Justify the need for international trade for various countries. International trade. Development and regulation of international trade

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Introduction

1. The essence of international trade and its role in the system of world economic relations

Conclusion

List of used literature

international trade world economic theory

Introduction

The need for the emergence and development of a system of relations for the international exchange of goods and services is due to many reasons. One of them is that practically no country has the amount and range of resources necessary to fully meet the entire system of needs. Each country has a limited amount of labor and capital, allowing it to produce various goods that are part of the GDP. If a country has the best conditions for the production of certain goods and the costs associated with this are minimal, then this allows it, by increasing the production of this product and selling it to other countries, to buy goods that cannot be produced domestically or their production is too expensive. Therefore, always the reasons for the existence of foreign trade relations, and, consequently, the modern world market, remain the international division of labor and the mutual benefit of exchange.

In order for a country to be able to trade on the world market, it needs to have export resources, i.e. stocks of competitive goods and services that are in demand on the world market, foreign exchange or other means of paying for imports, as well as a developed foreign trade infrastructure: vehicles, warehouses, communications, etc. Settlements for foreign trade operations are made by banks, and the country's insurance business insures transportation and cargo. Of course, if necessary, you can use the infrastructure services of other countries, but, as a rule, these are very expensive services, and each country involved in the world market seeks to create its own infrastructure.

Two counter flows of goods and services form the exports and imports of each country. Export is the sale and export of goods abroad, import is the purchase and import of goods from abroad. The difference between the cost estimates of exports and imports forms the trade balance, and the sum of these estimates is the foreign trade turnover.

In the world market, as in any market, demand and supply are formed and the desire for market equilibrium is maintained. The purpose of the work is to analyze international trade as an economic category.

1. The concept of world trade

International trade is a form of communication between producers of different countries, arising on the basis of the international division of labor, and expresses their mutual economic dependence.

Structural shifts taking place in the economies of countries under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution, specialization and cooperation of industrial production enhance the interaction of national economies. This contributes to the intensification of international trade. International trade, which mediates the movement of all intercountry commodity flows, is growing faster than production. According to the World Trade Organization, for every 10% increase in world production, there is a 16% increase in world trade. This creates more favorable conditions for its development. When there are disruptions in trade, the development of production also slows down.

The term "foreign trade" refers to the trade of a country with other countries, consisting of paid import (import) and paid export (export) of goods.

Diverse foreign trade activities are subdivided according to commodity specialization into: trade in finished products, trade in machinery and equipment, trade in raw materials and trade in services.

International trade is the paid total trade turnover between all countries of the world. However, the concept of "international trade" is used in a narrower sense. It denotes, for example, the total trade turnover of industrialized countries, the total trade turnover of developing countries, the total trade turnover of countries of any continent or region.

The essence of international trade and its role in the system of world economic relations.

Foreign trade is an important and historically very first form of international economic relations. It represents the exchange of goods between state-registered national economies.

In modern conditions, all subjects of the world economy participate in international trade. It is based on the international division of labor. The development of international specialization of production and the deepening of this division of labor (in the form of general, particular and individual) give rise to a variety of forms and directions of international trade. The scientific and technological revolution, which has accelerated the qualitative transformation of all elements of the productive forces and shifts in the geographical and commodity structure of world commodity flows, has a profound effect on it.

The scale of participation of individual national economies in international trade is related to the level of development of commodity production and commodity circulation in them. It is known that the beginnings of commodity production, commodity circulation and foreign trade already existed under the slave system. However, in all pre-capitalist formations, due to the predominance of natural economy, only an insignificant part of the products participated in international exchange.

The development of commodity production and a market economy gave a powerful impetus to the expansion of international trade as a special sphere of commodity circulation - between national economies.

With the development of a market economy, the need for an external market increases. The formation of a large-scale machine industry as the basis of mass production, a deepening of the division of labor and specialization, and an increase in the optimal size of enterprises require a more active participation of national economies in international trade, both in terms of exports and imports. The sale of goods abroad makes it possible to partially resolve the contradictions between production and consumption inherent in a market economy. However, not being fully resolved through the export of goods, these contradictions are transferred to the sphere of world economic relations, which finds expression in the intense competition characteristic of international trade.

At the same time, participation in it leads to an intensification of the reproduction process in national economies in a number of areas: specialization is enhanced, the possibility of organizing mass production is created, the degree of equipment utilization is increased, and the efficiency of introducing new equipment and technologies is increasing. The expansion of exports entails an increase in employment, which has important social consequences.

Active participation in international trade creates conditions for accelerating progressive structural shifts in national economies. For many developing countries (especially Asian ones), export growth has become an important component of the process of industrialization and increase in economic growth rates. Export proceeds are a significant source of capital accumulation for the needs of industrial development. The expansion of exports allows the mobilization and more efficient use of natural resources and labor, which ultimately contributes to the growth of labor productivity and incomes. The involvement of industrial enterprises that supply to the foreign market in international competition necessitates constant organizational and technical improvement of their activities, an increase in the technical level and quality of goods produced in the country, which is a factor in the growth of labor productivity and economic efficiency. Because of this, the highest rates of economic development are characteristic of those countries where foreign trade is rapidly expanding, especially exports (Germany in the 50s and 60s, Japan in the 70s and 80s, the newly industrialized countries of Asia in the 90s).

At the same time, the increase in foreign trade exchange, the growing role of exports and imports in national economies contribute to the synchronization of the economic cycle in the world economy. The interconnection and interdependence of country economic complexes are growing so much that disruptions in the functioning of the economy of any major participant in the world market will inevitably entail international consequences, including the spread of crisis phenomena to other countries.

Thus, the place of international trade in the system of international economic relations is determined by the fact that, firstly, through it the results of all forms of world economic relations are realized - the export of capital, industrial cooperation, scientific and technical cooperation. Secondly, the development of international trade in goods ultimately determines the dynamics of the international exchange of services. Thirdly, the growth and deepening of interregional and interstate relations are an important prerequisite for international economic integration. Fourth, in this way, international trade contributes to the further deepening of the international division of labor and the internationalization of economic ties.

2. The concept, objects and subjects of international trade

International trade links national economies into a single system of the world market. The latter has fundamental differences from domestic national markets:

Only competitive goods enter the world market;

There are world prices, which are based on international value (formed during the production of goods in the average global socially normal conditions);

It is more prone to monopolization (the dominance of TNCs);

The decisive influence can be exerted not by economic, but by political factors (for example, politics in the state, embargoes, etc.)

Settlements are made in freely convertible currency and in international units of account.

International trade is the sphere of commodity-money relations, which is a combination of foreign trade of all countries of the world. In other words, international trade is the sphere of exchange of products of labor (goods and services) between sellers and buyers of different countries.

Foreign trade is the exchange of goods and services between state-registered national economies. The term "foreign trade" applies only to a single country.

In the process of international trade, there are two directions of commodity flows - export and import. Depending on the origin and destination of goods, exports and imports are of the following types:

Classification of types of export and import:


1) export of goods manufactured (produced) in the given country;	1) import from abroad of goods, technologies for sale on the domestic market of the importer, as well as receiving paid services from a foreign importer for industrial and consumer purposes;
2) export of raw materials and semi-finished products for processing abroad under customs control with subsequent return;	2) import of raw materials, p / f, units, parts for processing in a given country and subsequent export abroad;
3) re-export - export of goods previously imported from abroad, including goods sold at international auctions, commodity exchanges, etc.;	3) re-import - return import from abroad of previously exported national goods;
4) temporary export abroad of national goods (to exhibitions, fairs) with subsequent return or export of previously imported foreign goods (to auctions, exhibitions, fairs).	4) temporary importation of goods to international exhibitions, fairs, auctions;
5) export of products in the order of direct production relations (in engineering), as well as deliveries within the framework of TNCs.	5) import of products within the framework of TNCs (transnational corporations).

Indicators for assessing export-import deliveries are important for determining the quantitative characteristics of foreign and international trade, such as:

cost and physical volume (trade). The value of foreign trade is calculated for a certain period of time at current prices of the respective years using current exchange rates. There are nominal and real value of international trade. The nominal value of international trade is usually expressed in US dollars at current prices and is therefore highly dependent on the dynamics of the dollar exchange rate against other currencies. The real volume of international trade is the nominal volume converted into constant prices using a deflator (decrease in the general (average) price level in the country's economy; the process of reducing the growth of money supply in circulation). The physical volume of foreign trade is calculated at constant prices and allows making the necessary comparisons and determining its real dynamics. The above figures are calculated by all countries in national currencies and converted into US dollars for international comparison purposes;

commodity structure, which is the ratio of commodity groups in world exports. To date, there are over 20 million. types of manufactured products for industrial and consumer purposes, and the number of intermediate products reaches fantastic proportions. In addition, according to the estimates of the general agreement on tariffs and trade of the World Trade Organization, there are more than 600 types of services;

the geographical structure is the distribution of trade flows between individual countries and their groups, allocated either on a territorial or organizational basis. Territorial geographic structure - data on the international trade of countries belonging to one part of the world, or to one group. Organizational geographical structure - data on international trade between countries to separate integration and other trade and political groupings, or allocated to a separate group according to certain criteria (for example, oil exporting countries).

The subjects of international trade are all the states of the world, which, depending on the level of their economic development, are divided into groups: countries with a developed market economy (24 countries with a high per capita income, including the Big Seven), developing countries (132 countries with low and middle income per capita) and countries with economies in transition (the former socialist countries of Eastern Europe and the USSR).

In addition, in modern conditions, the strengthening of the internationalization of the production sphere of the world economy puts forward transnational and multinational companies (TNCs and MNCs) as one of the most important subjects of international trade.

The development of integration processes is predetermined by the participation of integration regional groupings (for example, the European Union) as subjects of international trade. Thus, the subjects of international trade are:

1. countries of the world;

2. TNCs and MNCs;

3. regional integration groupings.

The objects of international trade are products of human labor - goods and services.

International trade is essential to the economic growth and development of countries in a dynamic global economy.

The development and complexity of world trade is reflected in the evolution of theories that explain the driving forces of this process. In modern conditions, differences in international specialization can only be analyzed on the basis of the totality of all key models of the international division of labor.

Having considered world trade in terms of its development trends, we can conclude that, on the one hand, there is a clear increase in international integration, the gradual erasure of borders and the creation of various interstate trade blocs, on the other hand, the deepening of the international division of labor, the division of countries into industrialized and backward.

Attention should be paid to the growing role of modern means of communication in the process of exchanging information and concluding transactions themselves. Trends towards the depersonalization and standardization of goods allow accelerating the process of concluding transactions and the circulation of capital.

In historical terms, it is impossible not to note the growing influence of Asian countries on the processes of world trade. In my opinion, in the future this region will take a leading role in the global process of production and sale of goods.

In conclusion, I would like to say about world trade in our country. With a population of nearly 150 million, with significant energy resources, a fairly highly skilled labor force, and a low cost of labor, Russia is a huge market for goods, services, and capital. However, the degree of realization of this potential in the foreign economic sphere is very modest.

Russia is experiencing problems, both in the field of exports and imports. But, despite the difficulties that arise, Russia's trade turnover with other countries is growing, which indicates the development and strengthening of trade and economic ties.

Unfortunately, the role of Russia in world trade is small, but for Russia itself the importance of the foreign economic sphere is very significant. The sphere of foreign trade provides great opportunities for the formation and development of the economy, the formation of the country's budget and the maintenance of the well-being of the people.

3. Basic theories of international trade

Classical theory of international trade

A. Smith substantiated the thesis, according to which the basis for the development of international trade is the difference in absolute costs. He noted that one should import goods from a country where costs are absolutely lower, and export those goods whose costs are lower than exporters.

The views of A. Smith were supplemented and developed by D. Ricardo, who formulated the theory of comparative costs. D. Ricardo showed that international exchange is possible and desirable in the interests of all countries. He considered mutually beneficial trade possible even in the presence of absolute advantages of one country over another in the production of goods.

Specialization based on the use of the principle of comparative advantage provides a more efficient allocation of world resources and the growth of world production of relevant goods. However, it should be borne in mind that the considered model of the division of labor is based on a number of simplifications. It comes from the presence of only two countries and two goods, free trade, perfect mobility of labor (i.e., labor) within each country in the absence of its overflow between countries); fixed production costs, complete interchangeability of resources for alternative uses; ignoring differences in wage levels between countries, as well as the absence of transport costs and technical changes.

These initial prerequisites were necessary to identify the basic principles for the development of international trade. However, some of them need to be clarified. In practice, the expansion of production in many industries is associated with an increase in marginal costs, so the release of each subsequent unit of this product required the abandonment of an ever-increasing amount of all the others.

Heckscher-Ohlin model.

The new model was created by the Swedish economists Eli Heckscher and Bertel Ohlin. Up until the 60s. the Heckscher-Ohlin model dominated the economic literature.

The essence of the neoclassical approach to international trade and the specialization of individual countries is as follows: For reasons of historical and geographical nature, the distribution of material and human resources between countries is uneven, which, according to neoclassicists, explains the differences in relative prices for goods, on which, in turn, depend national comparative advantage. From this follows the law of proportionality of factors: in an open economy, each country tends to specialize in the production of goods that require more factors with which the country is relatively better endowed. Ohlin put this law even more succinctly: "International exchange is the exchange of abundant factors for rare ones: a country exports goods whose production requires more abundant factors."

Leontief's paradox

The well-known American economist (of Russian origin) Vasily Leontiev, studying the structure of US exports and imports in 1956, found that, contrary to the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, exports were dominated by relatively more labor-intensive goods, while imports were dominated by capital-intensive ones. This result became known as Leontief's paradox.

Further studies showed that the contradiction discovered by V. Leontiev can be eliminated if more than two factors of production are taken into account when analyzing the structure of trade.

What explanation did V. Leontiev give to his paradox? He hypothesized that, in any combination with a given amount of capital, one man-year of American labor is equivalent to three man-years of foreign labor. And this means that the US is indeed a labor-surplus country, so there is no paradox.

V. Leontiev also suggested that the greater productivity of American labor is associated with higher qualifications of American workers. He ran a statistical test that showed that the US was exporting goods that required more skilled labor than those required to produce "competing imports." To do this, V. Leontiev divided all types of labor into five skill levels and calculated how many man-years of labor of each skill group are needed to produce $1 million worth of US exports and “competing imports”. It turned out that export goods required significantly more skilled labor than imported ones. Michael Porter's Theory of Country Competitive Advantage

The theory of comparative advantage was further developed on a qualitatively new basis in the works of the famous American economist Michael Porter.

Based on the analysis of extensive statistical material covering about 100 industries in eight industrialized countries. M. Porter created an original theory of the country's competitive advantage. The central place in his concept is occupied by the idea of the so-called national rhombus, which reveals the four main properties (“determinants”) of the economy that form the competitive macro-environment in which the firms of this country operate.

The "national rhombus" reveals a system of determinants that, being in interaction, create a favorable or unfavorable environment for realizing the country's potential competitive advantages.

4. Modern world trade

Over the past decade, the share of trade between developed and developing countries in total world trade has gradually increased - from 20% in 1995 to 22% in 2002. Developed countries still trade mainly among themselves, but for developing countries they were and remain the most important trading partners, the most profitable markets for their exports and the best source of the imports they need. True, during the 1995-2000s. the terms of foreign trade of developing countries deteriorated due to the fall in world prices for raw materials, which until recently constituted the vast majority of their exports. Between 1995 and 2002, world prices for crude oil, for example, fell almost four times, for cocoa beans almost three times, and for coffee about two times. Experts continue to argue about whether this decline in world prices is temporary or permanent. However, developing countries, whose export revenues were heavily dependent on the prices of these and other commodities, have already suffered serious economic losses that have markedly slowed down their economic growth and development.

In response to falling commodity prices, many developing countries are successfully restructuring their exports by increasing the share of manufactured goods. On average, their exports to developed countries are now dominated by labor-intensive, low-cost research and development (R&D) manufactured products, such as clothing, carpets or watches, and other hand-assembled mechanisms. This allows developing countries to make better use of their abundant labor resources by creating more additional jobs.

Imports of developing countries from OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) countries mainly consist of capital-intensive manufactured products that embody modern achievements in science and technology, primarily machinery and equipment. In the production of capital and knowledge-intensive goods, the developed countries still have not only a comparative, but also an absolute advantage over the developing countries.

One of the subjects of political debate in developed countries is the question of how much the import of cheap labor-intensive goods from developing countries is to blame for the relative decline in the average wage level of low-skilled workers (as is observed, for example, in the US and the UK) and the growth of unemployment, also, primarily , among low-skilled workers (which is happening recently in Western Europe). However, most experts agree that, although trade with developing countries has a certain impact on the industrial composition and labor markets in developed countries, it is not the main reason for the exacerbation of these social problems. According to experts, the fall in demand for the labor of workers with limited human capital is caused primarily by the "labor-saving" direction of scientific and technological progress and the post-industrial restructuring of the economy of developed countries.

Characterizing the sectoral structure of world trade in the first half of the 20th century (before the Second World War) and in subsequent decades, we see significant changes. If in the first half of the century 2/3 of the world trade was accounted for by food, raw materials and fuel, then by the end of the century they accounted for only 1/4. The share of trade in manufacturing products increased from 1/3 to 3/4. And, finally, more than 1/3 of all world trade by the end of the 90s is the trade in machinery and equipment.

The most dynamic and intensively developing sector of world trade is trade in manufacturing products, especially high-tech goods. Thus, the export of science-intensive products is more than 500 billion dollars a year, and the share of high-tech products is approaching 40% in the export of industrialized countries.

Significantly increased the role of trade in machinery and equipment. The most rapidly growing export of electrical and electronic equipment, which accounts for more than 25% of all exports of engineering products. The annual growth of the world market of microelectronics up to 2010 is predicted at the level of 10-15%. In 2005, worldwide sales of electronic devices of all kinds surpassed the $1 trillion milestone. dollars.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is worth noting that the development and complication of international trade is reflected in the evolution of theories that explain the driving forces of this process. In modern conditions, differences in international specialization can only be analyzed on the basis of the totality of all key models of the international division of labor.

If we consider world trade in terms of its development trends, then on the one hand, there is a clear strengthening of international integration, the gradual erasure of borders and the creation of various interstate trade blocs, on the other hand, a deepening of the international division of labor, the gradation of countries into industrialized and backward.

It is impossible not to notice the ever-increasing role of modern means of communication in the process of exchanging information and concluding transactions themselves. Trends towards the depersonalization and standardization of goods allow accelerating the process of concluding transactions and the circulation of capital.

In historical terms, it is impossible not to note the growth of the influence of Asian countries on the processes of world trade, it is quite likely that in the new millennium this region will take a leading role in the global process of production and sale of goods.

Bibliography

1. Avdokushin E.F. International Economic Relations: Textbook. - M.: Jurist, 2001.

2. Andrianov V.D. Russia: economic and investment potential. - M.: Economics, 2003.

3. George Modelski, William Thompson. Waves of Kondratiev, development of the world economy and international politics // Questions of Economics - 2012. - No. 10.

4. International currency and credit relations: Textbook / Ed.L.N. Krasavina. - M.: Finance and statistics, 2002.

5. Sergeev P.V. World economy and international economic relations at the present stage: Proc. manual on the course "World Economy". - M .: New Lawyer, 2000.

6. Fomichev V.I. International Trade: Textbook. - M.: INFRA-M, 2002.

7. Shcherbanin Yu.A. etc. International economic relations: Integration: Proc. allowance for universities. - M.: Banks and stock exchanges, UNITI, 2000.

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World trade is the exchange of goods and services between national economies. Its development is due to the deepening process of the international division of labor.

World trade is made up of exports and imports. Export (export) of goods means that they are sold on the foreign market. The country exports those products whose production costs are below world prices, or those that can only be manufactured in this country. Import (import) of goods - the acquisition of goods abroad, the production of which in this state is unprofitable or impossible.

The state of foreign trade characterizes the trade balance - the ratio between the sum of the prices of goods exported abroad and the sum of the prices of goods imported from abroad for a certain time. If the value of exports exceeds the value of imports, the trade balance is active; if less, then it is passive.

Each state pursues a certain foreign trade policy, which is understood as a system of economic, organizational, political and other measures related to ensuring one or another nature of foreign trade relations of a given country or group of countries. There are two directions of foreign trade policy - protectionism and free trade.

Protectionism (translated from Latin - protection, patronage) is the policy of the state, which consists in purposefully protecting the domestic market from the receipt of foreign-made goods. It is carried out through the introduction of direct and indirect restrictions on imports - customs tariffs, non-tariff barriers, currency restrictions, internal taxes and fees, etc. State protectionism in the field of exports, first of all, consists in subsidizing it.

Free trade (translated from English - free trade) - trade without restrictions, when the state provides free access to the country of foreign goods by setting low import duties or even without setting them. Free trade also applies to domestic producers.

World trade in goods and services is also regulated by international economic organizations. Since 1949, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) has been in force, which in 1994 was transformed into the World Trade Organization (WTO). The main task of this organization is the liberalization of foreign trade, especially in the field of customs tariffs.

The current stage of world trade in goods and services is characterized by the following features:

1. In the VMP, there is a decrease in the share of raw materials and agricultural goods and an increase in the share of industrial goods and services.

2. Growth in the volume of foreign trade in comparison with the growth of the countries' GDP.

3. Changing the geographical structure of world trade: the leading role still belongs to industrialized countries, but there is a slow reduction in the flow of goods from the United States, and the weakening of Japan's foreign trade positions. At the same time, since the 1970s 20th century New industrial and a number of developing countries began to play an important role in world trade: Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, China, Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, etc.

4. In the structure of international trade, the share of exports of science-intensive, high-tech products, technologies, etc. has increased.

The patterns and significance of international trade have always been at the center of attention of various schools and areas of economic theory. Of the theories of international trade, the mercantilist theory was the first to appear, whose representatives, firstly, emphasized its importance for the economic development of countries, secondly, for the first time described what is called the balance of payments in the modern economy, and, thirdly, developed the main provisions of the policy of protectionism .

Modern theories of international trade originate from classical political economy, from the theories of A. Smith and D. Ricardo. A. Smith developed the theory of absolute advantages, according to which some countries can produce certain goods more efficiently than others, due to the presence of advantages in natural and acquired factors.

D. Riccardo belongs to the theory of relative advantages. In his theoretical calculations, he proved not only the possibility, but also the necessity of international trade, even in the presence of an absolute advantage of one country in the production of all products. This country will benefit if it abandons less efficient production in favor of more efficient production. The total output can be increased, according to this theory, at the expense of additional advantages arising from the specialization of the country in the production of those products for which the cost advantages are especially large.

The founders of the modern modification of the theory of comparative costs - the theory of the ratio of factors of production - are the Swedish economists E. Heckscher and B. Ohlin. According to this theory, countries are differently endowed with factors of production - labor, land, capital. If a country is oversupplied with any one factor, such as labor at relatively lower wages, then the labor-intensive goods produced in that country will be cheaper. Capital-intensive goods will be cheaper in capital-abundant countries. On this basis, the export and import of relevant goods should be carried out.

One of the problems of international trade is to determine the competitive advantages of entities participating in international trade. The American economist M. Porter put forward his own version in the concept of the international competitiveness of nations. Competitiveness in international exchange is determined by such interdependent components as factor conditions, demand conditions, the state of service and related industries, the company's strategy in a certain competitive situation. The economic policy of the government also influences and even random events, war, new inventions, etc. The combination of these parameters determines the competitive advantages of firms, industries and countries in the world market.

In the study of the problems of the significance of modern international trade for the economies of countries, the theory of the foreign trade multiplier has become widespread. In accordance with this theory, the effect of foreign trade, in particular exports, on the dynamics of national income growth, employment, consumption and investment activity is characterized for each country by quite definite quantitative dependencies and can be calculated and expressed as a certain coefficient - the multiplier . Its mechanism is that, initially, export orders will directly increase output, and hence wages, in the industries fulfilling this order, and then secondary consumer spending will set in motion.

3.8.1. International trade. Fundamentals of the theory of international trade

International trade - it is a form of international economic relations that reflects the import and export of goods and services and is based on the international division of labor .

World market is a set of interconnected and interacting with each other national markets of individual countries participating in the international division of labor and connected with each other by a system of international economic relations.

The main forms of economic relations between countries are:

International trade;

International export of capital;

international labor migration;

Scientific and technical exchange;

International monetary and credit relations.

Foreign trade is trade with other countries, consisting of export (import) and export (export) of goods.

The main reasons for the development of international trade:

Uneven distribution and provision of economic resources in different countries;

Efficient production of goods and services with a complete difference in technologies.

Main indicators of foreign trade:

Export volumes;

Import volumes;

Export-import quota = ((E+I)/ GNP (GDP)) *100%;

The value of trade turnover (the sum of exports and imports);

Foreign trade balance (ratio of exports and imports);

Export potential (export opportunities).

Structure of foreign trade (subjects and objects of trade)

primary goal international trade is an opportunity overcome the limitations of the national resource base, expand the capacity of the foreign market, install connection of the national market with the world and provide additional income at the expense difference between national and international production costs.

Basic theories of foreign trade:

1. The theory of absolute advantages (Adam Smith);

2. The theory of relative advantages (David Ricardo);

3. Heckscher-Ohlin theory.

According to the theory of absolute advantage, a great benefit can be obtained if each country specializes in the production of the product in which it has an exclusive (absolute) advantage. According to the theory of comparative advantage, each country can gain enormously by specializing in those goods in which it has a comparative advantage and exchanging them for goods in which it has a comparative advantage that another country has. According to the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, countries will tend to export surplus factors of production and import scarce factors of production, i.e. the movement of goods from country to country should compensate for the relatively low provision of countries with factors of production on a global scale.

As part of this, countries that have competitiveness take part in international trade. It is determined by the advantages that the country has in this industry.

Factors affecting competitiveness:

Resource proposal;

demand conditions;

Number of firms;

Related and supporting industries.

Foreign trade policy is the foreign trade policy.

The main forms of policy:

- free trade policy– theory and practice of non-intervention of the state in international trade;

- protectionism- the theory and practice of foreign trade regulation, aimed at protecting the economic entities of the national economy, with the help of duties or administrative regulation of trade to protect one or more industries from foreign competition.

Protectionist measures:

1. Tariff barriers- collection of customs duties.

The fees are:

Ad valorem duty - a fixed percentage of the price of goods;

Specific customs duties - a fixed rate per unit of goods;

Compound duty - the simultaneous collection of both the price of goods and per unit of goods.

2. Non-tariff barriers:

Export and import quotas;

Introduction of a state monopoly on trade in certain goods;

Licensing;

Voluntary restriction of export;

Complicated customs procedure.

3. Technical and sanitary standards.

4. Currency restrictions on exports.

CHAPTER 1. THE CONCEPT OF WORLD TRADE. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

1.1. Concept and essence of world trade

World (international) trade- the main form of international economic relations, since it includes trade not only in goods in the material sense of the word, but also in a wide variety of services (transport, financial, business services, tourism, etc.).

World trade is a process of buying and selling goods and services carried out between buyers, sellers and intermediaries in different countries, and is also a form of communication between producers of different countries, arising on the basis of the international division of labor, and expresses their mutual economic dependence. However, the concept of "international trade" is used in a narrower sense. It denotes, for example, the total trade turnover of industrialized countries, the total trade turnover of developing countries, the total trade turnover of countries of any continent or region. Structural shifts taking place in the economies of countries under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution, specialization and cooperation of industrial production enhance the interaction of national economies. This contributes to the intensification of international trade. According to the World Trade Organization, for every 10% increase in world production, there is a 16% increase in world trade. This creates more favorable conditions for its development. When there are disruptions in trade, the development of production also slows down.

Active participation in international trade creates conditions for accelerating progressive structural shifts in national economies. For many developing countries (especially Asian ones), export growth has become an important component of the process of industrialization and increase in economic growth rates. Export proceeds are a significant source of capital accumulation for the needs of industrial development. The expansion of exports allows the mobilization and more efficient use of natural resources and labor, which ultimately contributes to the growth of labor productivity and incomes. The involvement of industrial enterprises that supply to the foreign market in international competition necessitates constant organizational and technical improvement of their activities, increasing the technical level and quality of goods produced in the country, which is a factor in the growth of labor productivity and economic efficiency. Because of this, the highest rates of economic development are characteristic of those countries where foreign trade is rapidly expanding, especially exports (Germany in the 50s and 60s, Japan in the 70s and 80s, the newly industrialized countries of Asia in the 90s).

In this way, place of international trade in the system of international economic relations is determined by the fact that, firstly, through it the results of all forms of world economic relations are realized - the export of capital, industrial cooperation, scientific and technical cooperation. Secondly, the development of international trade in goods ultimately determines the dynamics of the international exchange of services. Thirdly, the growth and deepening of interregional and interstate relations are an important prerequisite for international economic integration. Fourth, in this way, international trade contributes to the further deepening of the international division of labor and the internationalization of economic ties.

It is quite natural that the development of world trade is based on the benefits it brings to the countries participating in it. The theory of international trade gives an idea of what is the basis of this gain from foreign trade or what determines the direction of foreign trade flows. International trade serves as a tool through which countries, by developing their specialization, can increase the productivity of available resources and thus increase the volume of goods and services they produce, and improve the well-being of the population.

1.2. The main stages in the development of world trade

Originating in ancient times, world trade reaches a significant scale and acquires the character of stable international commodity-money relations at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries.

A powerful impetus to this process was the creation in a number of more industrialized countries (England, Holland, etc.) of large-scale machine production, focused on large-scale and regular imports of raw materials from the economically less developed countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, and exports of manufactured goods to these countries. primarily for consumer use. In the XX century. World trade has gone through a series of deep crises. The first of these was associated with the World War of 1914-1918, it led to a long and deep disruption of world trade, which lasted until the end of World War II, which shook the entire structure of international economic relations to its foundations. In the post-war period, world trade faced new difficulties associated with the collapse of the colonial system. It should be noted that all these crises were overcome. On the whole, a characteristic feature of the post-war period was a noticeable acceleration in the rate of development of world trade, which reached the highest level in the entire previous history of human society. Moreover, the growth rate of world trade exceeded the growth rate of world GDP.

Since the second half of the 20th century, when international exchange is becoming "explosive", world trade has been developing at a high pace. In the period 1950-1994. world trade turnover increased 14 times. According to Western experts, the period between 1950 and 1970 can be described as a "golden age" in the development of international trade. Thus, the average annual growth rate of world exports was in the 50s. 6%, in the 60s. - 8.2%. In the period from 1970 to 1991, the physical volume of world exports (that is, calculated at constant prices) increased 2.5 times, the average annual growth rate was 9.0%, in 1991-1995. this indicator was equal to 6.2%.

Accordingly, the volume of world trade also increased. So in 1965 it amounted to 172.0 billion, in 1970 - 193.4 billion, in 1975 - 816.5 billion dollars, in 1980 - 1.9 trillion, in 1990 g. - 3.3 trillion. and in 1995 - over 5 trillion. dollars. It was during this period that an annual 7% growth in world exports was achieved. However, already in the 70s it dropped to 5%, decreasing even more in the 80s. In the late 1980s, world exports showed a noticeable recovery (up to 8.5% in 1988). After a clear decline in the early 1990s, in the mid-1990s, it again demonstrates high sustainable rates.

The stable, sustainable growth of international trade was influenced by a number of factors:

1. development of the international division of labor and the internationalization of production;

2. Scientific and technological revolution, contributing to the renewal of fixed capital, the creation of new sectors of the economy, accelerating the reconstruction of old ones;

3. vigorous activity of transnational corporations in the world market;

4. regulation (liberalization) of international trade through the activities of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT);

5. liberalization of international trade, the transition of many countries to a regime that includes the abolition of quantitative restrictions on imports and a significant reduction in customs duties - the formation of free economic zones;

6. development of trade and economic integration processes: elimination of regional barriers, formation of common markets, free trade zones;

7. obtaining political independence of the former colonial countries. Separation from their number of "new industrial countries" with a model of the economy focused on the external market.

The high rates of world trade continued in the future: by 2003. the volume of world trade increased by 50% and exceeded 7 trillion. Doll.

Since the second half of the 20th century, the uneven dynamics of foreign trade has become noticeable. This affected the balance of power between countries in the world market. The dominance of the United States was shaken. In turn, Germany's exports approached the US, and in some years even exceeded it. In addition to Germany, exports of other Western European countries also grew at a noticeable pace. In the 1980s, Japan made a significant breakthrough in international trade. By the end of the 1980s, Japan began to emerge as a leader in terms of competitiveness factors. In the same period, it was joined by the "new industrial countries" of Asia - Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan. However, by the mid-1990s, the United States was once again taking a leading position in the world in terms of competitiveness. They are closely followed by Singapore, Hong Kong, as well as Japan, which previously held the first place for six years.

So far, the developing countries have mainly remained suppliers of raw materials, foodstuffs, and relatively simple finished products to the world market. However, the growth rate of trade in raw materials lags markedly behind the overall growth rate of world trade. This lag is due to the development of substitutes for raw materials, their more economical use, and the deepening of their processing. Industrialized countries have almost completely captured the market for high technology products. At the same time, some developing countries, primarily the "newly industrialized countries", have managed to achieve significant changes in the restructuring of their exports, increasing the share of finished products, industrial products, incl. machines and equipment. Thus, the share of industrial exports of developing countries in the total world volume in the early 1990s was 16.3%.