Human capital is the accumulated stock of health, knowledge,

Abilities, culture, experience, expediently used for production activities to create products and services, increasing the income of a person, enterprise, society.

Role

Scientist, designer, doctor, teacher, manager (manager) and many other leading professions determine the face of modern firms, their effective work and competitiveness. The share of low-skilled labor in developed countries is 10-15%. Intelligence and creativity, intelligent products and new information become determinants both in the organization of any enterprise and in ensuring the progress of the country. The original importance of human ability in production has always been noted by economists.

Revealing the qualitative content and diversity of human capital, it is important to highlight the following essential points:

1. Human capital is formed by a specific person and is inseparable from

living human personality. Only the products of mental and physical labor, and not the ability to create them, can be isolated and alienated.

2. Health, knowledge, abilities, experience accumulate and act as a certain stock or potential that requires conservation and reproduction.

3. Formation of individual human capital takes a long period of life - 18 - 25 years and requires significant costs.

4. Investments (investments) in the formation and accumulation of human capital are carried out by the family, the person himself, firms, the state, but their effect depends on personal activity and abilities for self-development.

5. The use of human capital, the degree of its return (effect) largely depends on the free expression of the will of a person, his individual preferences and values, responsibility, general worldview and culture, including economic culture.

6. In modern conditions, in any branch of economic activity, human capital, its volume, quality and forms of use are the main factor of economic growth, competitiveness and efficiency.

Health capital. Physical strength, endurance, performance,

immunity to diseases, period of active work /

Labor capital. The more difficult the work, the higher the requirements for qualifications, skills and experience. Requirements for the labor capital of a loader, a general-purpose turner, a computer programmer, an operator of a nuclear power plant, an economist. Their knowledge and talent determine the success of the business.

Intellectual capital. T. Edison, A. Tupolev and other inventions

They received the copyright to name the designed and patented products. An intellectual product is separated from the author, patented and secured by copyright as the exclusive property of the author, which determines the directions and forms of economic use of his property.


Organizational and entrepreneurial capital. The ability to develop fruitful business ideas, entrepreneurial spirit and determination, organizational talents, and possession of trade secrets are becoming indispensable in today's competitive economy.

Cultural and moral capital. Culture and morality are also necessary in the economy, as well as labor, and intellect, and qualifications. Doctors take the Hippocratic Oath and undertake to keep medical confidentiality. Teachers, by the very nature of their work, are obliged to act as examples of behavior and morality. Business ethics and decency are absolute requirements for the work of bankers, brokers, experts, consultants. For them, cultural and moral capital is necessary as a condition for the reputation and honor of the company, which means trust in it and the growth of the number of customers.

Formation, assessment and accumulation of human capital

Human capital is important for a person, for any company, and for society. All of them are interested in the formation and augmentation of human capital. Everyone spends resources (funds) on maintaining health, and on developing culture, and on promoting entrepreneurship.

The formation of human capital begins with the birth of a person and continues throughout life. In this process, experience and practice have helped shape a number of sustainable life cycles.

Until the age of 7, the child is socialized, the musculoskeletal system, biochemical mechanisms, all subsystems of the body are formed as the basis of health and strength. At this age, the beginnings of culture are mastered - language, speech, the basic principles of behavior and communication. In the same period, the sensory world, psychomotor reactions and stability of the nervous system are formed.

No child is born a genius, and not one is a fool. It all depends on the stimulation and the degree of development of the brain in the years from birth to three years of age.

From 7 to 17 - 18 years old children go to school. The goal of the school, from the point of view of the theory of human capital, is to form the foundations of cultural and moral capital, to identify and consolidate the abilities of children. General secondary education lays down the basic volume of knowledge in the field of natural, social and humanitarian sciences. At the same time, the socialization of the individual is completed and by the age of 16 - 18 a person receives civil rights, which is formally expressed in obtaining a passport.

From the age of 16 to 25, through industrial training, vocational schools, technical schools, higher educational institutions, a person's labor capital, a set of abilities for specific work, is formed. Professional knowledge and skills are brought to a certain level, which makes it possible to successfully complete the list of jobs in this profession and in this position. Accumulating exclusive rights to use land, money capital, other property, consolidating their organizational findings and trade secrets, entrepreneurs (managers) form their own special organizational-entrepreneurial capital. The formation of intellectual capital. Its presence is most often associated with the development of certain talents, through creative work.

Each person on the path of life develops certain abilities that can receive a capital assessment. The main indicators for assessing different types of human capital.

For the first time, briefly summarized the concept of bourgeois political economy "human capital" and its use in state practice, the achievement of the absolute limit of the accumulation of human capital and the steady reduction of its total value, which necessarily and inevitably aggravates the conflict between the material development of production and its social form right up to the beginning of the transition period. to the communist social formation.

The factor of "human capital" in modern public policy.

If even 30 years ago only in the publications of scientists and public figures, then in recent decades already in the documents of the UN, IMF, World Bank and national states not only a change in the role of human capital in economic development, but the transformation of human capital into the main factor of economic growth long-term. Also in the Russian Federation, this thesis is approved in the documents of strategic planning officially adopted over the past 2-3 years. First of all, we are talking about the strategies of the socio-economic development of the Russian Federation as a whole and its individual subjects. Based on this “initial thesis”, such documents establish that “the development of human capital” is recognized as the “first” and “main” among the strategic priorities of the state.

But what is meant by human capital, how is the volume and content of this, which has become a normative term, revealed, and through what is it planned to achieve this very “development of human capital”? An intelligible and more or less clear, not to mention completeness, definition of the term "human capital" cannot be found in all these documents - as a rule, it does not exist at all. Instead, “human capital development” is declared as the “strategic direction of socio-economic development” of the state and a list of “directions and projects” included in this “strategic direction of socio-economic development” is provided.

Apart from some insignificant differences between the strategic planning documents adopted by different government bodies of the Russian Federation and its subjects, we can state that they are all guided by a certain general list of “directions and projects” for the development of “human capital”. These include the following: demographic development; health care development; development of education; cultural development; development of physical culture and sports; growth of employment and provision of social protection of the population. To these, traditional since Soviet times, "branches of the social sphere" are added separate sections "justified by the needs" of specific (as a rule, significant electorally and economically) social groups (pensioners, beneficiaries, youth, etc.), as well as the housing market ...

In almost all the strategic planning documents of the Russian Federation, with which I was able to get acquainted, "human capital development" is replaced by the tasks of achieving certain target values ​​of several dozen abstract macroeconomic indicators of demography (target dynamics of population, birth rate, mortality, etc.), provision of social capacities infrastructure, living space, level of employment, social protection of the population and security. As for the proportions laid down in such documents between all these macrosocial indicators, as well as between them and the macroeconomic indicators established in other sections of such documents, the proportionality of the values ​​of some indicators to the values ​​of all other indicators and their interdependence is only declared as a general theoretical prerequisite for the entire plan.

The target values ​​of demographic and other social macroindicators, which characterize the population as a whole, the level of its income from all sources, the provision of social infrastructure and housing, set as "average for the hospital", are just some of the indicators that describe the conditions necessary and sufficient for human reproduction. capital. But this is by no means all and far from all of these indicators, not to mention the conditions themselves. The real essence of the matter is not at all in these conditions and in the "hospital-average" macroscopic indicators.

The point here is not only and not so much in strategic planning. Modern state statistics not only in the Russian Federation, but also in most countries of the world, in pursuance of the recommendations of the UN statistics bodies and other international organizations, provides the collection of initial data, their methodologically uniform aggregation and / or calculation of the same macro indicators based on these data. However, all this planning, implementation of plans, statistical accounting and monitoring of results have a very indirect relationship to the human capital of specific people and their families, cities and districts, regional units and individual nations as a whole. Equally, all this has a very indirect relationship also to the reproduction of the very human capital of each of these social groups and the total human capital of a particular nation and humanity as a whole.

Human capital.

Capital as such is, first of all, the social relation of value, which is reproduced in the conditions of developed commodity production as the dominant relation that subordinates all other relations of social reproduction to itself. If the expression "human capital" is used, then by this very expression, in essence, the logical connections between the meanings of its constituent words, it means, first of all, reproducing social relations and human activity in the production and reproduction of value. This is summed up in the abilities and capabilities of a person to produce and reproduce not only goods, including works and services, for which there is effective demand from other people and their (these people) corporations of various types, types and levels.

But these abilities and capabilities are also the ability and ability of a person to reproduce the relationship of value and all those social conditions that determine the need for relationships of value and the process of their reproduction, including the reproduction of the very ability and capabilities of man to produce and reproduce values, as well as the very activity of man in production. and reproduction of value. We are talking about the ability and ability of people to produce and reproduce, as well as about the ability and ability of people to consume goods, including works and services that a person needs to reproduce himself, his society and elements of his material wealth (a set of goods, works and services) ...

Consumption of goods, works and services can be either productive consumption, in which case it is the production of goods, works and services, or consumer production, in which case it is the production of people themselves and their society as such. So only by the consumption of goods, works and services produced through the consumption of opportunities, including abilities, for labor (labor power), people only carry out the reproduction of themselves, their society and their material wealth as such. Any specific consumption, whether it is productive consumption or consumer production, is carried out under well-defined institutional conditions through the use of appropriate technology and is characterized not only by a well-defined set of tools and objects of labor used, but also by a well-defined qualification and organization of this labor, required by a given specific technology. and the institutional conditions for its application.

The totality of knowledge, skills, and abilities formed by an individual in the process of mastering certain types of his life, including professions, as well as his real ability to practically implement such types of life on the basis of existing experience and the corresponding knowledge, skills and abilities is now called a set the competencies of this individual. In this regard, human capital, which at the moment characterizes a particular person as an individual, is not only and not so much a set of competencies and other qualitative and quantitative characteristics (age, health, education, culture, physical endurance, mental stability, etc.) ) that characterize the individual at a given time. The specified set of competencies and all other personal characteristics of an individual in the modern terminology of UN documents and other international organizations (human development index, human development index, etc. indicators calculated by these organizations) is nothing more than the value of the human potential of a given individual ...

In order for the human potential of an individual to turn into capital, to become and be human capital, this individual must enter into quite definite, namely capitalist, economic relations with other people regarding the production and reproduction of values ​​as goods and continuously stay in these economic relations. That is, in order for human potential to turn into capital, to become and be human capital, the latter must phenomenologically (on the surface of social life in its dominant ideological given to individuals) reproduce itself not as a person in the sense of an individual, personality, but as capital and in the value of capital. Consequently, a person (individual), ideologically becoming capital, must receive a phenomenological measurement and expression precisely as capital, as capital, that is, not only as a value of value, but also, ultimately, as a certain monetary value, the most developed form of which the monetary form of value is precisely.

The value of an individual's human capital, considered from this ideologically bourgeois point of view, is the aggregate value of the value of all practically applied, realized in practice through this practice of his (individual) capabilities and abilities to produce and reproduce itself (the value of human capital) and all other specific values (goods) measured by a certain quantity. This certain value of the value of human capital, assessed (measured) by the participants in bourgeois economic relations between people and recognized through these economic relations, in other words, is called the capitalization of a given individual at a given moment in time. At each moment, the total capitalization of human capital is characterized by its inherent structure of those activities in which it (this human capital) is actually used, and the quantitative contribution of each of these activities to the total capitalization (profit or loss) of an individual.

In a developed bourgeois society, any kind of activity requires technologically and institutionally determined costs (expenditures) of human capital in the appropriate structure and quantity. On the other hand, for the regular renewal, that is, for the systematic repetition of a given activity through the use of this human capital, costs (expenses) are required for the simple reproduction of this very human capital (its preservation in invariability in size and quality). From a bourgeois point of view, such expenses are nothing more than amortization of human capital, organically included in the totality of expenses required by a specific type of activity within the framework and for the purpose of simple reproduction of this activity.

Depreciation of any capital implies a material form of phenomenological being (here-being) of this capital, the varieties of which on the surface of social life are not only all instruments and objects of labor, but also individuals employed in the process of reproduction of this capital, that is, using this capital in the process its reproduction. This already implies that by no means these subjects themselves (individuals as subjects of labor), tools and objects of labor, but something else are capital as such. Themselves, these subjects, tools and objects of labor, being the means of reproduction of capital, are only material (material) carriers or substrates of capital, speaking in the Latin term of Western philosophy. Material carriers of capital are subject to physical and moral deterioration, therefore they are subject to timely replacement by other material carriers that functionally replace those carriers of capital that are worn out, that is, they are subject to ordinary and accelerated depreciation, respectively, their (these used real carriers of capital) physical and moral wear and tear.

Let us note for ourselves the following essential point: the ideological understanding of the possibilities and ability of individuals to work as human capital, which must and inevitably be depreciated, has brought to its full logical and historical completion the process of the final identification of a person with the bearer of capital, understood only as a material (commodity) means of reproduction capital itself. Through this ideological identification, not only commodity fetishism received its final historical and logical conclusion, but also an attitude towards man only and exclusively as one of the many material foundations or carriers of capital, appearing as the highest, dominant over all others, forms of institutional power over the process of social reproduction.

By the end of the classical era of the development of capitalist production in developed bourgeois states, almost every commodity involved in economic circulation within such states and in relations between them, with some exceptions in terms of labor, became a product of capital, that is, a product of developed commodity production. Compulsory general and vocational education, mass medical services for the population (compulsory vaccinations of the entire population, starting from childhood, the development of public hygiene and health care, supported by veterinary, sanitary, communal and medical services, first of all), the development of other institutional and ideological moments of Western civilization were turned into the product of capital is also of the human individuals themselves.

All of this, in fact, created the material basis for the ideological qualification of individuals (a person) as human capital - an individual from a product of a family economic corporation of consanguinity has turned into an integral product of many corporations of all types, types and levels, whose activities are organized as capitalist commodity production , being subordinated to the reproduction of capital. At the same time, this same process also created a material basis for the ideological expression of each individual human capital as a certain specific ensemble of various types of this capital, namely professional (processing or production), cultural, symbolic, political and similar types of human capital.

At the same time, the individual is not exactly the same carrier of capital as all other carriers of capital in its commodity form (instrument, object or product of labor). Unlike all other commodity forms of capital, as well as unlike capital in the form of money, the individual is also the subject of labor, reproducing capital, and the subject of this capital itself. But this is such a subject of capital, which, acting as a special form of capital, simultaneously serves capital and represents, including personifies and personifies, capital, that is, it is nothing more than an agent of capital. Moreover, the individual represents and personifies capital (not only the commodity form of capital, but also capital as such) the more effectively, the more he (this individual) is an agent of capital. And, on the other hand, the less and less effectively a given individual performs the function of an agent of capital, the more this individual is not only superfluous, but also harmful to capital, dangerous to capital. That is, in other words, such an individual is subject to existential destruction as a bearer, representative, personification and personifier of capital to the extent that the less this individual manifests himself as a real agent of capital.

This is what determines the consistent expansion of the reproduction of more and more effective capital agents with a simultaneous narrowing (up to complete cessation) reproduction of the least effective capital agents and the expansion of existential destruction (up to physical destruction) of individuals that harm the reproduction of capital. The same logically and historically ends the process of the final transformation of capital into an absolute despotic power over a person (both the individual and society), his activities, consciousness and will, which opposes a person as an absolute force alien to him. And, consequently, the same process of alienation and self-alienation of a person from his generic essence is brought to its logical and historical limit - to self-destruction by a person himself not only as social individuals, but also as all other social “populations”, except for the “population” of the most efficient agents of capital. The latter is metaphorically very accurate name - "golden billion", but "billion" only at a certain initial stage of this cannibalistic logic, and for subsequent stages, if there are any, we will naturally talk about an ever smaller number of individuals included in the "golden" the number of capital agents.

If the scale of some activity carried out within the framework of the reproduction of capital on an unchanged technical basis expands, then this expansion is carried out at the expense of investments (additional investments) of capital not only in the corresponding additional tools and objects of labor, but also in additional human capital. In other words, in this case, we are also talking about the expanded reproduction of human capital, which is carried out in the process and through the expanded reproduction of the corresponding types of activity. However, if the technical basis of capital reproduction changes and at the same time the scale of application and, consequently, the amount of applied human capital is reduced, then the consequence of this, other conditions being unchanged, is the release of a certain amount (decrease) of the processing (applied) human capital, which manifests itself as the release of workers. With regard to the entire professional and, more broadly, the entire social group to which the released workers belong, we can already talk only about the shrinking reproduction of this social group as human capital.

The part of human capital that was used before, but is no longer used, is not real, but only eventual capital (capital in a possibility determined by the onset and the presence of certain, quite definite, conditions), which remains so only for a certain time, but decreases by its value during all this certain time. In terms of specific individuals, this manifests itself not only as disqualification (loss of competence) of these individuals, but also as degradation of the personality of these individuals. Decrease (decrease) in the total value of human capital, which is represented by a given individual or professional (social) group, when this decrease is the result of their life over a continuous series of years, there is degradation, but by no means the development of the corresponding individuals or social groups as carriers and representatives of capital ...

At the same time, in a bourgeois economy, the implementation of any type of activity as its goal is to obtain appropriate income. These latter are characterized not only quantitatively, that is, in monetary (value) terms, but also qualitatively - as a list of manufactured and sold goods, including not only works and services, but also the very ability to work (labor force). Both the costs of running an activity and income from this activity have different sources, which are in certain proportional relations with each other, determined by the technical basis of the corresponding production (type of activity) and the organic structure of the capital used in this production. All these proportions of income and expenses can and should be expressed as a balance of the corresponding items of income and expenses (costs) in the aggregate balance of reproduction of a particular processing capital. This is also fully applicable to the balance of reproduction of human capital, since we are talking about the reproduction of this particular type of capital.

Only on this theoretical basis, considered so far only in its most essential points, the meaning and the difference between the expressions become clear: investment (investment) in human capital, on the one hand, and investment (investment) of human capital in specific businesses or organizations (corporations) , on the other side. But if for the reproduction of financial or industrial capital the basic (primary) level is the world market (all of humanity as a global economy), then for the reproduction of human capital, the primary (basic) level is still by no means an individual and not even a world or national economy, but family as an economic corporation of consanguinity (household). It is the family as a corporation of consanguinity, in reality often consisting not of one household, but of several or many such households, that acts as a real personifier (owner) of capital, endowing individuals not only with the possibilities of forming their abilities to work, but also with opportunities use, possession and disposal of various types of capital.

If, in the entire previous definition of human capital, in the place of an individual we put a family (household) or a municipality, region (region or republic as a subject of the state), a nation state, then we get, if we take into account all the necessary and inevitable changes and complications, the definition of human capital according to a specific family, municipality, region or nation state. Only from the considered point of view, the volume and content of the concepts of human capital and development (expanded reproduction) of human capital become logically quite definite and clear.

The limits of human capital accumulation.

What is actually of interest to any particular inhabitant of the territory of a given region or nation state? He is primarily interested in the certainty of what the purchasing power of his family's income will be in a year, two, five, ten years. And it will not be abstract, but specifically with a high degree of probability, based on the actual structure acceptable for his family, the quantity and quality of consumption of goods, works and services that guarantee his family an improvement in its real opportunities, position and status in this year or two, five, ten years. And on what basis can he reasonably draw such a conclusion? On the basis of the confidence that the improving in quality and quantity of his family's consumption and, consequently, the expenses of his family, growing in accordance with this, will be covered by the income it receives in a year, and in two, and in five, ten years.

The main factors of such confidence of people in their entire national mass are their national state and the social well-being of the bulk of the population of this state. We are talking about the confidence of this mass of people that the state, firstly, will fully fulfill its part of its obligations to create and develop conditions that will ensure the supply of jobs that their families need in terms of wages and corresponding to the family's ability to change. the totality of the competencies of its members. Secondly, we are talking about the confidence of this mass of people that the state will fully fulfill its part of its obligations to create and develop conditions that will provide the structure required in terms of quality, quantity and price of goods, works and services in all spheres of reproduction. the human capital of the families concerned.

This is the amount of real wages, and the amount of income from family property, and the amount of all types of pensions and social payments, and the amount of income from all other sources of gratuitous social support and possible borrowings, if any, are required to balance the family income with its necessary expenses. The necessary expenses of the family include not only all utility payments determined by the tariffs and prices for the corresponding services, but also taxes and fees, interest on loans and the repayment of loans themselves, all other payments that are obligatory by law. In addition to them, the necessary includes the family's expenses for food and clothing, home environment and provision of life, education and health maintenance, satisfaction of cultural and other needs of leisure, recreation and development, payment for transport services, including personal transport, coverage of expenses for the preservation and improvement of housing conditions, creation of insurance and reserve savings. And all this is by no means “hospital averages”, but real values ​​characterizing the level and quality of life of that particular group (aggregate) of families to which the family of this particular resident of a region or state belongs. Based on these real values, each family plans in one way or another and, in fact, regularly reduces (or does not reduce) elementary daily, monthly and other balances of their income and expenses.

Another of the main factors and at the same time the guarantor of such confidence of the population is public practice, if it convinces that by its direct (protests, lawsuits, elections, etc.) actions or through political parties, trade unions and other public corporations the population can force authorities and employers fulfill their obligations to the public. This is - firstly, and secondly, if the same social practice convinces the population that, despite objectively and subjectively conditioned failures in certain difficult years, in the medium and long term (5-10-15 years and more) the state is striving for a consistent improvement in conditions that ensure an actual increase in the level and quality of life of the entire population.

But nothing of the above, even in the ghostly distance, is not visible even in the strategic planning documents of economically developed national states and their regions, not to mention the real policy of the ruling class pursued by state authorities and economic corporations of transnational, national and subnational significance in all other states. Why? Apparently, because in terms of the accumulation of human capital, strategic planning documents are by no means the dominant tools of actual management activities carried out by the authorities and government of states and corporations in reality, as well as institutional means that ensure the accumulation of aggregate human capital in the respective national state.

The content of state strategic planning documents is "perpendicular" not only to the accumulation of human capital by the entire population of the respective states and their territories, but also to the real management of the economy of national states and corporations operating in this territory. The vast majority of such state strategic planning documents are a "bureaucratic brake" in the economic practice of state authorities and at the same time a "cudgel" in the interdepartmental and intersectoral struggle between the clans of the ruling class and corporations, the use (implementation) of which exponentially increases the "white noise" in state authorities and transaction costs of government regulation of the economy.

The results that will be achieved in the case of using the funds planned by the current strategic planning documents of the national and subnational level, not only in the current Russian Federation, but also in the developed countries of the world, will most likely determine a further decline in the total human capital of the overwhelming majority of the population and its further social and economic degradation. than keeping what you have. And no amount of "manual control", including by the most brilliant leaders of the state, can even theoretically correct this.

The economic use of territories with a population of millions and tens of millions of people, and their development in modern conditions, can not be effectively managed in “manual mode” even in the short term (one or three years), not to mention the medium and long term. These are only social catastrophes of all kinds, as a rule, "man-made", that is, they are an inevitable result of "manual control" on the part of persons holding leading positions at all levels of management "verticals" and "horizontal lines". But sustainable development is possible only as a result of the planned efforts of the majority, if not all of the participants in this process, purposefully coordinating and balancing their interests, available resources and daily activities in terms of tasks, territories and terms.

And here, namely, the distribution of the conditions of social reproduction and its results, the group and, ultimately, the class interests of social groups of people in all territories of a given national state, the limits of accumulation of aggregate human capital, not only of the bulk of its population, but also of the entire the nation as a whole. For a long period, up to the end of the 70s and 80s of the last century, the most developed nations removed such limits for the accumulation of their human capital, setting higher limits instead, not so much at the expense of internal sources of economic and social development, as at the expense of the exploitation of everything else. humanity.

“Developing” nations removed (raised) the limits of accumulation of national human capital to the greater extent, the more effectively they carried out “catch-up development” not so much at the expense of internal sources, as at the expense of “help” of developed nations and participation in the exploitation of other peoples. Ultimately, this inevitably led and led to the transformation of "developing nations" into de facto neocolonies of developed nations and the loss of the developing nations' ability to catch up and overtake the developed nations. Even modern China, apparently, more and more rapidly loses its real chances of becoming an exception to this general rule.

The global systemic crisis of the economic social formation, which at the end of the 70s and 80s passed into its final stage, revealed not only to all mankind as a whole, but every year also increasingly reveals to the bulk of the population of developed nations an absolute limit to further accumulation human capital both globally and nationally. Moreover, in recent decades, even within the developed nations, the awareness of the fact that this absolute limit of the accumulation of their human capital is already in the past has been accelerating, even within the developed nations, and that the value of their human capital already has a steady tendency towards a steady decrease in the medium and long term.

Historically arising and further aggravating objective social conditions and factors of the ever-increasing loss of human capital by the ever-increasing masses of the population of developed and developing nations necessarily and inevitably exacerbate and exacerbate the conflict between the material development of production and its social form (see: Conditions and limits of the expansion of reproduction of financial capital. Part 10: The relevance of the inevitable change in the social form of production). And this is necessary and will inevitably entail the escalation of the economic demands and economic struggles of the broad popular masses of developed and developing nations into their political demands and actions, which ultimately cannot but lead to ideological, political, economic and social changes, suggesting the beginning of a transitional period. to a different social form of human reproduction as a human being.

The concept of human capital is today one of the main theoretical directions in economic sociology and management. For its development, two Nobel Prizes in economics were awarded - to the Americans Theodore Schultz in 1979 and Gary Becker in 1992.

According to this concept, human capital is a stock of knowledge, abilities, skills, motivations, abilities and health formed as a result of investments and accumulated by a person, which contributes to the growth of labor productivity and income of a given person. Investments in human capital mainly include expenditures on education (general and special, formal and informal), health care (prevention of diseases, medical care, dietary nutrition, improvement of housing conditions) and the formation of the necessary values ​​and ethical norms in the employee (for example, loyalty your company). Since these costs in the future will be many times offset by income, they should be recognized as productive, and not consumption.

Description of the problem

During the period of radical economic reforms in Russia, the knowledge, experience and skills acquired by people in the system of Soviet education and in the process of production activities in the Soviet system of management have been sharply depreciated. The labor market presented new requirements for the quality of the labor force, and the accumulation of human capital actually began then anew - if not from scratch, then from a rather low level.

Today, significant funds are invested in the development of the human potential of Russians, directly or indirectly, both by the state and by employers and workers themselves. The most common form of these investments is training: basic or additional higher education, refresher courses, seminars, trainings.

How effective are these investments in modern Russian conditions? Do they increase the “value” of the employee and his demand in the labor market?

On April 21-22, 2007, VTsIOM conducted an all-Russian survey in 153 settlements in 46 constituent entities of the Russian Federation. Of the 1260 respondents aged 18 to 60, 858 people (68.1%) worked permanently or temporarily. The analysis of the distribution of their answers to questions related to work activity served as the basis for this report.

Education level and income

Formal education, above all higher, is the main form of investment in human capital. Moreover, the real size of this capital is determined not so much by the availability of a corresponding diploma, but by the acquired knowledge, skills, skills and social ties.

Gary Becker originally studied the cost-effectiveness of higher education. According to his concept, the salary of an employee with a certain level of training can be represented as consisting of two main parts. The first is what he would receive if he had a "zero" level of education. The second is income from “educational investments,” which are made up of direct training costs and “lost earnings,” that is, income not received by students during their studies. For example, defining the return on investment in studies as the ratio of income to costs, Becker obtained the average for the United States of 12-14% of annual profit.

Thus, the real value of education for its direct bearer and for society as a whole is manifested in the fact that an employee with a higher level of education has higher incomes.

According to many economists and sociologists, 15-20 years ago in our country the presence of a university diploma had little effect on the financial situation of its holder. How are things now?

Working respondents were asked to indicate the amount of their earnings, income from their main job received in the previous month (i.e., in March 2007), including bonuses, vacation pay and other payments, after deducting taxes, with an accuracy of (+ / -) 100 rubles.

In the group of working respondents aged 18 to 60 years, these incomes amounted to an average of 9,800 rubles. The income of people with higher education turned out to be about 1.3 times higher than the average for the group - on average 13,500 rubles, with an incomplete higher education - 1.1 times higher - 10,900 rubles. The incomes of respondents with secondary and specialized secondary education amounted to 8,100 and 9,600 rubles, respectively.

Assessing the level of their material well-being, respondents with higher education significantly more often than on average referred themselves to the number of "well-off" - 21.0% (12.0%), somewhat more often to the number of "average income" - 49.3% ( 46.2%), less often to the number of “poor” and “very poor” - respectively 23.5% and 3.7% (30.3% and 9.3%).

In addition, respondents with higher education more often than on average in the group noted that they were “generally satisfied” with the size of their wages 54.8% (on average 38.7%) and less often that they were “generally not satisfied” 54.1% (59.6%).

Thus, it can be argued that in Russia, the possession of a university diploma provides a certain increase in earnings - according to our research, on average by about 1/3. It is worth noting that in developed countries, the "premium for higher education" usually ranges from 50 to 100%.

Employment prospects

"Possession of human capital" increases the chances not only of getting higher earnings, but also of getting a job as such. Can we talk about a similar effect in relation to the Russian labor market?

As follows from the results of the study, the level of education and employment of Russians are directly interconnected.

Of the 1,060 respondents at the age of greatest economic activity - from 22 to 55 years old, 791 people work permanently or temporarily, or an average of 74.6% of the sample. Including, among those with higher education, 82.9% work in this group, secondary specialized - 76.0%, secondary - 71.2%.

82.2% of the interviewed men and 67.6% of the interviewed women of the indicated age work permanently or temporarily; including, among those with higher education - respectively 93.0% and 76.4%, secondary specialized - 81.9% and 71.0%, secondary - 81.3% and 59.4%, incomplete higher education - 67, 4% and 47.5%.

Thus, the direct link between education and employment is especially characteristic of women. Probably, many women who did not continue their education after leaving school are engaged in housework and children. It is difficult to say what is the cause and what is the effect here.

Among respondents aged 18 to 60 years with a higher education, the lowest number of registered unemployed is: they make up only 1.8% of their number, while the average for the sample is 2.7%, among those with secondary education - 3.8 %, secondary vocational - 2.7%.

This trend is typical for both large cities and regions. Our data indicate that the smaller the settlement, the lower the level of employment in it. But unemployment among respondents with higher education is everywhere lower than the average for the sample.

In Moscow and St. Petersburg, 78.0% of respondents aged 18 to 60 have jobs, including 79.2% with higher education; in cities with a population of 100 - 500 thousand inhabitants - respectively 70.6% and 75.0%; in cities with up to 50 thousand inhabitants - 63.9% and 73.7%; in villages - 54.5% and 76.2%.

Thus, in Russian conditions, a higher level of his education really significantly strengthens the competitive position of workers in the labor market.

On the job

In addition to receiving formal education, the most important form of investment in human capital is the accumulation of practical production experience by an employee, i.e. professional training. According to some reports, in developed countries, the total investment in training in the workplace is roughly comparable to the investment in formal education.

Gary Becker introduced the distinction between special and general vocational training. Specialized training empowers workers with knowledge and skills that will only be useful in the company where they were acquired. It is funded for the most part by the companies themselves, and they also receive the bulk of the income from it. In the course of general training, the employee acquires knowledge and skills that can be used by other employers. General training is indirectly paid by the employees themselves - in an effort to improve their qualifications, they agree to lower wages during the training period. But in the future, they get "investment income" in the form of higher wages.

And what about professional training in our country?

To the question "Have you received vocational training in the last three years?" more than 2/3 (67.1%) of the total number of working-age respondents from 18 to 60 years old answered negatively.

29.8% completed such training, including: advanced training courses in their profession - 14.2%; training in a related profession or specialty close to their own - 6.7%; primary vocational training for those who did not have a profession, specialty - 5.0%; retraining in a new, different profession, specialty - 4.0%.

In Moscow, St. Petersburg and cities-“millionaires” about 40% of respondents have completed vocational training over the past three years, and in rural areas - about 25%; residents of small and medium-sized cities were somewhere in the middle. True, in large cities people more often change their profession or get a second, related one, and in the countryside and in small cities they improve their qualifications according to the existing one.

Differences between representatives of different age groups turned out to be insignificant. Among working respondents aged 18-24, there is an understandable surge in primary vocational training, which then fades with age, and the number of those who have undergone retraining is less. But in the age groups 24-34, 34-44 and even 45-59 years old, the total percentage of those who received vocational training does not differ significantly from the average figures for the sample, which confirms the truth - it is never too late to learn.

There are significant differences in the level of education: among working respondents with higher education, 43.1% received vocational training, 34.6% with specialized secondary (technical school, college) and secondary (school, vocational school) - only 22.1%. Specialists with university diplomas, for example, are much more likely to take advanced training courses in their profession - 24.1% than those who graduated from a technical school (14.1%) or school (6.7%). That is, the higher the education, the greater the desire to improve their professional level.

It would seem that the competitive market environment should, to a greater extent than the “budgetary” one, stimulate workers to improve their professional level. However, the surveyed "state employees" (workers of science, culture, education, government apparatus; military personnel and law enforcement officers) received vocational training much more often (54.1%) over the past three years than the average for the group (29.8%).

The following explanation can be given for this fact: many workers do not feel the need to increase their "capitalization" by receiving professional training, and therefore expect that such training will be carried out on the initiative and at the expense of the employer. To the question "Who, in your opinion, should take care of the professional growth of employees?" the most common answers among working-age respondents were the following: “employers” (58.6%), “employees themselves” (24.3%), “state” (12.3%). Private employers, for their part, are probably also not always in a hurry to invest in employee development. As a result, the state is often the “sponsor” of vocational training.

Professional development opportunities are not a priority for most Russians. Distribution of answers to the question “If you had to get a job now, what would be most important for you in the group of working-age workers? (no more than 3 answers) "shows: in the first place with a large margin is" the size of wages "(74.5%), then -" the provision of social guarantees provided by the law: paid vacations, sick days, various payments and compensations "(37.2%) and only in the third place -" the possibility of professional self-realization, the conformity of the work with the existing qualifications, professional growth "(28.2%).

Perhaps, the low interest in professional development is explained by the fact that it is usually not associated with a significant increase in workers' incomes - or, in the terminology of the authors of the concept of human capital, is more often a “special” rather than a “general” professional training?

However, a comparison of the amount of earnings, income from main work received in March 2007, including bonuses, vacation and other payments, after deducting taxes, shows: working respondents aged 18 to 60 years who received any form of vocational training, on average had a higher level of earnings (8,600 rubles) than those who did not receive (6,900 rubles).

"Deceived Investors"

Human capital theory explains why workers' wages rise with age. In youth, investments in education, professional experience and training are great, gradually these investments are reduced, and workers begin to receive income from them.

In developed countries, the average wage level reaches its maximum at the age of 50-60, after which it begins to decline, since the factors of "capital depreciation" affect - health problems, obsolescence of knowledge and skills, passivity, reduced ability to learn and perceive new things, etc. ...

An analysis of the distribution of respondents' answers to the question about the size of their earnings, income from their main job, received in the previous month, showed an interesting feature - the average maximum income of the Russians surveyed falls at the age of 31-35, after which it begins to decline. Thus, the average income in March 2007 in the group of workers 18-24 years old was 8,200 rubles, 25-34 years old - 11,000 rubles, 35-44 years old - 10,900 rubles and 45-60 years old - already 9,000 rubles.

This tendency - the maximum income at the age of 31-35 and then a sharp decline - is especially typical for people with higher education (see the diagram "Trends in the dynamics of the average salary of respondents depending on their age and education").

The distance between the upper and lower dashed lines is the “higher education award”. We draw your attention to the fact that at a young and middle age, it fits into the mentioned 50-100%, characteristic of developed countries, but closer to 60 years it practically disappears.

The explanation can be very simple. The labor force in Russia is divided into two groups - those who began to accumulate "their human capital" in the Soviet era, before the start of radical market reforms, and those who emerged as a worker exclusively in the new, market era.

Russians, who are now 30-35 years old, graduated from school and began their labor activity or study just in the late 80s - early 90s. Among those who developed as an employee exclusively in the market era, they managed to accumulate the maximum amount of knowledge and professional experience and therefore are most highly appreciated by the modern economy.

On the other hand, human capital invested during the Soviet era has significantly depreciated. This is understandable at the everyday level - the greater the burden of "Soviet" education, experience, mentality, values ​​and habits a person carries with him through life, the more difficult it is for him to find a well-paid job on the labor market.

But it’s a highly paid job, not any job! As shown in the diagram “Trends in the dynamics of employment of respondents depending on their age and education”, in the older age group the percentage of workers remains approximately the same as in other groups.

So, the laws of human capital accumulation are in effect in Russia as well: more educated and qualified specialists, and we have a great chance of getting a prestigious and highly paid job.

Since a significant part of human capital depreciated in the 1990s, this accumulation actually began anew. Therefore, if in developed countries the most "capitalized" in the labor market today are representatives of the older generation, then in Russia - workers aged 30-35 years. It can be assumed that the "normal" picture will be restored in about a quarter of a century - when the current 35-year-olds themselves reach their pre-retirement age ...

  • Selection and selection, Labor market

Keywords:

1 -1

The problem of accumulating scientific knowledge, experience and skills of workers and their valuation as a real component of national wealth has not received proper development until recently, despite the fact that the formulation of this problem was one of the initial ideas of classical political economy. This group of problems is often combined with a certain degree of convention by a common name - the problem human capital. The study of the reproduction of human capital in the modern economy involves the study of the problems of the social movement of scientific and technical information, embodied in the workforce of highly qualified workers.

At the dawn of the development of machine production, when the production process needed a partial worker who played the role of an appendage of the machine, the application of scientific knowledge in production was completely separated from the knowledge and skills of individual workers. Moreover, the appearance of machines in production processes not only did not contribute to the improvement of the qualifications of the overwhelming majority of their direct participants, but also required the massive replacement of skilled, skilled manual workers with low-skilled workers capable of performing only a limited number of partial operations. Thus, the partial worker, in terms of his functional role in the production process, himself was reduced only to the position of a machine that that's why so easily and successfully competed with him, ousting him from production.

This reduction of the production functions of man to the functions of a machine is the fundamental ontological the reason for the fact that the theoretical doctrines that characterize the economic structure of a society of industrial technologies proceed from the a priori economic equivalence of living and materialized past labor, without questioning the legitimacy of their commensuration. However, the onset of the era of the dominance of information technology should prompt researchers to radically revise this point of view, which for a long time seemed natural and the only possible one.

Modern high-tech production processes, on the contrary, assume that the workers involved in them perform elements of complex creative, intellectual labor, namely, they carry out the function of monitoring and controlling the operation of machines, which means that modern production no longer requires partial workers, but workers. -univers, whose production functions are capable of performing only comprehensively developed individuals. Therefore, the inevitable consequence of the development of the information technology system will be the elimination of modern inert forms of division of labor that chained a person to his profession, and with it - the destruction of the prevailing system of private property relations today.

At the same time, this process is quite lengthy and contradictory, since the development of knowledge-intensive production processes, generally speaking, does not relieve the working individual from performing partial operations. As an example, we can cite the functions of an operator who controls and directs the work of highly complex high-tech production systems (for example, a computer operator): this work assumes the presence partial an employee, and not at all a comprehensively developed individual, since it is based on the implementation of not creative, but logical operations.

Due to the global changes taking place before our eyes in the nature, content and conditions of social labor, the role of information embodied in the workforce of highly qualified workers is significantly increasing today. Modern production processes taking place in the most developed countries of the world place high demands on the level literacy the people participating in them, that is, to the ability of these people to extract from the world around them, process and record the information they need in a symbolic form.

Identifying a person's literacy with their ability to read and write is an ahistorical approach. There was a time in the history of mankind when these two skills were really enough to be a literate person. However, today the range of skills required for full participation in socially normal production processes is rapidly growing and becoming more complex. An individual's presence of a certain level of education and intellectual development is a necessary prerequisite for his entry into production processes, the technical and economic conditions of which correspond to a socially normal level. According to K. Jaspers, a person himself becomes one of the types of raw materials subject to targeted processing. This means that today we need a fundamental methodological development of the problems of reproduction of the labor force, taking into account the reproduction of the information embodied in it.

The accumulation of human capital (information embodied in the labor force of highly qualified workers), as well as the accumulation of any scientific and technical information, is a cumulative process, the quantitative side of which is described by logistic curves. They naturally arise in the process of studying various phenomena that take place in the sphere of labor and employment, in particular, concerning the level of unemployment, income and consumption.

The statistical data on the dependence of the unemployment rate in various social groups on the level of their education and qualifications, cited in a number of recent publications, make it possible to build the one shown in Fig. 5.8 dependence of the probability of job loss during the economic crisis by one or another employee (parameter R) from the total investment in his human capital made during his entire previous life (parameter G): it is a parabola-type curve, the branches of which are directed downward, with a single maximum point.

In fact, the probability of job loss in the event of a crisis as a function of investment in human capital obeys the law normal distribution. Roughly speaking, the probability of losing a job for both an employee with a primary education and an academician is quite small - it is maximal for people with incomplete higher or just received higher education (young specialists). This is one of the reasons for the sharp "rejuvenation" of unemployment in countries experiencing economic crisis.

It is easy to understand that increment of the specified normally distributed probability, expressed by an integral with a variable upper limit, as a function of the volume of investment in human capital, can be well approximated by the logistic curve:

Rice. 5.8.Dependence of the probability of job loss on the total volume of investments in human capital

Regarding the theoretical substantiation of the logistic nature of this dependence, it is easy to see that the law diminishing productivity capital (diminishing return on investment) applies equally to investment in human capital. In particular, the statistics of developed countries of the world indicate that the costs of secondary education bring a more tangible economic effect and pay off faster than higher education, and they, in turn, are more effective than the costs of retraining and advanced training, carried out at the place of work. Thus, according to some estimates, the rate of return on investment in secondary education in developed countries is on average 11%, in less developed countries it is in the range of 15-18%. The rate of return on investment in higher education is 9% for developed countries and 13-16% for less developed countries. At the same time, a pattern is observed in all groups of countries: the higher the level of education, the lower its return. So, for primary education it can reach 50-100%, for secondary - 15-20%.

The diminishing productivity of human capital immediately entails significant consequences for the formation and implementation of a competent state policy in the field of education and science. In particular, the fact of diminishing productivity of human capital means that the achievement of universal literacy brings a more tangible economic effect to society than the training of superintellectuals in the presence of an illiterate majority of the population. In fact, the policy of the cultural revolution, put forward and implemented in our country in the first decades of Soviet power, was aimed at using this very regularity. A nation in which everyone can read and write will, in the long run, overtake a nation in which the majority of the population is illiterate, although individuals are genius, in technical development.

Note that such a statement of the problem fundamentally contradicts the state educational policy of most countries of the world (especially developed countries), in particular, the doctrine of education adopted in our country and which sets as the leading goal of the functioning of the education system not training specialists for the national economy, as it was first, but the satisfaction of the intellectual needs of an isolated person. However, it would be unreasonable to believe that the needs of individuals for knowledge exist abstractly and regardless of the needs of social production for qualified personnel. The end consumer of specialists with higher education, in any case, remains the sphere of social production (material and spiritual). Therefore, the nature and level of training of specialists in universities are ultimately determined by the needs of modern production.

The use of logistic curves to describe the dependencies that govern the accumulation of human capital is based on the fact that a certain part of the labor force of working individuals, which is a combination of their knowledge, skills and abilities, characterizing their professional, educational and cultural level, is a cumulative value that accumulates , - in other words, is a part the main capital, in contrast to circulating, which has the character of not a "fund" (stock), and the "stream" (flow). This idea, which underlies many modern theoretical constructions (in particular, theories of human capital), belongs to the leading ideas of classical political economy. In particular, A. Smith considered the creative potential of a person as an integral part of the aggregate fixed capital of society: “The acquisition of such abilities, including also the content of their owner during his upbringing, training or apprenticeship, always requires additional costs, which represent fixed capital, as would be realized in his personality ... ".

Somewhat later, a similar idea was expressed by K. Marx, who noted that the totality of qualities that characterize a person's ability to work forms a stock of his potential labor. Marx uses the term Arbeitskraft, not quite correctly translated as "labor force". Information embodied in a highly qualified workforce and serving as a saved result of previous labor (knowledge, qualifications of the working individual, as well as his general educational and cultural level achieved by him through his free time), is a fixed capital that is not spent every time without a trace. in the process of labor carried out by a given working individual, but transfers its value in parts to the newly created product, up to complete obsolescence.

Thus, the funds advanced for the purchase of living labor cannot be entirely attributed to circulating capital: by the nature of reproduction, part of the variable capital is fixed capital, and the share of this fixed capital in the total value of labor power increases more and more as the process of social reproduction makes ever higher demands on the qualifications of working individuals, on the level of their education. That is why the training of workers, the improvement of their qualifications (as well as the saving of working time, which is a necessary prerequisite for this process) is legitimately regarded as the production of the aggregate fixed capital of society.

The increasing focus on the reproduction of human capital indicates that the time has come to overcome the still widespread view of investment in education and research as a charitable expenditure despite considerations of economic efficiency. The problem of measuring the micro- and macroeconomic efficiency of investments in human capital is becoming an independent problem that deserves the close attention of economists.

The key point in the study of country and regional labor markets should be the fact of stratification of these markets into three specified segments, each of which is characterized by certain patterns and logic of market equilibrium (disequilibrium). The next step is to recognize that these three labor markets correspond to three different kinds of production opportunity curves.

Let us denote by c (t) the current consumption of the working individual at the moment of time t, and after i (t) his current investment in the reproduction of human capital. Now let on the time interval the quantities

The quantities / and C are the mean values ​​of the functions i (t) and c (t) on the interval or, in the language of statistics, the mathematical expectations of the corresponding continuously distributed random variables. To obtain adequate results, it is necessary that the interval was quite long, comparable, if not with the duration of the entire working career of an individual, then at least with the duration of the industrial cycle (at least 5-6 years).

Production opportunity curves characterizing the consumer's choice between investment in human capital and current consumption, plotted in coordinates (С, G), vary significantly depending on volume distributed resources.

The curve shown in fig. 5.9. Optimal consumer choice marked with a dot A in fig. 5.10, assumes the minimum investment in human capital, which corresponds to the level of education, the minimum required to participate in technologically primitive production processes.

The famous investor, whose dizzying career began selling the alphabet for four soldos, maximized his utility function by moving along the production opportunity curve towards the point A, indicated by the arrow in Fig. 5.9.

With an increase in the price of living labor and, consequently, the total volume of resources distributed by an individual, the individual moves to a socially normal labor market, and the curve of his production possibilities changes as shown in Fig. 5.10. Beyond the global optimum A, to which the indifference curve 1 corresponds, there is a local maximum of the utility function V, corresponding to the volume of investment in human capital, which allows an individual to work in the knowledge-intensive sector of the economy.

Rice. 5.9. Consumer investment choice: discriminatory

Rice. 5.10.Consumer investment choice: socially normal labor market

Let's pay attention to the fact that the curve of production possibilities (as usual, monotonically decreasing) in this case is not convex: the segment between the points A and V in fig. 5.10 corresponds to the level of education of the “dropout”, whose investments in human capital have already deprived him of the opportunities for growth of current consumption, but still do not allow counting on the optimal return.

A further rise in the price of living labor brings the individual to the so-called elite labor market, in which the reproduction of human capital plays a decisive role. The production opportunity curve corresponding to this segment of the labor market is shown in Fig. 5.11. The optimal strategy of an individual in this labor market is the growth of investment in human capital, which is significantly ahead of the growth in current consumption (point A in fig. 5.11). Although the local maximum of the utility function, corresponding to low-skilled labor, still takes place (it is better to have no education at all than not complete it), it is still significantly inferior to the global maximum and points of its immediate vicinity. This fact is illustrated in Fig. 5.11 by the fact that the indifference curve 1 lies above the indifference curve 2, passing through a local optimum V.

The fundamentally important point is that the three different types of production opportunity curves depicted in Fig. 5.9-5.11, correspond to different volumes total income, that is, the total resources distributed by the working individual between his current consumption and investment in human capital. The relative position of these curves is shown in Fig. 5.12: curve No. 1 corresponds to a discriminatory labor market, curve No. 2 to socially normal, curve No. 3 to an elite one.

Rice. 5.11.Consumer investment choice: an elite labor market

Rice. 5.12.

The minimum required volume of resources is enough only for the purpose of current consumption (curve No. 1), and when this volume is exceeded, investments in human capital, even at best, grow insignificantly (curve No. 2). At the same time, when the main problems of current consumption have been resolved, a further increase in the resources distributed by the individual entails a sharp increase in investment in human capital, while the growth in current consumption is already small (D / in Fig. 5.12 significantly exceeds AC). This, in fact, is the logic of the law elevations needs: at a certain stage, the leading role is no longer acquired by the quantitative increase in the volume of resources consumed by the individual, but by the development and implementation of his creative vitality and abilities. The so-called Engel's law also argues that the volume of consumption of essential goods is not very income elastic, in contrast to the volume of consumption of goods and services that ensure the accumulation of human capital.

Note that the innovation breakthrough strategy is available only to those countries in which a significant proportion of the population constitutes the elite labor market with the utility function set by curve No. 3. considerations of maximizing the utility function, will choose the "underinvestment" strategy corresponding to the point A in fig. 5.10. Thus, the level of reproduction of aggregate human capital required for the independent implementation of a global technological shift will be unavailable for this country, and it will automatically fall into technological dependence on other more developed countries.

This is one of the main reasons for the fact that the richest countries in the world concentrate high-tech production processes on their territory, trying to move technologically backward and environmentally harmful industries to the territory of developing countries, including Russia. At the same time, the cult of consumption is actively imposed on the respective countries, shifting the choice of the consumer to the right and down along each of the curves of production possibilities considered: following this cult entails an increase in the current consumption of individuals and, accordingly, a decrease in investment in human capital. This strategy is aimed at effectively eliminating competitors in the development and implementation of information products from the world market, which are for the developed countries of the world some new industrial countries (both the first and second wave) and Russia.

  • See: Kapelyushnikov R.I., Albegova I.M., Leonova T.G., Emtsov R.G., Night P. Human capital of Russia: problems of rehabilitation // Society and Economy. 1993. No. 9-10. P. 6.
  • Smith A. Research on the nature and causes of the wealth of peoples. M.: Sotsekgiz, 1962.S. 208.