Primates (lat. Primates, from lat. Primas, literally. "First") - one of the most progressive orders of placental mammals, including monkeys and humans. The detachment has more than 400 species

Appearance

For primates, five-toed very mobile upper limbs (hands) are characteristic, the opposition of the thumb to the rest (for the majority), nails. The body of most primates is covered with hair, while lemurs and some broad-nosed monkeys also have an undercoat, which is why their hair can be called real fur.

general characteristics

 binocular vision

 hairline

 five-toed limb

 fingers are provided with nails

 the thumb of the hand is opposed to all the rest

 underdeveloped sense of smell

 significant development of the cerebral hemispheres

Classification

A detachment of primates was identified back in 1758 by Linnaeus, who attributed to him people, monkeys, semi-monkeys, bats and sloths. Linnaeus took the presence of two mammary glands and a five-toed limb as the defining features of primates. In the same century, Georges Buffon divided the primates into two orders - four-handed (Quadrumana) and two-handed (Bimanus), separating humans from other primates. It wasn't until 100 years later that Thomas Huxley put an end to this division by proving that the hind limb of the monkey is the leg. Since the 18th century, the composition of the taxon has changed, but as early as the 20th century, the slow loris was attributed to sloths, and bats were excluded from the close relatives of primates at the beginning of the 21st century.

Recently, the classification of primates has undergone significant changes. Previously, the suborders of semimonkeys (Prosimii) and humanoid primates (Anthropoidea) were distinguished. All representatives of the modern suborder Wet-nosed, (Strepsirhini), tarsiers, and also sometimes tupai (now considered as a special order) were attributed to semi-monkeys. The anthropoids became the infraorder ape-like in the suborder dry-nosed monkeys. In addition, the pongid family was previously distinguished, which is now considered a subfamily of pongin in the hominid family.

 suborder wet-nosed (Strepsirhini)

 infraorder Lemuriformes

 lemurs, or lemurids (Lemuridae): actually lemurs

 pygmy lemurs (Cheirogaleidae): pygmy and mouse lemurs

 lepilemurs (Lepilemuridae)

 Indriyas (Indriidae): indri, avagis and sifaki

 aye (Daubentoniidae): aye-aye (single species)

 infraorder Loriformes

 Loridae: loris and potto



 galagos (Galagonidae): actually galago

 suborder dry-nosed (Haplorhini)

 infraorder Tarsiiformes

 tarsiers (Tarsiidae)

 monkey infraorder (Simiiformes)

 parvorod wide-nosed monkeys, or monkeys of the New World (Platyrrhina)

 marmosets (Callitrichidae)

 chain-tailed (Cebidae)

 night monkeys (Aotidae)

 saka (Pitheciidae)

 arachnids (Atelidae)

 parvorod narrow-nosed monkeys, or primates of the Old World (Catarhina)

 superfamily canine-headed (Cercopithecoidea)

·  monkeys, or lower narrow-nosed monkeys (Cercopithecidae): macaques, baboons, monkeys, etc.

 superfamily of great apes, or hominoids (Hominoidea), or anthropomorphids (Anthropomorphidae)

 gibbons, or small great apes (Hylobatidae): true gibbons, nomascus, hulok and siamangs

 hominids (Hominidae): orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees and humans

Primates are a detachment of higher placental mammals of the chordate type, which is divided into two suborders: semi-monkeys and monkeys (humanoid primates). Homo sapiens belongs to this group by classification. The order of primates includes 12 families (lemurs, tarsiers, marmosets, broad-nosed monkeys, etc.), 57 genera and more than 200 species. The superfamily of great apes includes gibbons (gibbons, siamangs, huloki, nomaskus) and hominids (gorillas, chimpanzees, orangutans, and humans). According to paleontologists, primates appeared on Earth in the process of evolution in the Upper Cretaceous (70-100 million years ago). Primates descended from common ancestors with wool-wings - insectivorous mammals. These ancient primates are the forerunners of tarsiers and lemurs. And the primitive tarsi from the Eocene period later became the ancestors of humanoid primates.

Primates in the wild live in the tropics and subtropics. They live mainly in wooded areas, more often in herds or family groups, less often singly or in pairs. They constantly live within a small territory, which they mark or announce with loud shouts about the occupied area. All primates possess complex differentiation and coordination of movements, since their ancestors and many of the modern species are arboreal animals that are able to move quickly and confidently along tree branches. In groups of primates, a complex hierarchical organization is noticeable, where there are dominant and subordinate individuals. It should also be noted a high degree of communication, when individuals react to the cries, movements of other members of the community, clean, lick the fur of themselves and other individuals of the flock, females take care of their own and others' cubs. Primates are usually active during the day, less often at night. The diet of primates includes mixed food with a predominance of plant foods, some species feed on insects.

Within the order, primates differ in a huge variety of shapes and sizes. The smallest representatives of primates are marmoset monkeys and lemurs, the largest are gorillas. The body of primates has hair of different colors in different species, broad-nosed monkeys and lemurs have an undercoat, so their fur resembles fur. Many species have manes, robes, tassels on their ears and tails, beards, etc. Most monkeys have a tail of varying length, which sometimes performs a grasping function. While walking on the ground, primates lean on their entire foot. The habitation of primates on trees led to the development of an upright body position in them, which later in the process of evolution led to the appearance of upright posture in the ancestors of hominids.

The characteristic features of primates are mobile five-toed limbs, opposition of the thumb to everyone else, the presence of nails on the fingers, binocular vision, hair on the body, underdeveloped sense of smell, complication of the structure of the cerebral hemispheres. The presence of collarbones provides significant freedom of action of the forelimbs. Grasping movements are carried out due to the opposition of the thumb to the rest. The brushes are perfectly flexible and flexible. The elbow joints are also well mobile. There are papillary patterns on the palms and soles of the monkeys. These animals have sharp eyesight and hearing, sense of smell, in comparison with other sense organs, is less developed.

The skull of primates is increased in volume, since, due to the complication of movements and behavior, the brain is more developed than that of representatives of other orders of animals. Accordingly, the facial skull is reduced in size in comparison with the brain, the jaws are shortened. In lower primates, the brain is relatively smooth, with few convolutions. The great apes have many grooves and convolutions in the well-developed hemispheres of the brain. The occipital lobes of the brain, which are responsible for vision, the temporal and frontal lobes, which control movements and the vocal apparatus, are expressed. There is a high level of higher nervous activity, complex behavior.

In primates, four types of teeth are distinguished: incisors, canines, small and large molars. The stomach is simple due to the use of mixed food.

Primates breed throughout the year. Pregnancy in females lasts 4 to 10 months. Larger species have a longer gestation period. A helpless cub is born, sometimes two or three. The female feeds them with milk from a pair of mammary glands on the breast. Cubs remain under the care of their mother for up to two to three years. The lifespan of large primates reaches 20-30 years.

The order of primates is divided into two suborders and 16 families:

Suborder Wet-nosed ( Strepsirrhini) includes the following families:

  • Pygmy lemurs ( Cheirogaleidae);
  • Lemur ( Lemuridae);
  • Lepilemur ( Lepilemuridae);
  • Indrie ( Indridae);
  • Acephalic ( Daubentoniidae);
  • Lorievs ( Loridae);
  • Galagov ( Galagonidae).

Suborder Dry Nosed ( Haplorrhini) consists of the following families:

  • Tarsier ( Tarsiidae);
  • Playful ( Callitrichidae);
  • Chain-tailed monkeys ( Cebidae);
  • Night monkeys ( Aotidae);
  • Saki ( Pitheciidae);
  • Spider monkeys ( Atelidae);
  • Monkey ( Cercopithecidae);
  • Gibbon ( Hylobatidae);
  • Hominids ( Hominidae).

Evolution

Fossils of early primates date from the Early (56 to 40 million years ago) or possibly the Late Paleocene (59 to 56 million years ago). Although they are an ancient group, and many (especially the broad-nosed apes, or New World monkeys) have remained entirely arboreal, others have become at least partially terrestrial, and have achieved high levels of intelligence. There is no doubt that this particular detachment includes some of the.

Life span

Although humans are the longest-living primates, the potential lifespan of chimpanzees is estimated at 60 years, and orangutans sometimes reach that age in captivity. On the other hand, lemurs have a lifespan of about 15 years, while monkeys have a lifespan of 25-30 years.

Description

Roxellan Rhinopithecus

Despite notable differences between families of primates, they share several anatomical and functional characteristics that reflect their general order. Compared to body weight, the brain of primates is larger than that of other mammals, and it has a unique spur-like groove that separates the first and second visual zones on each side of the brain. While all other mammals have claws or hooves on their toes, primates have flat nails. Some primates have claws, but the thumb still has a flat nail.

Not all primates have the same agile hands; only narrow-nosed monkeys (monkeys and hominids, including humans), as well as some lemurs and lorises, have an opposed thumb. Primates are not the only animals that grab objects with their limbs. But since this characteristic is found in many other arboreal mammals (such as squirrels and possums), and since most modern primates are arboreal, it is assumed that they evolved from an ancestor that was arboreal.

Also, primates have specialized nerve endings on the limbs that increase tactile sensitivity. As far as is known, no other placental mammal has them. Primates possess fingerprints, but so are many other arboreal mammals.

Primates have binocular vision, although this trait is in no way limited to primates, but it is a common characteristic seen among. Therefore, it has been suggested that the ancestor of the primates was a predator.

The teeth of primates differ from those of other mammals: the low, rounded shape of the molar and premolar teeth, which contrast with the long, sharp teeth of other placental mammals. This distinction makes it easy to recognize primate teeth.

The size

Representatives of the order of primates show a range of sizes and adaptive diversity. The smallest primate is the mouse lemur ( Microcebus berthae), which weighs about 35-50 grams; the most massive primate is, of course, the gorilla ( Gorilla), whose weight varies from 140 to 180 kg, which is almost 4000 times the weight of a mouse lemur.

Geographical range and habitat

Primates occupy two main vegetation zones: and. Each of these zones has created corresponding adaptations in primates, but among arboreal species there may be more variety of bodily forms than among savannahs. Arboreal primates have many of the characteristics that likely arose as an adaptation to life in trees. Several species, including our own, left the trees and began to lead a terrestrial life.

Nonhuman primates are widespread in all tropical latitudes, India, Southeast and. In Ethiopia, the gelada (genus Theropithecus) occurs at altitudes up to 5000 meters. The gorillas of the Virunga Mountains are known to pass through mountain passes at an altitude of over 4200 meters. Red howler monks ( Alouatta seniculus) Venezuelans live at an altitude of 2500 meters in the mountains of the Cordillera de Merida, and in northern Colombia myrikina (genus Aotus) are found in the tropical mountain forests of the Central Cordillera.

The gestation period differs among primate species. For example, mouse lemurs have a gestation period of 54-68 days, lemurs 132-134 days, macaques 146-186 days, gibbons 210 days, chimpanzees 230 days, gorillas 255 days, and humans (on average) 267 days. Even in small primates, the gestation period is significantly longer than that of other mammals of equivalent size, reflecting the complexity of primates. Although there is a general trend towards an evolutionary increase in body size in primates, there is no absolute correlation between body size and length of gestation.

The degrees of puberty and maternal dependence at birth are apparently closely related. Newborn primates are not as helpless as kittens, puppies, or rats. With a few exceptions, a young primate is born with open eyes and hair. Cubs should be able to cling to the mother's fur; only a few species leave their babies in shelters during feeding. Cubs of the highest primates can cling to their mother's fur without assistance; however, humans, chimpanzees and gorillas must support their newborns, and humans have done so for the longest time.

Once the primate infant has learned to support itself by standing on its two (or four) legs, the physical phase of addiction is over; the next stage, psychological addiction, lasts much longer. The human child is attached to the mother for a much longer time than the non-human primate. The adolescent period of psychological maternal dependence is 2.5 years in lemurs, 6 years in monkeys, 7-8 years in most hominoids, and 14 years in humans.

Behavior

Primates are among the most social animals, forming pairs or family groups. Social systems are influenced by three main environmental factors: distribution, group size, and predation. Within the social group, there is a balance between cooperation and competition. Cooperative behavior includes social withdrawal, product sharing, and collective protection from predators. Aggressive behavior often signals competition for food, sleeping accommodation, or helpers. Aggression is also used to establish a dominance hierarchy.

Several primate species are known to cooperate in the wild. For example, in Thai National Park, Africa, several species coordinate behavior to protect themselves from predators. These include Diana's monkey, Campbell's monkey, small white-nosed monkey, red colobus, royal colobus, smoky mangobey. Among the predators of these monkeys is the common chimpanzee.

Primates have developed cognitive abilities: some make tools and use them for food and for social demonstration; others have complex hunting strategies that require cooperation, influence, and primacy; they are status conscious, manipulative, and deceptive; these animals can learn to use symbols and understand human language.

Some primates rely on olfactory cues for many aspects of social and reproductive behavior. Specialized glands are used to mark territories with pheromones that are captured by the vomeronasal organ. Primates also use vocalizations, gestures, and emotions to convey psychological states. Like humans, chimpanzees can distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar faces.

Primate protection

While many primates are still plentiful in the wild, populations of many species are declining dramatically. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), more than 70% of primates in Asia and approximately 40% of primates in South America, mainland Africa and the island of Madagascar are listed as endangered. A number of species, especially the gorilla, some of the Madagascar lemurs and some from South America, are in serious danger of extinction as their habitats are destroyed and poaching is widespread.

However, the numbers of some endangered species have increased. A concerted captive breeding effort has been successful, and reintroduction into the wild is practiced in Brazil.


According to the zoological classification, monkeys belong to the class of mammals, the order of Primates (Primates), which is currently divided into two suborders: Semi-monkeys (Prosimii) and humanoid higher apes (Anthropoidea). In the last suborder there are two groups: lower apes (sections of broad-nosed and narrow-nosed monkeys) and apes (gibbons, orangutans, chimpanzees, gorillas).

Currently, the scientific classification does not use the terms "higher" and "lower" monkeys in this context. These are only descriptive terms with no classification meaning. The following classification of the Anthropoidea suborder has now been adopted, which includes 3 superfamilies: the Broad-nosed monkeys superfamily, the Lower narrow-nosed apes superfamily and the Hominoidea superfamily. Representatives of the suborder of semi-monkeys are called lower primates, and all monkeys of the suborder Antropoidae, or humanoid higher apes, are called higher apes (as, by the way, the author himself does when describing the Tarsier family. The use of these terms (higher and lower) in relation to primates can only lead to even greater confusion, which already exists in the taxonomy of this order of mammals.

The order contains about 150 species. Monkeys are diverse in appearance, ecology and other characteristics, but at the same time they have common features of the body structure: five-fingered grasping limbs and developed collarbones; the brushes are well bent and unbent; the first fingers of the hands in many species are opposed to the rest; there are nails on the fingers (some semi-monkeys have claws); the orbits are separated from the temporal fossae either by the periorbital ring or by a bony septum; eyes are directed forward; teeth of four types (newborns are characterized by the presence of milk teeth, which are then replaced by permanent ones); developed cecum; there is a placenta, etc.

In terms of body size, primates vary from 8-15 cm in length (tarsier, pygmy marmoset, mouse microcebus) to 2 m (gorilla). The average weight of a mouse microcebus is 60 g, while a gorilla can weigh up to 300 kg. Different body sizes also correspond to different lifespan of primates. In some species of monkeys, the maximum age does not exceed 10 years (various types of marmosets), in others - 57-60 years (orangutan).

For primates (as well as for the vast majority of mammals), live birth is characteristic. After birth, the cub is fed with mother's milk. The duration of the gestation period is related to life expectancy. The amplitude of this value in primates is significant: from 40 days in tupai to 270-290 days in apes.

Like all other mammals, during the period of embryonic development, they have a notochord, gill slits, and a hollow neural tube. In the process of fetal development, the listed formations develop, change or overgrow. The development of the fetus in the womb leads to the formation of a spine, an internal axial skeleton, two pairs of limbs, a closed circulatory system and a complex nervous system, as well as a special arrangement of organs (in particular, the heart on the abdominal side of the body). Representatives of this order of mammals are covered with hair and have mammary glands; primates have a peculiar structure of the inner ear and teeth.

Monkeys have a perfect system of heat regulation, due to which the body has a relatively constant temperature, which ensures the constancy of the internal environment of the body, regardless of the external one. Wool keeps you warm; it is usually extremely varied in color, but there are varieties with natural white hair. There are also cases of albinism, in particular, in gorilla, capuchin, rhesus monkey, mangobey, colobus, arachnid monkey, loris. Albino monkeys in natural conditions do not live long, they are expelled from the flock or family and perish from predators.

There are species of monkeys with very long tails, significantly exceeding the length of the body, and also with short tails; there are monkeys with almost invisible tails and even tailless ones. Tails can perform a variety of functions: grasping (with the help of the tail, the monkey can cling to a branch or trunk), the function of a rudder - when jumping from tree to tree or on the ground. With the help of the tail, the monkey can hold the cub sitting on its back, lean on it, etc.