a

zero and extra obsolete zero, kos. n. zero, an /, -i, -her and add. braid. n. zero, l///, -th, -ee ♦ zero whole; zero hours; zero one (or two, three, etc.); zero; absolute zero

Ivanova (2006):

accountant [uraj, accountant ... about an accountant; pl. accountants, accountants... about accountants

jury [zhu and admiss. obsolete zhu], neskl., p. Strict jury interface (te; admissible fe], interface ... about interface

se; mp. interfaces, interfaces... about interfaces

quarter (in all meanings), quarters ... about a quarter; pl. kvar

tals, quarters... about quarters

palazzo [allow. c], non-cl., p. Ancient Palazzo Beetroot [admiss. with b], beets ... about beets; pl. beets, light

kol... about beets

sleek, th, th, th and allowed. sleek, th, th, th prnl. Studiner (2007):

accountant, -a; pl. -s, -ov [buha, not te] guardianship, -and [not guardianship, -and] decency, -and [shn and ch] reputation [re and re, me], indistinct, p. sleek and sleek, adj.

1. The use of nouns.

2. The use of adjectives.

3. The use of numerals.

4. The use of pronouns.

5. The use of verbs.

Morphology, like vocabulary, studies the word, but the word as a part of speech. Therefore, the main attention is paid to the structure of the word, its various forms.

1. USE OF NOUNS

Below are the main types of difficulties that arise when using nouns in speech.

1. use of gender forms

Difficulties arise in determining the genus borrowed nouns, especially indeclinable. For instance, piano, surname, sconce, potato, coffee, rail, moth, tulle, corn, roofing felt, cafe, shoe, cockatoo, chimpanzee, coat, highway, metro, report card, depot, coupe, jam, bureau, bet, jury, etc. P.

The gender of indeclinable nouns can only be determined in combination with definitions, since these definitions agree with nouns in gender: beautiful tulle, cozy coupe, highway, etc.

In Russian there are words of the so-called general kind, there are about 200 of them: good fellow, smart girl, sneak, slob, dirty, sweet, orphan, protege, counterpart ... They can be used both in the meaning of feminine ( round orphan), and in the meaning of the masculine gender ( round orphan).

There is a rule according to which the gender of nouns formed with subjective assessment suffix, coincides with the gender of generating words. For example, nouns house, house, domina belong to the male gender.

Things are even more difficult with names of persons by profession position held. For example, how to say about a woman:

The chief accountant came to work.

The chief accountant came to work.

The chief accountant came to work.

The chief accountant came to work.

Many names of persons by profession, position, work performed form pairs of male and female kind: a nurse is a nurse, a tractor driver is a tractor driver, an interpreter is a translator.

But it must be remembered that in official business speech and book styles words are used to designate professions male kind: engineer, director.

V colloquial speech the feminine form is also used: director, engineer, doctor, - since colloquial speech refers primarily to a specific person, often not only his occupation, but also gender. However, such forms give speech a reduced and somewhat familiar character, dismissive.

And often forms like general, directorambiguous: first, it's a face; secondly, the wife of a man of this profession.

There are many names of persons in the masculine gender, which no feminine matches: president, diplomat, ambassador, PhD...

Some nouns are feminine no matches in the masculine gender: ballerina (ballet soloist, ballet dancer), typist (typewriter), manicurist, pedicurist (manicurist or pedicure master).

2) use of number forms

Errors appear when using nouns that have only the singular form in the plural form and vice versa.

Finally on scaffold everyone's favorite singer came out (necessary:on scaffolds).

In the Russian literary language, the following forms of nouns are used in genitive plural(some without endings, others with endings):

Nouns male kind: a pair of boots, felt boots, epaulettes, boots, stockings ( BUT: oranges, hectares, tangerines, tomatoes, rails, tomatoes); among Armenians, Georgians, Ossetians, Bashkirs, Buryats, Romanians, Tatars, Turkmens, Turks, Gypsies ( BUT: Kalmyks, Kirghiz, Mongols, Tajiks, Tungus, Uzbeks, Yakuts);

Nouns female kind: no barges, waffles, shafts, stakes, candles ( BUT: it is not worth it);

Nouns middle kind: there are no upper reaches, lower reaches, knees, apples, points, swamps, saucers, mirrors, towels.

In Russian words weekdays, rakes, frosts, twilight, nursery and others do not have singular forms.

3) the use of case forms

In many cases, nouns have variant endings. It depends on the choice of one of these options whether there is a speech error or not.

1. For masculine singular nouns, the genitive and prepositional cases are possible variant endings: a glass of tea - a glass of tea, a lot of people - a lot of people, to leave the house - to leave the house, to be on vacation - to be on vacation. The second option has more colloquial character.

2. Some nouns have variants accusative and genitive, which differ in meaning: Buy bread (genus case) - a little bread, a certain amount; partial coverage of the object. Buy bread (wine case) - full coverage of the object.

3. Some nouns masculine in the nominative in the plural case, depending on the style of speech, they have the endings -Ы (-И) or -А (-Я): director, chef BUT: engineers, physicians). Many nouns have variant norms: pennant (pennants, pennant), searchlight, tenor, tractor, paramedic. Sometimes endings indicate semantic differences: omissions (oversights) - passes (documents).

4. Foreign surnames on –OB and -IN have in creative case ending -OM, in contrast to Russian surnames with the ending -YM: familiar with Vlasov, but: familiar with Darwin, Chaplin.

If in doubt about the use of a particular form of a noun, you must refer to the dictionary!

2. USE OF ADJECTS

1. Short and long forms of adjectives and degrees of comparison adjectives when used in the text can lead to a speech error.

For instance: The girl was tall, beautiful and cheerful (Necessary: ​​The girl was tall, beautiful and cheerful); My brother is older than me and he studies well (Necessary: ​​My brother is older than me and he studies better.) Full and short forms of adjectives, as well as simple and complex forms of degrees of comparison, cannot be used as homogeneous members of a sentence: He more capable and cleverer me (Necessary: ​​He is more capable and smarter than me).

2. Full and short forms of adjectives in the function of the predicate can differ both stylistically and in meaning:

Short forms are predominantly book stylistic coloring: The lecture is interesting and instructive.

Short adjectives sound more categorical in the text, they usually express an active and specific feature: Thoughts are clear, the girl is beautiful.

The full forms of adjectives are usually used in colloquial speeches: The lecture is interesting and instructive..

The full form indicates constant sign, short - on temporary: the girl is beautiful (in general), the girl is beautiful (at the moment).

Full and short forms of the adjective can differ in meaning: the boy is deaf - the boy is deaf (to requests).

1. Upon education short forms adjectives with unstressed - enny (natural, solemn) fluctuations are observed.

Artificial - artificial, artificial.

Solemn - solemn, solemn.

Currently, these options are equal, they are entrenched in all styles. But the truncated form is considered the most common (on - en).

2. With the full form of the adjective used in the nominative case as a compound predicate, as a rule, there cannot be controlled words, and with a short form - they can (incorrect: He has a sore throat; correct: He has a sore throat).

3. Forms are not used better, worse etc., since the second word in itself already expresses the meaning of the comparative degree.

3. USE OF NUMBERS.

When using numerals, the following cases are the most difficult:

3. Often there are errors when using the numerals BOTH, BOTH. Both the girl needs to retake the exams (need: Both girls ...)

4. Collective numbers two, three, five etc. are used only:

With animate masculine nouns ( three students; wrong: three female students);

With nouns children, guys, people, as well as with the names of baby animals (three children, two kittens);

With nouns that are used only in the plural (two tongs, three sleds) or denoting paired objects ;

With personal pronouns we you they(there were three of us).

2. Colloquial style allows sometimes " nondecline» complex and compound cardinal numbers.

But in bookstores styles these words should incline. For instance: About six hundred people became interested in this issue (incorrect: about six hundred people).

At declension composite quantitative numerals all the words included in their composition change; when declining compound ordinal numbers - only the last word:

R. p. - two thousand nine hundred and fifty-six (quantitative);

R. p. - two thousand nine hundred and fifty-six (ordinal).

4. USE OF PRONOUNS

3. Speech errors can be associated with the formation of non-normative pronouns: Their school won the competition (need: their school)

4. A fairly common mistake is an unsuccessful choice of one of the synonymous possessive pronouns (mine is mine, yours is mine): Does it help that you make yourself? (required: himself).

5. The jumble of pronouns sometimes creates ambiguity in the text: He had a hard time when he entered into a fight with him (it should be: Peter had a hard time when he entered into a fight with Ivan).

6. Personal pronouns in oral speech often duplicate the subject : This student, she always attended classes (should: This student always attended classes).

7. A pronoun usually replaces the noun closest to it, so you need to be careful not to make such a mistake: Vitya and Sasha started a conversation, and he promised to come again (the conversation cannot come, so you need to say: Vitya and Sasha talked, and Sasha promised to come again).

8. Collective nouns such as students, poor, people cannot be replaced by a pronoun they.

1. USE OF VERBS

Verbal forms, as well as forms of other parts of speech, can be represented by variants that differ both in stylistic coloring and in meaning.

For instance, saw and seen - The first option is common, and the second is colloquial. In a certain functional style, variants of the imperative mood of verbs are also used:

notify, clog - colloquial version,

notify, clog - book version.

But variants of the imperative mood can be equal in rights: throw it out, throw it out, put it out, put it out.

In the form of stylistic options, the forms of verbs can also be presented in the present tense rinse, splash, sway, hesitate, scour, wave, whip, pinch, pour, etc .:

a) with alternating consonants in the root ( splash, splash, wave) - stylistically neutral option;

b) without alternating consonants (rinse, splash, wave) - conversational option.

Difficulties arise in the formation of past tense forms: cox or dry, wet or wet?

The norm is the loss of the suffix -nu- in all forms of the past tense containing prefixes: get wet - wet, wet; plunge - plunge. BUT : wet, wet.