Political and legal sphere of social life. Areas of political activity

The political sphere of the life of society is a combination of various political institutions, socio-political communities, forms of interactions and relationships between them.

The main components of the political system are: institutional, communicative, normative, cultural-ideological and functional subsystems:

1. Institutional subsystem - includes political parties, socio-political movements and other political institutions, the central institution of the political system is the state.
2. Communicative subsystem - a set of relations and forms of interaction between social strata, groups and individuals.
3. Normative subsystem - political principles, legal and moral norms, traditions that determine and regulate the political life of society.
4. Cultural and ideological subsystem - a set of political ideologies, teachings, values, views and feelings that are different in their content, which affect the political activities of people.
5. Functional subsystem - covers the forms and directions of political activity, methods of exercising political power.

Political sphere of society

The political sphere of society is the activity of individuals and social groups in connection with their relationship to state power, political organizations and the political regime. Society needs government, government needs power. Power means the ability of social communities or individuals to impose their will on others. In a primitive society, power was based on authority and tradition. With the division of society into classes, with the emergence of social communities with opposing interests, power becomes political; in addition to authority and conviction, it relies on coercion and violence. Politics is a struggle for power, its seizure, retention and use for specific purposes. With the emergence of politics, a political system (organization) of society arises - it is a set of state and political institutions, political relations, political and legal norms.

The main element of the political system of society is the state. State signs:

A special system of bodies and institutions that hold power;
- the presence of a certain territory, which is subject to the jurisdiction of this state;
- the existence of a law securing the system of norms sanctioned by this state;
- collection of taxes and fees.

The state performs a number of functions, the most important of which are the following:

Regulation of economic and social relations;
legal regulation;
protection of public order;
defense of the country;
protection of the country's interests in the international arena.

The state uses coercion.

States differ in their forms of government. To date, two forms of government have developed:

Republican,
- monarchical.

States also differ in the forms of government. The state can be:

Unitary,
- federation,
- a confederation.

States also differ in the types of political regimes. The political regime is a system of methods for exercising state power, as well as the attitude of state authorities to the legal framework of their activities. The political regime can be democratic or totalitarian (dictatorial).

Signs of democracy:

Separation of three branches of government - legislative, executive and judicial;
- the presence of representative bodies, elected by the population;
- the rule of law, to which all citizens are subject, without exception;
- multi-party system;
- observance of human rights, personal inviolability;
- ideological, worldview pluralism;
- independence of the media;
- subordination of the state to society.

Signs of a totalitarian (dictatorial) regime:

Monopoly on power, power in the same hands;
- one-party system;
- one ideology obligatory for all;
- non-observance of human rights, police terror;
- state monopoly on the mass media;
- centralized management of the economy;
- the state stands above society and is not under its control.

A somewhat relaxed totalitarian regime that seeks to acquire the appearance of democracy is called authoritarian.

Political parties are an important element of the political system. A party is an organization of political associates. The goal of the party is to participate in government bodies and implement its political program through government bodies. Parties come to power through elections, but sometimes by violent means, carrying out a coup d'etat.

The political system also includes public organizations and movements, if they are involved in politics. A special role in politics is played by the media, often called the "fourth estate" for their influence on public opinion and the ability to mobilize the masses for political action.

Spheres of political life

The political sphere is an area of ​​public life that includes the political relations of a given society. The political sphere is made up of the relationship between classes, social strata and groups, nations and states regarding the conquest and use of power, as well as activities to exercise state power.

The structure of the political sphere is made up of:

Political institutions (state, political parties, trade unions, various public organizations);
- political relations (within the state - between the state and the individual, between political parties, etc., and international);
- political activity;
- political consciousness (political ideology and political psychology).

The main link in the political sphere is the state as a mechanism for the political management of society.

The state is characterized by such characteristics as:

Form of government (monarchy, republic);
- the form of government (unitary, federal);
- political regime (democratic, authoritarian, totalitarian).

The state performs many functions.

Internal functions:

Maintaining public order and the existing system of social relations,
- economic (regulation of production, property relations, planning of the national economy, etc.),
- social (support of socially unprotected groups, organization of health care, education, pension provision, etc.), etc.

External functions: defense of the country, protection of its interests in relations with other states, etc.

The political sphere of the state

Politics is a Greek word (politika) meaning "public affairs". The political sphere of society is associated with the state, government and government bodies. A state is judged not only by the size of its population and how large its territory. First of all, the assessment depends on the well-being of the citizens of the country; how much do they feel that they are cared for by the state to which they have entrusted their destiny.

The political sphere of society covers the activities of state bodies, political parties, social movements, organizations and their leaders.

Politics is a sphere of social life associated with relations between classes, nations and other social groups regarding the conquest, retention and use of state power. Politics is responsible for the safety and order in society.

Politics is the art of government.

Policy is divided into internal and external. Domestic policy is associated with the solution of domestic problems: the organization of economic activities, the maintenance of public order, assistance to pensioners, orphans, and the disabled. Foreign policy covers the sphere of relations between states. Carrying out foreign policy, the state protects its citizens, its territory from attacks, concludes treaties with other states, participates in solving international problems.

What policy (foreign or domestic) is illustrated by the state visit of the President of the Russian Federation V.V. Putin to China?

Politics is aimed at the conquest, use and retention of state power.

Government

The core of the political sphere of society is the state power.

State power is exercised by a system of state bodies and institutions governing society (president, government, parliament, ministries, governors, police, courts, etc.). Ministries are involved in the management of certain areas of state and public life (for example, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Defense, the Ministry of Education and Science, the Ministry of Health, etc.), the parliament adopts laws, the courts resolve legal conflicts, the police control the order on the streets.

State power is the organized leadership of the life of society and the state.

Let's remember, for example, the Middle Ages. The feudal lord in his domain, and the king in his state was often the judge and legislator in one person. Arbitrariness, bias and score settling in such a case could not be avoided. To eradicate this in the 18th century, the French philosopher Charles Montesquieu formulated the principle of the division of state power into three branches: legislative, executive and judicial. One branch creates laws, another obeys them, the third checks.

Laws (legal norms) are adopted by the highest legislative body of the country (parliament). Professionally trained people are involved in the development of laws. Laws are executed by the highest executive body - the government, in which ministers work. Judges are part of the judiciary. These are the three main branches of modern government.

The point of separation of powers is to prevent the concentration of all power in the hands of any one body. This means that each government is independent from the other and can control the rest of the branches of government.

Explain with a specific example why the media (television, newspapers and magazines, the Internet) are called the "fourth estate"?

All branches of government in the country streamline the life of society. Legislative - by issuing laws, executive - monitoring their implementation. Everyone should obey the law - from the president to the worker. Everyone is equal before the law. The principle of separation of powers can be represented as a triangle.

The principle of separation of powers, which is an important principle of democracy, has been used in the constitutions of many states, including the Constitution of the Russian Federation.

State power and public life

State power influences the life of society. The state provides citizens with the opportunity to express their will, create political parties and trade unions, choose local authorities at their own discretion, hold rallies and demonstrations. Through the central channels of television, radio and newspapers, the state influences our minds and behavior.

But society, citizens can also influence the state, for example, by participating in elections (voting for certain candidates) or in political meetings, supporting one or another party with monetary donations, organizing a new political party, proposing political reforms, going out into the streets to participate in the demo. Ordinary citizens can influence the policy of the state through the media, expressing their opinions on various issues on the pages of newspapers and magazines, on the Internet.

Thus, the mutual influence of the state and citizens constitutes the political life of society.

Political life - relations arising in connection with the management of society and the state, the solution of various problems.

Elections

The most important way for citizens to participate in the political life of a country is through elections.

Elections are citizens' participation in the formation of government bodies (for example, the State Duma) and local self-government by secret ballot.

Elections are an important form of interaction between citizens and government. At elections, citizens have the right to choose who is worthy to perform certain state functions.

Citizens elect state (federal) authorities (parliament, president), regional authorities (deputies of regional, regional and other territorial authorities), local (municipal) authorities (mayors, heads of administrations, deputies of assemblies, councils, councils, etc.). and local government bodies.

One of the forms of citizens' participation in the political life of the country is voting.

Politics is responsible for the safety and order in society. Politics is always aimed at the conquest, use and retention of state power. In most modern countries, state power is divided into three branches: legislative, executive and judicial. The political sphere of public life concerns not only politicians, but also the entire population of the country. There are various ways for citizens to participate in political life: rallies and demonstrations, voting in elections, membership in political parties, speaking in the media, etc.

Sphere of political relations

This concept emphasizes the objectivity, naturally - the historical nature of the development of political events. It shows the real interaction of political actors, which, of course, includes the subjective intentions of political leaders, groups, elites, etc., but the result, as a rule, has something very far from the deliberately proclaimed goals. The political process includes the mechanisms of the formation and functioning of political relations and institutions, forms of interaction between numerous subjects of politics, the technology of exercising political power, etc. So, the political process is the course of development of political phenomena, a set of actions of political actors to implement their roles and functions in the sphere of power, ensuring the formation and functioning of the political system of society.

The following components can be distinguished in the structure of the political process:

Subjects of the political process;
political relations resulting from the activities of the subjects of the political process.

Let us characterize these components in more detail. Let's start by clarifying the essence and significance of political relations, which represent the initial foundations of any political process. To understand the fundamental nature of the category of "political relations", you need to recall the statement of the famous German philosopher GVF. Hegel (1770-1831): the "truth of existence" of any subject (including in the sphere of politics) is precisely in relation.

The truth of the existence of "political subjects" is in the relationship. Since ancient times, it has been customary to understand "relation" in general as "the mutual definiteness of at least two objects" (Aristotle). This certainty appears, as it were, the result of comparing objects according to one or another criterion. If, for example, relations between social groups are formed about the production and distribution of material goods, then we are dealing with economic relations. If we take moral norms as the basis for a relationship, then we get, respectively, moral relationships, etc. Political relations between different social groups are based on political, i.e. first of all, state power, as well as political rights and freedoms. The conquest, retention and use of state power are the main content of political relations.

Thus, political relations are the relations of social groups and individuals about the conquest and use of political, mainly state power, as well as political rights and freedoms. The difference in positions in the sphere of political power (proximity or remoteness from levers of control, distribution of resources, possession of the right or deprivation of the right to legal use of force, etc.) constitutes, “mutually determines” various social communities or even individual individuals as subjects of political relations.

Some of the social relations tend to move into stable, stable states in which they can stay for a long time. If there is a social need for this (the division of managerial and executive labor, for example), then these relations will self-reproduce, as it were, automatically, objectively and inevitably. Such stable self-reproducing forms of social relations are called social institutions. In the general array of social relations, they begin to play the role of a kind of "skeleton", a rigid framework of the entire heterogeneous structure, called society as a whole.

Political institutions. Political institutions are stable, stable, as it were, "frozen" forms of political relations, imparting the necessary rigidity and clarity to the entire political system. These include the state as a whole, the institutions of the legislative, executive judiciary, institutions of political leadership, lobbying, etc.

The relations that have taken shape in political institutions are carried out in the form of complexes of various organizations and institutions performing specific political functions, as well as having certain resources and the possibility of applying sanctions. The existence of such organizations and institutions is a way of organizing political activity (through the separation of political functions, roles, positions), which implies the presence of certain standards, habitual forms of behavior of all participants in the political process.

Thus, political institutions are objectified, materialized political relations that give rise to appropriate institutions and organizations and require strictly defined forms of political behavior. Their general purpose is to regulate the foundations of social life, to provide such forms of behavior that would strengthen or at least not destroy the social system.

At the same time, a curious metamorphosis is taking place with political institutions. First, from a means, an instrument of political regulation of relations, they turn into a goal, the desired result of all political efforts. (Like money: seemingly a purely working tool for the exchange of goods, nevertheless, it also becomes a means of accumulating wealth, and hence influence, strength, power). Secondly, having formed and acquired self-sufficient value, political institutions become a relatively independent political value - they are constituted as full-fledged subjects of the political process.

The political process is always the result of the activity (struggle) of various political forces pursuing their specific interests. However, the question of who exactly can act as a subject of politics, for all its triviality, still contains a problem that has not been resolved by political scientists.

The solution to the problem of the subjects of the political process should be a compromise: both social groups and political institutions should be recognized as real participants. It makes sense to call social groups the primary subjects of the political process. Political institutions and institutions that create politics always on behalf of and (not always) for the good of the people should be recognized as secondary, or derivative, subjects of political action.

Areas of political activity

The Greek word for "politics" is translated as the art of government. In a broader sense of the word, politics is a sphere of life and activity of people associated with the relations of people united in social groups, classes, nations, countries. These relations are governed by special institutions, institutions, organizations, which together constitute the political system of society. Its elements are the state, political parties, public organizations that take part in the political life of society. Political relations are formed and manifested in the activities of these elements of the political system of society.

Political institutions and organizations in their activities strive to implement certain political ideas and concepts.

The structure of political activity includes:

Stopping immediate (tactical) and long-term (strategic) tasks;
the development of methods, means of organizing social forces to achieve the assigned tasks;
selection and placement of personnel.

The primary defining moment of politics is the relationship between social groups about power:

In whose hands is the power in society?
Whose interests does this power protect?
How is society managed?

Power itself is the ability to influence people and control their actions. The goal of political activity, first of all, is the seizure and retention of power. But political activity is not limited to the conquest and retention of power. It is aimed at meeting the needs of society, preserving and improving the social structure, combining the interests of various social groups, protecting and realizing the interests of this society in relation to other societies (for example, protecting the interests of the country's population in the international arena). To maintain public order, special institutions are used that regulate social relations with the help of material force and on the basis of certain rules. Consider the elements of the political system of society.

Political governance

The administrative and political sphere of government is especially important for the state. Management in this area ensures the stability of the state, the integrity of its territory and borders, and the stability of power.

Among the administrative and legal instruments in this area, it is necessary to name:

- the statutory possibility of introducing special state conditions (state of emergency, state of war, mobilization);
- organization of a unified centralized security management system;
- the presence of special bodies and formations (armed forces, various "power structures");
- institute of public service;
- the regime of state secrets;
- customs regime;
- the regime of the state border.

The system of bodies providing external security is directly headed by the President of the Russian Federation, who is the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation. Its powers are established by the Constitution of the Russian Federation. The Defense Council operates under the President.

An important role is played by the Security Council of the Russian Federation, formed in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation.

A feature of the legal regulation of the so-called "power structures" is that their activities in the public interest (for example, operational-search) can violate the constitutional rights and freedoms of citizens. To prevent and minimize such violations, the activities of these bodies are strictly regulated and monitored.

Administrative and political sphere

The branches of the administrative and political sphere traditionally include defense, security, foreign affairs, internal affairs, and justice.

Public administration in the field of defense. The concept of "defense" is enshrined in part 1 of article 1 of the Federal Law "On Defense": "a system of political, military, special legal and other measures to prepare for armed defense and armed defense of the Russian Federation, the integrity and inviolability of its territory."

One of the main documents of strategic planning in Russia, which is a system of views of the state on defense, is the Military Doctrine of the Russian Federation, approved by the President of the Russian Federation No. 146 (Pr-2976). This is the fourth military doctrine of the Russian Federation since the collapse of the USSR. On the basis of the Military Doctrine, military legislation is developed and a defense management system is being built.

In accordance with part 1 of Art. 87 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the President of the Russian Federation is the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation. He exercises leadership of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, issues binding orders within the limits of his authority. In the event of aggression against the Russian Federation or its immediate threat, the emergence of armed conflicts directed against Russia, the President declares general or partial mobilization with immediate notification of this to the State Duma and the Federation Council, and may impose martial law.

In accordance with Federal Constitutional Law No. 1 "On Martial Law", martial law is understood as a special legal regime introduced on the territory of the Russian Federation or in its certain localities in the event of aggression against Russia or an immediate threat of aggression. In the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation on the introduction of martial law, the circumstances that served as the basis for the introduction of martial law must be determined; date and time from which martial law begins to operate; the boundaries of the territory in which it is introduced. During the period of martial law, measures may be applied that restrict the rights of citizens: suspension of the activities of political parties and other public associations, confiscation of property from organizations and citizens for defense purposes, followed by payment by the state of the value of the confiscated property, prohibition or restriction of the choice of a place of stay, holding public events, and other.

The Government of the Russian Federation organizes equipping the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation with weapons and military equipment, provides them with material means, resources and services; ensures the implementation of plans and state programs for the development of weapons, as well as training programs for citizens in military registration specialties; in accordance with Federal Law No. 31 "On mobilization preparation and mobilization" develops and implements mobilization plans.

The sectoral defense management body is the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, and the central military command and control body of the RF Armed Forces is the General Staff of the RF Armed Forces. The powers of the General Staff are extensive and varied: it develops proposals on the military doctrine of the Russian Federation and a plan for the development of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation; carries out intelligence activities for defense and security purposes; establishes the norms for the admission of citizens of the Russian Federation to military service and military training, etc.

For the organization of command and control in the field of defense, the deployment of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation matters. By Decree of the President of the Russian Federation No. 1144, 4 military districts (Central, Western, Eastern and Southern) were formed in the Russian Federation. The military district includes military command and control bodies, associations, formations, military units, organizations of the Armed Forces and military commissariats located on its territory. The military districts have been given the status of operational-strategic commands of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation.

The lower link in the system of defense management bodies are military commissariats, which have the status of territorial bodies of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, as well as in districts, cities and other administrative-territorial entities. The organization of the activities of military commissariats is carried out by the General Staff through the directorates of military districts. Among the main tasks of military commissariats are the following: development of plans for the mobilization of personnel and vehicles; organization and implementation of measures for the initial military registration of citizens. Military commissioners are empowered to bring to administrative responsibility for offenses in the field of military registration.

An integral part of defense measures is the organization and conduct of civil defense. The legal basis for their implementation is Federal Law No. 28 “On Civil Defense”. The main tasks of civil defense are the evacuation of the population, material and cultural values ​​to safe areas; providing the population with shelters and personal protective equipment; fighting fires that have arisen during military operations; urgent restoration of the functioning of the necessary utilities in wartime. The federal executive body specially authorized to solve problems in the field of civil defense is the Ministry of Civil Defense, Emergencies and Elimination of Consequences of Natural Disasters (EMERCOM of the Russian Federation).

Public administration in the field of security. The centuries-old history of international relations, the practice of modern state building in Russia convincingly show that the rejection of the system of special security agencies, incl. special services, or their serious weakening inevitably leads to negative consequences both for the citizen and for the society as a whole.

The most important directions of state activity in this area are formulated in the National Security Strategy approved by Decree of the President of the Russian Federation No. 537, which defines the concept of national security as a state of protection of the individual, society and the state from internal and external threats, which allows to ensure constitutional rights, freedoms, decent quality and the standard of living of citizens, sovereignty, territorial integrity and sustainable development of the Russian Federation, defense and security of the state.

In Article 1 of Federal Law No. 390 "On Security", the types of security include the security of the state, public, environmental security, personal security and other types stipulated by law, i.e. security is not considered in the narrow sense of the word as state security.

General powers in security management are concentrated with the President of the Russian Federation. The head of state heads the Security Council, controls and coordinates the activities of state security agencies, approves regulations on them, and makes operational decisions to ensure security.

The powers of the Government of the Russian Federation to ensure security are mainly enshrined in the FKZ "On the Government of the Russian Federation". In Art. 20 of the law stipulates that the Russian government is taking the necessary measures to ensure state security.

In the post-Soviet period, a special body on security issues was created, which had no analogues before - the Security Council. According to paragraph "g" of Art. 83 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, it is formed and headed by the President of the Russian Federation. The status of the Security Council is determined by Chapter 3 of the Federal Law "On Security". The Security Council is a constitutional advisory body that prepares decisions of the President of the Russian Federation on issues of security, organization of defense, military construction, defense production, military-technical cooperation of the Russian Federation with foreign states, on other issues related to the protection of the constitutional order, sovereignty, independence and territorial the integrity of the Russian Federation, as well as on issues of international cooperation in the field of security. Permanent members of the Security Council, for example, the Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation, are ex-officio members of the Security Council and are appointed by the President of the Russian Federation. The decisions of the Security Council are taken at its meetings and conferences by the permanent members of the Security Council. The main tasks of the Security Council are: the formation of state policy in the field of security, forecasting, identification, analysis and assessment of security threats, preparation of proposals to the President of the Russian Federation on security issues. The organizational, technical and informational and analytical support of the Security Council is carried out by its apparatus, which is an independent subdivision of the Presidential Administration of the Russian Federation.

For the direct implementation of security functions, appropriate bodies are formed. These include: the Federal Security Service (FSB), the Federal Security Service (FSO), the Foreign Intelligence Service (SVR), the State Courier Service. The President of the Russian Federation is in charge of the activities of these bodies.

According to Art. 2 of the Federal Law No. 40 "On the Bodies of the Federal Security Service in the Russian Federation" the FSB bodies represent a single centralized system, which includes:

FSB of Russia, headed by the Director. The regulation on the FSB of the Russian Federation was approved by the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation No. 960;
- directorates (departments) of the FSB of Russia for individual regions and constituent entities of the Russian Federation (territorial security agencies);
- directorates (departments) of the FSB of Russia in the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, troops and military formations (security agencies in the troops);
- management (detachments, departments of the FSB of Russia for the border service (border authorities);
- other bodies exercising certain powers of the FSB;
- aviation units, special training centers, special forces, enterprises, educational institutions, research institutes, expert institutions and other units.

The activities of the FSB of Russia are carried out in the following areas: counterintelligence activities, the fight against terrorism, crime, border activities, information security. FSB bodies also carry out intelligence activities in cooperation with foreign intelligence bodies.

The legal basis for the activities of state protection bodies is Federal Law No. 57 "On State Protection". Under the objects of protection, i.e. those to whom this protection is granted means the President of the Russian Federation and other persons specified in the law. The President is granted protection for life. In accordance with Art. 5 of the law, protection is carried out by state security bodies headed by the FSO of Russia. The main tasks of the FSO are: forecasting and identifying threats to the vital interests of objects of protection; implementation of a set of measures to prevent this threat; ensuring the safety of objects of protection in the places of their permanent and temporary stay and on the routes; protection of buildings, structures and structures in which federal government bodies are located, ensuring the organization and functioning of presidential communications.

The Foreign Intelligence Service operates on the basis of Federal Law No. 5 "On Foreign Intelligence" and carries out intelligence activities.

The State Courier Service of the Russian Federation carries out special functions in the field of ensuring prompt delivery and guaranteed safety of items of particular importance, top secret, secret and other items of the President of the Russian Federation, federal government bodies, administrations of industrial and military facilities.

Political sphere of the organization

Politics is the sphere of relations between classes, nations and other large communities of people regarding power in society. Economics and politics are closely related. Sometimes there are situations when politics mends the economy. For example, in the Soviet Union, there was a primacy of political decisions over economic ones, which led to the violation of economic laws and caused stagnation. As a result, the Soviet economy became uncompetitive. This is one of the most important reasons for the subsequent radical transformations in our country.

At this stage of development, the question of the relationship between private property and democracy is important. On the basis of private property, various forms of political government and political regimes can and do exist. But capitalism had as its prerequisite the legal emancipation of the individual. The work of a personally free, responsible and interested in the results of the employee turned out to be the most effective.

Within the framework of a democratic society, there is an interaction between civil society and the state. State - ??? an external force standing over the members of society and solving common problems, as well as exercising the domination of one class over another. Civil society - ??? the sphere of self-activity, self-organization of people, the sphere of realizing the special private interests of individual individuals. There is a relationship of complementarity and conflict between them. The state is not interested in individual individuals. Where it outweighs and suppresses civil society, totalitarianism arises. Democracy presupposes control by civil society over the state.

What is included in civil society? In the economic sphere, these are small private enterprises, cooperatives, joint stock companies and other production units created by citizens on their own initiative. In the social sphere, these are self-government bodies, political and public organizations, non-state institutions expressing public opinion, etc. In the spiritual sphere, these are the church, the media, voluntary scientific and creative associations.

In a developed civil society, the individual in most cases encounters the state not one-on-one, but as part of an appropriate social institution. Civil society unites individuals, strengthens society as a whole.

What can you say about the degree of development of civil society in modern Russia? What are the reasons for this condition?

Democratic politics is closely related to the law. In a state governed by the rule of law, not only citizens, but the state itself is subject to laws, limited by them, in this regard, the rights and freedoms of citizens are protected. The state is called upon to reconcile and protect the conflicting interests of various social forces, strata, and groups. Law is not only a means of resolving contradictions that arise in society, but also the embodiment of a mobile balance of heterogeneous forces and interests.

If civil society is an arena of collision and interaction of private, contradicting and conflicting interests, then the rule of law contains a beginning that unites all members of society.

Institute of Political Sphere

The political sphere is one of the four spheres of social life that you know. It includes various forms of political activity; relationships between people arising in the course of this activity; organizations and institutions that are created to implement political goals and objectives; the political consciousness of people, which guides their activities in the field of politics.

The most important place in the structure of the political sphere is occupied by political institutions. They are among the main social institutions that fulfill the fundamental needs of society. Political institutions meet society's need for integration, security, and social order.

Each of them carries out a certain type of political activity and includes a group of people who specialize in its implementation; political norms governing relations within these institutions, with other political and non-political institutions; the means necessary to achieve the goals.

The main political institution is the state. (Remember the essential features of the state, studied in the social science course of the main school.) In turn, the state includes the institution of the presidency, the institutions of legislative, executive and judicial power, the institution of elections, etc.

Political parties are also among the most important political institutions. The history of parties in their traditional form is not as long as the history of the state, but it goes back up to one and a half centuries.

Party political activity covers a large number of people, has stable forms, is regulated by traditions, legal norms and political principles. Any political party is a voluntary association of people with common political views, seeking to achieve their goals through the conquest of power or participation in its implementation. Usually a party expresses and defends the interests of a certain social community (class, social stratum, etc.). This definition reminds you of the characteristics of a party learned in the main school: the desire to achieve the goals set through the conquest of power or participation in the exercise of power; existence in a historically extended period of time; the presence of a clear organizational structure, enshrined in the party charter; the desire to create a massive support for yourself; common ideas for party members, set forth in the party program.

An essential feature of any social institution is a set of legal and other social norms governing a certain type of activity. In the Russian Federation, political party activities are regulated by the Law on Political Parties. The law defines a political party as a public association created for the purpose of participation of citizens of the Russian Federation in the political life of society through the formation and expression of their political will, participation in public and political actions, in elections and referendums, as well as in order to represent the interests of citizens in government bodies and local governments.

Each political party independently determines its political goals, short-term and long-term ideas, which are reflected in the party program and charter.

However, the main goals of a political party, according to the Law, are:

Formation of public opinion;
political education and upbringing of citizens;
expression of opinions of citizens on any issues of public life, bringing these opinions to the attention of the general public and government bodies;
nomination of candidates for elections to legislative (representative) bodies of state power and representative bodies of local self-government, participation in elections to these bodies and in their work.

Political parties are different from other political institutions. Compared to socio-political movements, they represent a large ideological and organizational community. However, they are less organized than the state.

A party is an organization, the principles of building which, the rights and obligations of its members are reflected in its charter. As a rule, it has a party program that sets out not only the goals of the party, but also the ways and means that should ensure their achievement. Party members have different statuses in its structure: they are party leaders; party officials working in central and local party bodies; party activists leading party groups, local organizations; ordinary members of the party. All of them are working to win the support of voters in the upcoming elections. For this, meetings of citizens, the party press, speeches in parliament and in other representative bodies are used.

In addition to the state and political parties, there are other political institutions that give political activity stable forms, organization and orderliness, thanks to the existing structures, traditions, and norms.

Political structure

The word "politics" comes from the Greek word Politika, which means "state affairs", "the art of government".

The political superstructure did not always exist. Among the reasons for its occurrence are the polarization of society, leading to the emergence of social contradictions and conflicts that need to be resolved, as well as the increased level of complexity and importance of managing society, which required the formation of special bodies of power, separated from the people. The most important prerequisite for politics was the emergence of political and state power. Primitive societies were non-political.

Modern science offers different definitions of politics. Among them are the following:

1. Politics is the relationship between states, classes, social groups, nations arising from the seizure, exercise and retention of political power in society, as well as relations between states in the international arena.
2. Politics is the activity of state bodies, political parties, public associations in the sphere of relations between social groups (classes, nations), states, aimed at integrating their efforts in order to consolidate political power or conquer it.
3. Politics is the sphere of activity of groups, parties, individuals, the state, associated with the implementation of common interests with the help of political power.

The political system of society is understood as the totality of various political institutions, socio-political communities, forms of interactions and relationships between them, in which political power is exercised.

The functions of the political system of society are diverse:

1) determination of goals, objectives, ways of development of society;
2) organization of the company's activities to achieve the set goals;
3) distribution of material and spiritual resources;
4) coordination of the various interests of the subjects of the political process;
5) development and implementation of various norms of behavior in society;
6) ensuring the stability and security of society;
7) political socialization of the individual, familiarizing people with political life;
8) control over the implementation of political and other norms of behavior, suppression of attempts to violate them.

The basis for the classification of political systems is, as a rule, the political regime, the nature and way of interaction between the authorities, individuals and society. According to this criterion, all political systems can be divided into totalitarian, authoritarian and democratic.

Political science identifies four main elements of the political system, also called subsystems:

1) institutional;
2) communicative;
3) regulatory;
4) culturally ideological.

The institutional subsystem includes political organizations (institutions), among which the state occupies a special place. Of the non-governmental organizations, political parties and social political movements play an important role in the political life of society.

All political institutions can be roughly divided into three groups. The first group - actually political - includes organizations whose direct purpose of existence is to exercise power or influence it (the state, political parties and social political movements).

The second group - improperly political - includes organizations operating in the economic, social, cultural spheres of society (trade unions, religious and cooperative organizations, etc.). They do not set themselves independent political tasks, do not participate in the struggle for power. But their goals cannot be achieved outside the political system, therefore such organizations must participate in the political life of society, defending their corporate interests, seeking to take them into account and implement them in politics.

Finally, the third group includes organizations that have only an insignificant political aspect in their activities. They arise and function to realize the personal interests and inclinations of a certain layer of people (clubs of interest, sports societies). They acquire a political connotation as objects of influence from the state and other proper political institutions. They themselves are not active subjects of political relations.

The main institution of the political system of society is the state.

Its special place in the political system is predetermined by the following factors:

1) the state has the broadest social basis, expresses the interests of the bulk of the population;
2) the state is the only political organization with a special administrative and coercive apparatus, which extends its power to all members of society;
3) the state has a wide range of means of influencing its citizens, while the possibilities of political parties and other organizations are limited;
4) the state establishes the legal basis for the functioning of the entire political system, adopts laws that determine the procedure for the creation and operation of other political organizations, establishes direct bans on the work of certain public organizations;
5) the state has enormous material resources to ensure the implementation of its policy;
6) the state performs an integrating (uniting) role within the political system, being the “core” of the entire political life of society, since it is around the state power that the political struggle unfolds.

The communicative subsystem of the political system of society is a set of relations and forms of interaction that develop between classes, social groups, nations, individuals about their participation in the exercise of power, the development and implementation of politics. Political relations are the result of numerous and varied connections between political actors in the process of political activity. People and political institutions are motivated to join them by their own political interests and needs.

There are primary and secondary (derivative) political relations. The former include various forms of interaction between social groups (classes, nations, estates, etc.), as well as within them, the latter - relations between states, parties, other political institutions, reflecting in their activities the interests of certain social strata or the entire society.

Political relations are built on the basis of certain rules (norms). Political norms and traditions that determine and regulate the political life of society constitute the normative subsystem of the political system of society. The most important role in it is played by legal norms (constitutions, laws, other normative legal acts). The activities of parties and other public organizations are regulated by their charter and program norms. In many countries (especially in England and its former colonies), along with written political norms, unwritten customs and traditions are of great importance.

Another group of political norms is represented by ethical and moral norms, in which the ideas of the whole society or its individual strata of good and evil, truth, and justice are enshrined. Modern society has come close to realizing the need to return to politics such moral guidelines as honor, conscience, nobility.

The cultural and ideological subsystem of the political system is a set of political ideas, views, perceptions, and feelings of participants in political life that are different in their content. The political consciousness of the subjects of the political process functions at two levels - theoretical (political ideology) and empirical (political psychology). The forms of manifestation of political ideology include views, slogans, ideas, concepts, theories, and political psychology - feelings, emotions, moods, prejudices, traditions. In the political life of society, they are equal.

In the ideological subsystem, a special place is occupied by political culture, understood as a complex of typical for a given society, ingrained patterns (stereotypes) of behavior, value orientations, and political ideas. Political culture is the experience of political activity passed down from generation to generation, in which knowledge, beliefs and models of behavior of a person and social groups are combined.

Political issues

The supreme goals of the state and the entire political life of a democratically organized society are to satisfy the needs and aspirations of ordinary citizens, to ensure peace and prosperity.

Political life in Russia is still far from solving this problem. But world political practice knows no other road on the way to an optimal society, which would not be based on the principles of morality, justice, and spiritual progress.

Russia will also have to take this path.

The reform of the existing system of power should play a key role in this movement. Within its framework, it is planned to provide a new human-centered development model. The current Constitution of the Russian Federation, in Art. 7 which proclaims: "The Russian Federation is a social state, the policy of which is aimed at creating conditions that ensure a dignified life and free human development."

But so far these foundations of the constitutional order of Russia are poorly implemented. The country has yet to fill the socio-political and spiritual life of broad strata of the population with real meaning.

Among the concepts that are in circulation in the country and offer their own version of the solution to social problems are the following:

1) liberal concept. Considers financial and economic stabilization as the main criterion for the successful development of society, and a free market economy as an optimal system;
2) the communist concept. The planned development system is considered as the optimal one. The communists adhere to the idea of ​​inadmissibility of private ownership of land. In the political sphere, they are guided by socialist democracy;
3) the concept of convergent socialism. Considers the level and quality of life of people as the main criterion for the effectiveness of political structures. It is the quality of life that should become the goal of the process of reforming and social revival of Russia. The economic basis of society is a mixed, two-tier, planned-market system of management. The most desirable would be the approval of such a system that would be able to combine personal interests with collective interests, material resources with spiritual ones, the principles of social justice with the norms of a market economy.

According to the researchers, Russia is quite capable of solving this problem. It possesses the material, technical, financial and spiritual resources to provide the people with a decent standard of living.

Political sphere of life

The political sphere of the life of society - includes politics, state, law, their correlation and functioning. This includes the president, government, parliament, local government, army, police, political parties. The main task of the state is to ensure social order in society, resolve conflicts, legislative activity.

National relations in the modern world. Problems of interethnic relations in our country.

Ethnic groups are large groups of people distinguished on the basis of a common culture, language, consciousness of the indissolubility of historical fate. Social communities distinguished by ethnicity are diverse. First of all, these are tribes, nationalities and nations. Nations are the most developed ethnic formations that have arisen on the basis of a linguistic, territorial, cultural, economic, socio-psychological community. They are most typical for the modern world, in which there are at least two thousand different ethnic groups.

The nature of national relations is determined by two interrelated tendencies: towards differentiation and towards integration. Each nation strives for self-development, for the preservation of national identity, language, culture. These aspirations are realized in the process of their differentiation, which can take the form of a struggle for national self-determination and the creation of an independent national state. On the other hand, the self-development of nations in the modern world is impossible without their close interaction, cooperation, exchange of cultural values, overcoming alienation, and maintaining mutually beneficial contacts. The trend towards integration is increasing in connection with the need to solve the global problems facing humanity, with the success of the scientific and technological revolution.

It should be borne in mind that these tendencies are interconnected: the diversity of national cultures does not lead to their isolation, and the rapprochement of nations does not mean the disappearance of differences between them. Interethnic relations are especially delicate matter. Violation or infringement of national interests, discrimination against individual nations give rise to extremely complex problems and conflicts.

In the modern world, including Russia, there are interethnic conflicts caused by various reasons:

1) territorial disputes;
2) the historically arisen tension in relations between peoples;
3) the policy of discrimination pursued by the dominant nation in relation to small nations and peoples;
4) attempts by national political elites to use national feelings for the purpose of their own popularity;
5) the desire of peoples to leave the multinational state and to create their own statehood.

It should be borne in mind that the international community in resolving interethnic conflicts proceeds from the priority of state integrity, the inviolability of existing borders, the inadmissibility of separatism and the associated violence.

When solving interethnic conflicts, it is necessary to comply with the humanistic principles of policy in the field of ethnic relations:

1) refusal from violence and coercion;
2) seeking agreement on the basis of consensus of all participants;
3) recognition of human rights and freedoms as the most important value;
4) readiness for the peaceful.

Political functions

The political spheres perform the following functions:

Conversion, that is, the transformation of public demands into political decisions;
adaptation, that is, the adaptation of the political system to the changing conditions of social life;
mobilization of human and material resources (money, voters, etc.) to achieve political goals;
protective function - protection of the social and political system, its initial basic values ​​and principles;
foreign policy - the establishment and development of mutually beneficial relations with other states;
consolidating - coordination of collective interests and requirements of various social groups;
distributive - the creation and distribution of material and spiritual values.

A political system can be called an ordered set of norms, institutions, organizations, ideas, as well as relations and interactions between them, in the course of which political power is exercised.

The political system is a complex of state and non-state institutions that carry out political functions, that is, activities related to the functioning of state power.

The concept of a political system is more capacious than the concept of "public administration", since it encompasses all persons and all institutions involved in the political process, as well as informal and non-governmental factors and phenomena that affect the mechanism for identifying and posing problems, developing and implementing solutions in the field state-power relations. In its broadest interpretation, the concept of "political system" includes everything that is related to politics.

Socio-political sphere of management

In accordance with the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, everyone has the right to a standard of living, including food, clothing, housing, medical care and necessary social services, which is necessary to maintain the health of himself and his family; everyone has the right to education, work and social security. In this regard, the social sphere is the most important systemic element of the state and a separate region.

The social sphere includes organizations and institutions of education, culture, health care, physical education and sports (with the exception of professional sports), organizations of housing and communal services, sanatoriums, health resorts, tourist complexes, etc.

The social sphere ensures the satisfaction of society's needs for the most important social benefits (education, health care, culture), which has a significant impact on the quality of life of the population - its ability to work, well-being, education level, etc. Meeting social needs today decisively affects the economic efficiency of production activities, since the production process involves healthier, more qualified, motivated workers. Quantifying social impact is difficult. It can be indirectly assessed through the damage that occurs to society with the weak development of social sectors or their absence.

The social sphere is the most important factor in the process of general development of the state economy: the production of social services is a way to meet the final needs (expresses the ultimate goal of the functioning of the macroeconomic system). In addition, the level of development of the social sphere is very important in the political aspect, which is due to its direct influence on the stability of society: the volume of production, the quality and availability of a number of social services (medical, housing and communal services, social security, etc.) largely determine the attitude of the population towards state power.

The social sphere is characterized by a very significant specificity, standing out in the structure of the national economy by technical and technological features, a place in the social division of labor, and the purpose of the services produced.

This element of the national economy is distinguished by a high proportion of labor resources, the specifics of the composition of fixed and circulating assets. The prices (tariffs) for services and pricing in many sectors of this sphere have a number of peculiarities. The forms of influence of prices on the level of demand (price elasticity of demand) are specific; price discrimination is widespread. Highly differentiated in terms of price and quality of services related to the use of creativity.

Social services are of a dual nature: they are both consumption of goods and investment in human capital. Social services belong to pure and mixed public goods, the production and consumption of which is determined by both individual demand and the needs of society as a whole. On the one hand, they differ from the services provided by organizations in other sectors of the non-production sphere, since they are created and provided in the interests of the whole society. On the other hand, their production and consumption is possible using market methods of management, and the properties of purely public goods are inherent in a very small number of social services. Most of the services in the social sphere do not fully possess these characteristics and are of a commodity nature. The benefit received by individuals from the consumption of partly public goods is expressed in the improvement of their quality of life.

The social services market covers the sale and purchase of many vital goods that are of great social importance. Therefore, this market segment requires a particularly active use of selective government regulation measures. The need for state participation in the activities of individual enterprises in the service sector is also determined by the presence of natural monopolies among them. In connection with these circumstances, the social sphere requires regulation at all levels of government - federal, regional and municipal.

At present, both in the Russian Federation and abroad, the management of the social sphere is increasingly becoming the subject of attention and responsibility of regional authorities.

The use of a systematic approach allows us to define the social sphere of the region as a historically formed regional economic subsystem with a certain independence, which is due to the following circumstances:

The social sphere as a system provides services to the population living in the territory of the region;
- the social sphere is an integral part of a single regional economic complex, its functioning is associated with organizations of other types of economic activity located in the given territory (especially in the presence of city-forming enterprises);
- as an object of regional management, the social sphere should take into account the local specifics as much as possible, determined by historical, economic, geographic, demographic, ethnic, religious and other conditions. The need for this accounting is determined by the diversity of cultural development, climatic, geographical and ecological conditions, the transformation of social and household needs in education, the development of cultural values, the organization of work and recreation, and maintaining health in a particular region.

Studying the essence of the social sphere of the region as an economic category and object of management, one should especially consider its environment, i.e. a set of factors influencing its functioning and development:

Territorial;
- economic;
- political and legal;
- demographic;
- natural and ecological;
- socio-cultural factors.

It should be especially noted the impact of the current institutional environment, represented by a set of formal and informal institutions, which, on the one hand, consolidate the existing system of socio-economic relations and determine the behavior of economic agents, on the other hand, they are transformed with a change in the interests of social strata and groups reflecting their role in economic system.

Strengthening the impact of social factors actively affects the change in the structure of social needs, the expansion of commercial activities in the social sphere of the region. The task of increasing the level of well-being of Russian society affects the process of forming the main proportions of the development of each separately taken region, including the connections and relationships that develop between consumption and accumulation, between the production sphere and the service sector in a given territorial entity. In this regard, one of the priority goals of socio-economic policy in the region is to achieve balance in the social sphere, eliminate emerging social deformations and, on this basis, ensure social stability.

At the regional level, the social sphere acts as an object of management for all public authorities with a social focus (ministries and state committees in charge of social protection, education, culture and interethnic relations, health care, physical culture and sports, labor, etc.), at the local - administrations and departments of local self-government bodies.

The current state of the social sphere both in the country as a whole and in all regions individually is very complex and does not correspond to world standards of human development. Failure to take urgent and drastic measures to develop the social sphere of the regions in the near historical perspective may lead to a further reduction in labor resources, a drop in the growth rate of the domestic economy and the loss of its innovative character.

The development of the social sphere is understood as the achievement of a new qualitative state by it, providing a wider range and quality of services that directly satisfy the intellectual and social needs of the population, the all-round development of human potential.

Statistics considers the following main indicators of the state of the social sphere:

1. Synthetic indicators of the standard of living:
a) indicators characterizing the level of satisfaction of needs related to the maintenance of life (fertility, mortality, natural growth);
b) indicators characterizing the satisfaction of health protection needs (morbidity, number of beds in hospitals, etc.);
c) indicators of satisfaction of labor needs (level of employment of the population);
d) indicators of personality development (education, culture);
e) indicators of the state of the environment;
f) indicators of housing provision;
g) per capita indicators of gross national and domestic product, national income.

2. Natural indicators of consumption of material goods (property, food, living wage).

3. Indicators of distribution of wealth:
a) nominal income (part of the national income to which the population has rights);
b) monetary income taxable;
c) income in kind;
d) real income per capita.

5. The size and proportion of the population below the poverty line (with incomes below the subsistence level).

Poverty rate is the proportion of people with low incomes.

The implementation of priority national projects is aimed at achieving the goals of the functioning of the social sphere - "Health", "Affordable and comfortable housing for Russian citizens", "Education", "Development of the agro-industrial complex". Let us note the following promising means of developing the social sphere: programs of interregional cooperation, public-private partnership in the production of public goods: franchising, voucher production (in which the state allocates funds to the consumer (vouchers) valid for the purchase of a certain product); contractual form of production, in which the state enters into an agreement with an organization to provide the last product (service) to the consumer.

Human and society

1. The concept of society. The main spheres of public life.
2. Man, individual, personality.
3. Human needs and abilities.
4. Features of interpersonal relationships.
5. Small group.
6. Nations and interethnic relations in modern society.
7. The historical process and its participants.
8. Progress and regression. Progress criteria.
9. Civilization and formations.
10. Global problems of our time and ways to solve them.
11. The integrity of the modern world, its contradictions.

Social sphere of society

1. The social sphere of the life of society. Social politics.
2. Social groups and communities.
3. Property, its forms.
4. Entrepreneurial activity.
5. Human activity, its diversity.
6. Activities and communication.
7. The social status of the individual.
8. Social structure. Trends in changes in the social structure of Russian society.
9. Human labor activity.
10. Freedom in human activities.
11. Social norms and deviant behavior.
12. Features of social cognition.

Spiritual sphere of life of society

1. Religion. Freedom of conscience. Atheism.
2. Basic values ​​and moral norms.
3. Man and culture.
4. The spiritual world of the individual. Worldview.
5. Spiritual sphere of society. Problems of the development of spiritual culture in modern Russia.
6. Spiritual production and spiritual consumption.
7. Cognition. Truth and its criteria.
8. Scientific knowledge. The value of scientific theory.
9. Society and scientific and technological progress.
10. The role of art in understanding the world. Innovation and tradition in culture.
11. Education and its role in the development of society.

The economic sphere of society

1. State and economy.
2. Market relations in a modern economy.
3. The economic sphere of society. The structure of property relations in the modern economy.
4. Russia on the way to a market economy.
5. Man in the system of market relations.

Political and legal sphere of society

1. The political system of society, its structure.
2. Constitutional state.
3. Human rights. Their consolidation in the Constitution of the Russian Federation.
4. Democracy. Democratic political structure.
5. Right, its role in the life of society.
6. Legal responsibility, its types.
7. Legislative, executive, judicial authorities in the Russian Federation.
8. Legal foundations of marriage and family.
9. Citizen. Participation of citizens in political life.
10. Offense, types of offenses.
11. The rights of the child.
12. The right to education: content and guarantees.
13. Rights and obligations of a citizen of the Russian Federation.
14. Federation, its subjects.
15. State, its signs.
16. Political pluralism. The formation of a multi-party system in Russia.
17. Politics, its subjects and objects, ends and means.
18. The political status of the individual.
19. Parliamentarism. Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation.

1. The concept of society. The main spheres of public life.

There are many definitions of the concept of "society". In a narrow sense, society can be understood as a certain group of people, and a specific stage in the historical development of a people or country.

Considering society from a sociological point of view, one can define the concept of "society" as a certain group of people who are united by common interests and goals. The identification of a specific stage in the historical development of a people or a country characterizes the historical approach to understanding society.

The concept of "society" also has an ethnographic meaning, in this case, attention is focused on the ethnic characteristics and cultural traditions of a certain set of people.

The above interpretations have the following general characteristics:

society consists of individuals with will and consciousness;

a certain number of people cannot be called a society: for this they must be united into a society by joint activities, common interests and goals;

any society is a way of organizing human life;

the connecting link of society, its framework, are the connections that are established between people in the process of their interaction (social relations).

In a broad sense, from a philosophical point of view, society is a part of the material world freed from nature, but closely connected with it, which includes the ways of interaction between people and the forms of their unification. At the center of social development is a person with consciousness and will.

Therefore, society is an artificial nature, built on top of natural nature as a result of joint activities of individuals.

Society is a complex dynamic system that can exist, constantly changing, but at the same time retain its basic features and qualitative certainty.

To analyze this complex system, scientists have developed the concept of "subsystem".

It is customary to distinguish 4 subsystems (or spheres) of public life:

economic (material production and relations that arise between people in the process of production of material goods, their exchange and distribution);

social (the structure of society, consisting of classes, social strata, nations, taken in their relationship and interaction with each other);

political and legal (politics, state, law, their correlation and functioning);

spiritual and moral (various forms of social consciousness: religion, science, moral standards, education, art, etc.).

Each sphere individually represents a complex, dynamic formation, consisting of many parts and elements - for example, such as public (social) institutions.

Institutions of society:

production;

state;

education;

The word "institution" comes from the Latin word "institution". In different definitions of the concept of a public (social) institution, different signs of this concept are emphasized.

A social institution is:

Bringing people together to meet a specific and important need;

a clear delineation of the functions and powers of each of the subjects of interaction, the consistency of their actions;

adherence to models, standards of behavior based on certain norms and values;

the existence of a legal basis for these methods of activity and social control over them.

In society, as in a complex dynamic system, there are various causal and functional connections between all individual subsystems and elements. Certain phenomena in society entail other phenomena as a consequence (these are causal connections) and at the same time, individual elements perform a certain role in the functioning of the whole society (these are functional connections).

1. Man, individual, personality.

Man is the highest level of living organisms on Earth, being the subject of social and historical activity and culture.

Like all other creatures, man is inseparable from nature - he is a part of it and a product of natural, biological evolution.

The process of biological evolution from the great apes to modern humans is called ANTHROPOGENESIS (from the words "anthropos" - man and "genesis" - origin).

Human development stages:

Driopithecus is the most distant human ancestor (14-20 million years ago).

Ramapitheki - 10-14 million years ago. The Ramapithecs gave two evolutionary lines: one - the ancestors of people, the other - the ancestors of modern apes.

Homo habilis (Homo habilis - a skilled man) - appeared about 2.5-3 million years ago - ape-like people who made primitive stone tools. Modern science considers the date of appearance of Homo habilis to be the beginning of anthropogenesis and the formation of human society.

Pithecanthropus

Neanderthals

Cro-Magnons are the pinnacle of anthropogenesis, a man of a modern physical type. It appeared about 30-40 thousand years ago and received the name in science Homo sapiens (Homo sapiens - Homo sapiens). Homo sapiens belongs to primates, one of the orders of mammals. Like any living being, he breathes, consumes various natural products, exists as a biological body, is born, grows, matures, grows old and dies. He, like an animal, has instincts, vital needs, biologically programmed behavior patterns.

Human life and activity are conditioned by the unity and interaction of spiritual and physical, biological and social. The biological level of a person includes such components as temperament, gender, age, health status, height, weight, appearance. Thus, each of us, referring to the species Homo sapiens (man), is also an individual.

An individual (from the word - indivisible, individual) is a person as an integral unique representative of the genus with its psychophysiological properties, which act as a prerequisite for the development of personality and individuality. An individual is usually called a single, concrete person, who is considered as a biosocial being, especially the social essence of a person.

The concept of "person" is used when they want to show that a person belongs to the human race (Homo sapiens), as well as to show that this person has universal features and qualities inherent in all people. It is necessary to distinguish the concept of "personality" from these two concepts.

A person is a human individual who possesses a set of socially significant traits that he implements in public life. Personality implies the social individuality and uniqueness of each person. Not every person is a person. They are born as a person, and become a person in the process of socialization.

Personality is a human individual who is a subject of social activity, possessing a set of socially significant traits, properties and qualities that he implements in public life.

The social level of a person is formed throughout life and includes social status, worldview, education, income level, character, etc. Under the influence of the biological and the social, a personality is formed in a person.

Thanks to the process of socialization, a person joins the life of society and can acquire his social status.

Social status is a position in society associated with a certain set of rights and obligations.

For society itself, successful socialization is a guarantee of its self-preservation and self-reproduction.

Individuality is the originality of the psyche and personality of an individual, its uniqueness. The relationship between the individual, personality and individuality can be conveyed by the formula “An individual is born. They become a person. Individuality is upheld. "

The biological and social in a person are not two parallel and independent factors: they affect a person simultaneously and in a complex, and the intensity and quality of their impacts are different and depends on many circumstances.

1. Human needs and abilities.

A need is a state of a person created by the need he experiences for objects and actions necessary for his existence and development and serving as a source of his activity, organizing cognitive processes, imagination and behavior.

Scientists identify three groups of needs:

biological: needs for food, sleep, air, warmth, etc.

social, which are generated by society and are necessary for a person to interact with other people.

spiritual: the need for knowledge of the world around and of the person himself.

American psychologist A. Maslow identified the following groups of needs:

Physiological: the need for food, food, breathing, movement, etc.

Existential: the need for security, comfort, confidence in the future, etc.

Social: the need for communication, for caring for others, for understanding, etc.

Prestigious: the need for self-esteem, recognition, success, etc.

Spiritual: the need for self-expression, self-actualization.

The needs of each person of the next level become urgent when the previous ones are satisfied.

The ability to meet needs is associated with human abilities. A person's abilities are determined by the biological and sociocultural characteristics of his personality. It is customary to distinguish several levels of human abilities.

The makings are the anatomical and physiological characteristics of the body, mainly the central nervous system, which are the biological prerequisites for the development of abilities. For example, good hearing, a beautiful voice of a singer, the ability to run quickly, memory features. It is very important to note these inclinations in childhood and develop abilities in the right direction.

Abilities are individual personality traits that are subjective conditions for the successful implementation of a certain type of activity. They are not limited to knowledge, skills and abilities, but are found in the speed (ease), depth and strength of mastering the methods and techniques of any activity. A person's abilities can only be manifested in his activities. Not all people have the same abilities. Some are inclined towards the natural sciences, others towards the humanities.

A high level of ability development is talent. The highest degree of creative personality manifestation is called genius. It is associated with the creation of qualitatively new, unique creations, the discovery of previously unknown ways of creativity. A person's needs are realized with the help of his abilities in the course of activity.

1. Features of interpersonal relationships.

Interpersonal relationships characterize the relationship of individuals and can be business, personal, friendly, comradely, family.

Relationship system:

interaction - consistency of actions;

mutual understanding - understanding each other on the basis of reciprocity;

mutual perception - the perception by one person of another person, other people.

In the formation of interpersonal relationships, an important role is played by the fact that they arise and develop on the basis of certain feelings.

The broadest form of interpersonal relationships is acquaintance - business, personal, friendship.

A closer interpersonal relationship becomes camaraderie. A higher level of relationship is characterized by the word "friendship". Most often, feelings express sympathy, and the opposite is antipathy.

In the process of interpersonal relationships, people do not just address, but influence each other, form a certain style of relationship.

Communication functions

Communication is a type of activity in which ideas and emotions are exchanged. Often, communication also includes the exchange of material objects. This broader exchange is communication.

Communications are of the following types:

Material - the exchange of material resources;

Spiritual - exchange of cultural values;

Informational - exchange of business information.

In the structure of communication and communication, they distinguish:

subject - one who initiates communication;

subject of transfer (material and information resources)

Communication functions:

exchange of information and material resources;

transfer of experience;

coordination of efforts of different groups of people and achievement of common goals, mutual understanding;

meeting the needs of people in mutual contacts;

socialization - the formation of a person as a person.

Thus, communication with other people is a necessary condition for the formation of a full-fledged human personality.

1. Small group.

To meet their needs, people often strive to unite. Sociologists call these associations social communities.

A small group is a small group of people united by common goals, interests, values, norms and rules of behavior, as well as constant interaction.

Only in a small group is it possible to have personal (informal) communication between its members (primary group). Social (formal) communication is more common between members of large groups and social organizations (secondary groups).

Small groups are families, classrooms, friendships, etc.

A group is a really existing formation in which people unite according to some specific criteria:

cooperative activity;

unity of purpose;

interpersonal interaction;

the nature of the relationship between members of the group.

The position of a person in a small group is called status. It defines the rights, duties and privileges of a person. In different groups, the same person has a different status - it depends on the content of the group's activities and is characterized by authority and prestige. In a group, a person always plays a role - the role of a family member, the role of an employee, the role of a student, etc.

According to statistical calculations, most small groups include 7 or less people.

A small group, in contrast to a large one, rests on the individual uniqueness and irreplaceability of the participants

Small group meaning

Belonging to a group is prompted by the hope of finding in it the satisfaction of personal needs. A small group, in contrast to a large one, satisfies the greatest number of vital human needs.

The group provides everyone with the maximum available advantages, since it is an association of individuals equally useful to each other. Each of them benefits from being in this group more than any other.

Small group forms

The small group takes many forms, up to very complex, branched and multi-tiered formations.

However, there are only two original forms - a dyad and a triad. They can be called the simplest molecules of the small group, which, like the genetic code, set other properties and characteristics of the small group.

A dyad consists of two people (for example, a pair of lovers). They constantly meet, spend leisure time together, exchange signs of attention and symbols. They form stable interpersonal relationships based primarily on feelings - love, hatred, goodwill, coldness, jealousy, pride. The emotional attachment of lovers makes them take care of each other, that is, build an exchange according to the principle: do to the other what he would like him to do to you. Giving his love, the partner hopes that in return he will receive no less reciprocal feeling. And so in everything - from exchanging gifts to exchanging greetings and feelings.

Thus, the initial law of interpersonal relations in the dyad is the equivalence of exchange and reciprocity. In large social groups, say, in a production organization or a bank, such a law may not be observed: the boss demands and takes from the subordinate more than he gives in return. The dyad is the realm of subjective addictions, where the social principle is still in its infancy.

The triad is another matter. Triad - active interaction of three people. When in a conflict two oppose one, the latter is already faced with the opinion of the majority. He reasons like this: one may be mistaken in assessing my actions, but two are unlikely. They express rather an objective opinion.

It is the same in society: when only one points out your shortcomings, his opinion can be assessed as the look of an ill-wisher or an envious person. One is capable of being wrong. But when many say the same thing, their opinion borders on the objective truth.

The law of human relations says: the opinion of the majority is perceived as reliable with the maximum probability. The opinion of one or a minority can be equally perceived as both true and false. This is why the majority opinion is so difficult to fight alone.

If so, then there is a fundamental difference between the dyad and the triad.

The dyad is an extremely fragile association. Strong mutual feelings and affection instantly turn into their opposite. A love couple breaks up with the departure of one of the partners or the cooling of feelings.

The triad is more stable. It has less intimacy and emotion, but a better division of labor. The more complex division of labor lends more independence to individuals. Two unite against one in solving some issues and change the composition of the coalition in solving others. In a triad, everyone alternately changes roles, and as a result, no one dominates.

Small group structure

A leader is a group member who enjoys the most sympathy and makes decisions in the most important situations. Consequently, he has the greatest authority and power. The leader is not appointed, he is promoted due to his personal qualities.

If there is usually only one leader in a small group, then there may be several outsiders. When there is more than one leader, the group splits into subgroups. They are called clicks.

If, for example, you need to throw a party or go on a hike, then the core acts as the organizers.

So, the leader is the focus of group processes. The members of the group seem to delegate (by default) to him the power and the right to make decisions in the interests of the entire group. And they do it voluntarily.

Conclusion: the small group served as a connecting bridge between the individual, large groups and society, which science still lacked, and without which it could not be a single whole. Small group problems are studied by social psychology, a border discipline between psychology and sociology.

The structure of the group determines the nature of its dynamics and, in turn, is determined by it. The study of dynamic processes occurring in a given period of time and signifying the movement of a group from one stage of development to another is called group dynamics. As an independent, mainly applied, direction it developed in the mid-40s under the influence of the works of K. Levin, J. Homans, R. Bales and others.

In the field of view of scientists today are issues of changing group structure, leadership problems, group decision-making, reaching consensus and prolonging conflicts, modification of behavior, group norms, values ​​and goals.

Let's draw conclusions about the small group: it is at the end of the typology of social groups, since it has the smallest size. The original molecules of the small group are dyad and triad. They are divided into larger formations (social organizations - large groups - the whole society).

1. Nations and interethnic relations in modern society.

A nation is an autonomous political grouping, not limited by territorial boundaries, whose members are committed to common values ​​and institutions. Representatives of one nation no longer have a common ancestor and common origin. They do not have to have a common language, religion, but the nationality that unites them was formed thanks to a common history and culture.

Signs of the nation:

community of territory;

common language;

community of economic life;

general features of the mental make-up;

national identity.

A nation emerges during the dawn of capitalism. During this period, classes, an internal market and a single economic structure, their own literature and art took shape. Nations are more numerous than nationalities, and number tens and hundreds of millions. On the basis of a single territory, language and economy, a single national character and mental make-up is formed. There is a very strong sense of solidarity with your nation. National patriotic and national liberation movements, ethnic strife, wars and conflicts arise as a sign that a nation has formed and is fighting for its sovereignty.

Ethnic groups are large groups of people distinguished on the basis of a common culture, language, consciousness of the indissolubility of historical fate.

Social communities distinguished by ethnicity are diverse. First of all, these are tribes, nationalities and nations.

Nations are the most developed ethnic formations that have arisen on the basis of a linguistic, territorial, cultural, economic, socio-psychological community. They are most typical for the modern world, in which there are at least two thousand different ethnic groups.

Russia is a multinational state. The non-Russian population is about 18% and includes, according to the authors of the 1994 microcensus program, representatives of more than 170 ethnic groups. Ethnographers sometimes count 1.5 - 2 times more ethnic communities in Russia. In terms of its national and state structure, the Russian Federation has no analogues in the world. Among the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, 32 have the status of national-territorial, for which more than 40 ethnic groups are "indigenous". About 7% of the population, including about 130 ethnic groups and ethnic groups, do not have national-territorial formations in Russia.

Interethnic relations have always been distinguished by their contradictory nature - the attraction to cooperation and periodic conflicts. Interethnic relations are especially delicate matter. Violation or infringement of national interests, discrimination against individual nations give rise to extremely complex problems and conflicts.

Nationalism is an ideology, the essence of which is in the preaching of the peculiarity and / or exclusivity of its people, the priority of national values, etc.

The extreme form of nationalism is chauvinism, preaching the exclusiveness of its nation, opposing the interests of its nation to the interests of other nations, inciting national enmity and hatred.

Nationalism arises as a reaction of an ethnic group to the destructive actions of the external environment. As a political principle, nationalism was formed in the process of the formation of states, the collapse of empires. At the present stage, the nationalism of many ethnic communities is a kind of response to the growing global process of internationalization.

Causes of interethnic conflicts:

territorial disputes;

the historically arisen tension in relations between peoples;

the policy of discrimination pursued by the dominant nation;

attempts by national political elites to use national feelings for the purpose of their own popularity;

the desire of peoples to create their own statehood.

When resolving these conflicts, it is necessary to observe the humanistic principles of the policy in the field of ethnic relations:

rejection of violence and coercion;

seeking agreement on the basis of consensus of all participants;

recognition of human rights and freedoms as the most important value;

readiness for a peaceful settlement of disputed problems.

The nature of national relations is determined by two interrelated tendencies: towards differentiation and towards integration.

Each nation strives for self-development, for the preservation of national identity, language, culture. These aspirations are realized in the process of their differentiation, which can take the form of a struggle for national self-determination and the creation of an independent national state.

On the other hand, the self-development of nations in the modern world is impossible without their close interaction, cooperation, exchange of cultural values, overcoming alienation, and maintaining mutually beneficial contacts. The trend towards integration is increasing in connection with the need to solve the global problems facing humanity, with the success of the scientific and technological revolution. It should be borne in mind that these tendencies are interconnected: the diversity of national cultures does not lead to their isolation, and the rapprochement of nations does not mean the disappearance of differences between them.

Interethnic relations are especially delicate matter. Violation or infringement of national interests, discrimination against individual nations give rise to extremely complex problems and conflicts.

In the modern world, including Russia, there are interethnic conflicts caused by various reasons:

territorial disputes;

the historically arisen tension in relations between peoples;

the policy of discrimination pursued by the dominant nation against small nations and peoples;

attempts by national political elites to use national feelings for the purpose of their own popularity;

the desire of peoples to leave the multinational state and to create their own statehood.

It should be borne in mind that the international community in resolving interethnic conflicts proceeds from the priority of state integrity, the inviolability of existing borders, the inadmissibility of separatism and the associated violence.

When solving interethnic conflicts, it is necessary to comply with the humanistic principles of policy in the field of ethnic relations:

rejection of violence and coercion;

seeking agreement on the basis of consensus of all participants;

recognition of human rights and freedoms as the most important value;

readiness for a peaceful settlement of controversial problems.

1. The historical process and its participants.

The historical process is a sequential series of successive events in which the activities of many generations of people have manifested themselves.

The historical process is based on historical facts. When studying such facts, it should be remembered that:

any historical fact is an element of objective reality closely related to other elements. Each historical fact affects the subsequent development of society;

The subjects of the historical process are usually understood as those individuals and their communities who are directly involved in it. Such subjects can be the masses of the people.

The masses can be called the social communities that have developed in a certain territory, whose members have a single mentality, culture, traditions and customs and together create material and spiritual values.

Another subject of the historical process is social groups and public associations. Social groups are distinguished according to various criteria - age, sex, professional, religious, etc. The most common social groups are classes, estates, countries.

Each of the social groups has common features that together make up the social character of this group.

Individuals, whom scientists call historical figures, also have a great influence on the historical process. Those who exercise power are traditionally considered as such. However, in addition to them, great scientists and cultural and art workers have a great influence on the development of society.

The historical process consists of the actions of both individuals and of the actions of associations of people and the activities of the masses as a whole.

Steps of human history

In science, there are several approaches to the definition of these steps (stages), which differ, among other things, depending on which factor of social development is recognized as fundamental.

One of the approaches to the historical process is usually called formation. The doctrine of socio-economic formations as stages of the historical process, along which mankind consistently ascends as a single whole, was developed by K. Marx and F. Engels. The decisive factor in social development was the mode of production, as the ratio of the level of development of productive forces and production relations. The political structure and the spiritual sphere of society is a superstructure that depends entirely on the mode of production. The driving force of historical development is the contradictions of productive forces and production relations, antagonistic classes and class struggle, which inevitably leads to a social revolution.

The goal of the historical process in Marxism is communism - a society in which there will be no social inequality, the slogan of which will be: "From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs" K. Marx identified five socio-economic formations: primitive communal, slave-owning, feudal, capitalist and communist (its first stage is socialism). One of the main features of this theory of socio-economic development is the conviction that all of humanity naturally goes through certain stages (stages) of development.

The idea of ​​staged development is also shared by the majority of supporters of the theory of post-industrial society, where the stages of development are pre-agricultural society - agrarian society - industrial society - post-industrial society.

The theory of modernization also belongs to the stadial principle, according to which all societies are divided into traditional and modern ones. The transition of the former to the latter is the content of modernization. According to this theory, the basis of modernization is the replacement of specific relations of traditional society (close connection of man with nature, adaptation to the environment; contemplative, imaginative thinking; the important role of traditions; caste-caste, hierarchical structure, collectivism, state intervention in all spheres of society, the domination of the principle “power is above the law”) formal-rational relations of modern society.

Individual freedom of the individual is recognized as the main features of modern society; freedom of economic activity based on private entrepreneurship; inviolability of human rights, political pluralism, intensive production, rational thinking, rule of law, inviolability of private property.

Usually, the formation approach to the study of society is opposed to the civilizational one. Their difference can be reduced to the following lines of comparison:

Formal approach

Civilizational approach

The main attention is paid to the study of objective, human-independent patterns of development.

Material factors, primarily production, play a decisive role in the history of society.

Society is seen as a movement from a lower stage of development to a higher one.

At the center of the study is the person. Society is viewed through the forms and products of labor, social, political and other types of activity.

The worldview, the system of the highest spiritual values, and the core of culture are of decisive importance.

Society is a set of civilizations, each of which is unique, progress is relative.

Detailed solution Paragraph Generalization-3 on social studies for students of grade 10, authors Vishnevsky M.I. 2009

1. Give a detailed description of the political system of society.

The political system of a society is a set of political institutions and organizations, corresponding ideas and views, political relations, political and legal norms.

Political organizations and institutions are the state as a whole, represented by the legislative, executive and judicial authorities, as well as political parties, public associations of a political orientation, conducting ideological work, the mass media.

People participating in the political life of society, playing various roles in it, are guided by certain ideas, value attitudes and views. Political views and ideas of people express their fundamental interests, classes, social groups associated with obtaining and using power. Political and legal norms regulate the political life of society, fix the powers of government bodies and officials, the rights and obligations of citizens. This role is played primarily by the Constitution and laws of the country.

Political relations are formed about the conquest, redistribution and use of political power in society. It is the relationship between political institutions and people in a particular political position.

Political relations between people can be characterized by either cooperation and mutual assistance, or rivalry or even hostility (for example, a fierce struggle of political parties for power).

2. What is the relationship between the concepts of "power", "state" and "politics".

So, in this answer I use the concepts of "power", "state" (state), "politics" (political) and show their relationship.

I hope this will help you, if not to answer the question, then at least to form an idea of ​​what is at stake.

If we talk about the concept of "power", then it can be state and political.

These types of power differ in the subjects that are endowed with power.

In the first case, the subjects are state authorities of the subjects of the country (subjects of 83 - regions, territories, etc.), as well as federal state bodies.

In the second case, the subjects are political associations, parties and local governments.

These types of power have different methods of influencing society: the subjects of state power use coercion as a method, and the subjects of political power cannot directly apply it.

The scope of authority for these types of government is also different.

General: the goal is to manage public affairs, the public nature of power.

3. Highlight the main stages of the acquisition of sovereignty by the Republic of Belarus.

The process of the formation of the Belarusian statehood can be divided into three stages.

The first stage begins from the moment the Supreme Soviet of the BSSR granted the status of a constitutional law to the Declaration "On the State Sovereignty of the BSSR" on August 25, 1991. Then, on September 19, 1991, a resolution was adopted to rename the BSSR to the Republic of Belarus and the laws “On the State Flag of the Republic of Belarus” and “On the State Emblem of the Republic of Belarus”. The denunciation on December 8, 1991 in Viskuli of the 1922 treaty on the formation of the USSR and the signing of the treaty on the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), as well as the ratification of these documents on December 10, 1991, became the logical completion of the first stage of the formation of the Belarusian statehood. The first countries to recognize the independence of Belarus and establish diplomatic relations with it were Ukraine and the United States. During 1992, the full international recognition of the Republic of Belarus took place.

The second stage of the formation of the Belarusian statehood is associated with the adoption of the Constitution on March 15, 1994 and the election of the President of the Republic of Belarus in the same year.

The third period began in the second half of 1994 and lasted until November 1996. During this period, on May 14, 1995, parliamentary elections are held and at the same time a referendum on the issues of giving the Russian language an equal status with the Belarusian one, establishing a new State Flag and State Emblem, economic integration with Russia and expanding the powers of the President. This time was also characterized by the strengthening of relations with the Russian Federation. So, on May 26, 1995, the border between the Republic of Belarus and the Russian Federation was eliminated near the Belarusian village of Rechka, and on April 2, 1996, the presidents of the two countries signed the Treaty on the formation of the Community of Belarus and Russia, according to which both states retained their sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity. their constitutions and attributes of state power (coat of arms, flag, anthem). According to the agreement, both states were full subjects of international law, retained their membership in the UN and other international organizations. The completion of the third stage was a referendum on November 24, 1996, as a result of which amendments and additions were made to the Constitution on March 15, 1994.

At the present stage, the strengthening of the Belarusian statehood is taking place, as well as the further development of integration with Russia. So, on April 2, 1997, the Union of Belarus and Russia was created, and on December 25, 1998, the presidents of the two countries signed the Declaration on the Further Unification of Belarus and Russia, at the same time with which the Agreement on Equal Rights of Citizens and Equal Conditions of Business Entities was also signed. On December 8, 1999, Belarus and Russia signed the Treaty on the Creation of the Union State. In addition to strengthening ties with Russia, during this period, parliamentary (in 2000, 2004, 2008) and presidential (2001, 2006) elections, a referendum on amendments to Part 1 of Art. 81 of the Constitution in 2004, as well as the All-Belarusian People's Assemblies (1996, 2001,2006).

Thus, the acquisition of independence and the creation of a sovereign state of the Republic of Belarus in the early 90s of the XX century marked the fact that Belarus became a sovereign state for the first time, acquired independence in the international arena, and the Belarusian people received political self-determination. As recorded in Art. 3 of the Constitution of the Republic of Belarus “the people are the only source of state power and the bearer of sovereignty in the Republic of Belarus”.

4. Based on the modern political map of the world, reveal the question of the forms of government.

There are several forms of government: 1. Unitary; 2. Federated; 3. Confederation.

1. A unitary state is a form of state structure in which its parts are administrative-territorial units and do not have the status of a state formation. Unlike a federation, in a unitary state there are supreme bodies of state power that are uniform for the whole country, a single legal system, and a single constitution. Today, most of the sovereign states are unitary. As a rule, states that are large in terms of population are federations (the People's Republic of China is an exception). The subjects of a federal state cannot be unitary, since they do not have full sovereignty, but only have some of its features.

2. Federal state. Federation - is a voluntary association of previously independent state entities into one union state. The federal state structure is not homogeneous. In different countries, it has its own unique characteristics, which are determined by the historical conditions of the formation of a particular federation and, above all, by the national composition of the country's population, the originality of the way of life and culture of the peoples that make up the union state. At the same time, one can single out the most general features that are characteristic of most federal states. 1. The territory of the federation consists of the territories of its individual subjects: states, cants, lands, republics, etc. 2. In a union state, the supreme executive, legislative and judicial power belongs to the federal state bodies. 3. The subjects of the federation have the right to adopt their own constitution, have their own supreme executive, legislative and judicial bodies. 4. In the majority of the federation, there is federal citizenship and citizenship of federal units. 5. Under the federal state structure, the parliament has a chamber that represents the interests of the members of the federation. 6. The main national foreign policy activities in the federations are carried out by the federal federal bodies. They officially represent the federation in interstate relations (USA, Brazil, India, Germany, etc.). Federations are built on a territorial and ethnic basis, which largely determines the nature, content, structure of the state structure. The territorial federation is characterized by a significant limitation of the state sovereignty of the subjects of the federation.

3. Confederate state. A Confederation is a temporary legal union of sovereign states created to ensure their common interests. Under a confederal structure, the member states of the confederation retain their sovereign rights, both in internal and external affairs. In contrast to the federal structure, the confederation is characterized by the following features: - the confederation does not have its own general legislative, executive and judicial bodies, in contrast to the federation; - the confederal structure does not have a unified army, a unified tax system, a unified state budget; - retains the citizenship of those states that are in a temporary union; - states can agree on a single monetary system, on uniform customs rules, on interstate credit policy for the duration of the union.

5. Based on the historical development of one of the European countries, trace the change in the forms of government in the state.

Russian Federation.

1.monarchy;

2. estate-representative monarchy;

3. again the monarchy;

4. Soviet Republic;

5. Mixed Republic.

6. Compare the modern political systems of society. Fill in the answer in the table.

7. Think about what in the modern world contributes to the formation of political parties? Make a report about one of the political parties.

Political parties in the modern world are formed for a variety of reasons:

The lust for power, the desire for leadership on a national scale;

A keen sense of injustice, a desire to deal with violations and shortcomings, a desire to build a new life;

A sense of patriotism, because not everyone can calmly look from the outside as the Motherland is trampled into the mud;

Own ambitions, desire to remain in the history and memory of descendants;

Organizational abilities unrealized somewhere in another area, etc.

The message "Republican Party of Labor and Justice"

The Republican Party of Labor and Justice (RPTS) is a Belarusian political party founded in the summer of 1993. Its founders and active creators were A. N. Netylkin, I. I. Antonovich, V. N. Gostyukhin.

Since 2006, the chairman is a reserve military pilot, a native of Ukraine Vasily Zadnepryany. The governing body is the Political Council. The famous composer Igor Luchenok was one of the founders of the party. Member of the party is Academician Yevgeny Babosov. The date of registration is August 18, 1993. The date of re-registration is June 18, 1999. The political goal is to create a society of economic prosperity and social justice. RPTS supports the policy of Alexander Lukashenko.

The Fair Russia Party maintains long-term friendly relations with the Republican Party of Labor and Justice.

The leader of the Republican Party of Labor and Justice, Vasily Zadnepryany, cannot participate in the presidential elections, since he is not a native of Belarus. Since 2010, the party leader has also been a co-chairman of the Forum of CIS Socialist Parties.

According to the statement of Vasily Zadnepryany (2012), the party is in third place in terms of number in the country, it has 6.5 thousand people.

One of the main goals and objectives of the RPTS is all-round assistance to the processes of building the Union State of Russia and Belarus, as well as the formation of the Eurasian Union.

A conference of political parties of Belarus, Russia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan was held in Minsk on September 21, 2013. The participants in the event signed a memorandum on the creation of a union of leftist parties of the Customs Union. Russia was represented by the Fair Russia party, Belarus - by the Republican Party of Labor and Justice, Kazakhstan - by the Birlik party, Ukraine - by the Socialist Party of Ukraine.

RPTS stands for the recognition of the independence of South Ossetia and Abkhazia by Belarus.

The party congratulated Nicolas Maduro on his victory in the presidential elections in Venezuela.

At the end of 2012, a charity event of the Republican Party of Labor and Justice "Santa Claus's Gift" was held in Vitebsk.

The political executive committee of the Republican Party of Labor and Justice unanimously recognized the results of the March 16 referendum in Crimea and fully supported and welcomed the expression of the will of the residents of Sevastopol.

In January 2007, during the election campaign for local councils, RPTS showed some activity. 12 members of the RPTS out of 40 nominated were elected as deputies.

On March 23, 2014, elections to local Councils of Deputies of the 27th convocation were held in the Republic of Belarus. 18809 local councilors were elected. Of the 50 candidates registered from the party, 36 people became deputies of Local Councils at all levels.

Two party members were elected to the Minsk City Council of Deputies of the 27th convocation following the elections held on March 23, 2014. (there are 57 deputies in the council).

8. What youth organizations operate in the Republic of Belarus? Why does our state pay much attention to youth policy?

There are several youth organizations operating in the Republic of Belarus today. The most widespread of them are: pioneers, Komsomol, Belarusian Republican Youth Union.

BRYU (Belarusian Republican Youth Union) is a youth public organization in Belarus. It is the largest youth association in the country.

The Republic of Belarus pays great attention to youth policy, because misfortune for the youth.

9. Write an essay on one of the suggested topics: Is the person a "cog" or a creator of history? Ideal ruler in Confucius and Plato. Is Plato's “ideal” state ideal?

Essay on the topic "Man -" cog "or the creator of history"

A person can be both a "cog" and a creator of history. It all depends on the individual. Individual strong, purposeful individuals make history. They manipulate other people, use them like cogs. There are a lot of such personalities who made history and remained in memory: Alexander the Great, Napoleon, Hitler, Vladimir - Red Sun, Yaroslav the Wise, Ivan the Terrible, Peter I, Catherine II. From the Bible: David, Solomon. All of these rulers possessed oratory, were strong and with charisma personalities, skillfully controlled the minds of people, namely those people who were "cogs".

But in our everyday life, we ourselves, without knowing it, are under the influence of people-creators. If it were not for the chronicler Nestor, then we would not know the history of ancient Russia. We admire the poems of Pushkin, Lermontov, Yesenin, Blok, Tsvetaeva, Pasternak, Anna Akhmatova. We listen to beautiful music by Tchaikovsky, Chopin, Mozart, etc. Admiring the canvases of great artists. They all shape our consciousness.

Scientists-creators. They also move history and influence human development.

Political and legal sphereis a subsystem of society responsible for the implementation of managerial and regulatory activities. This area is a relatively late product of social and historical development. It arises at that stage of human history when, under the influence of the increasingly complex material, production and spiritual activities of people, the social differentiation of primitive society is intensified. Groups and communities of people appear, whose interests begin not only to differ, but also to enter into irreconcilable contradictions with each other, which, of course, introduced elements of disorganization and increased conflict in human relationships. The mechanisms of the distribution of material wealth and the regulation of relationships between people and their groups, traditional for the tribal system, based on kinship ties, the authority of public opinion, the power of age-old customs and traditions, turned out to be unable to effectively resolve social contradictions that primitive society had not previously encountered. With the development and exacerbation of these contradictions, an objective need arose for taking special measures to preserve society's integrity. The solution to this problem led to the creation of fundamentally new mechanisms of normative-power ordering of increasingly complex social ties, new forms of public control over people's behavior and the conclusion of this behavior in a framework that meets the interests of society as a whole.

As evidenced by modern historical and ethnographic data, the formation of new mechanisms of normative-power regulation of social life did not take place directly on the basis of the social-class struggle and class domination, but took shape spontaneously in the course of the natural development of the primitive communal system itself from complex supra-communal governance structures. Over time, these supra-community organizational and administrative structures become relatively independent social formations - authorities, closed and closed from the society that gave rise to them. The appearance of such formations at the later stages of the evolution of the primitive communal system can be considered a sign of the formation of the rudiments of the first states - proto-states. The emergence of proto-states is a kind of dialectical leap-transition of mankind from one qualitative state to another, from prehistory to civilization. In different regions of the Earth and among different peoples, due to the unevenness of their historical development, this transition took place at different times, stretching for centuries and even for millennia. The first civilizations, like the first proto-states, developed in the East in 4-3 millennia BC.

Having appeared at the dawn of human civilization, the political and legal sphere of society not only survived, but, constantly developing and improving, began to occupy an increasingly important place in the human community. Today it is already difficult to imagine social life without political and legal mechanisms for its regulation.

Political and legal sphere of societyencompasses the social space where political and legal relations arise and function and the corresponding institutional forms of organization of public life carry out their activities, using the mechanisms of normative power regulation and management of public life - political and legal institutions.

Political institutions functionally connected with relations between social groups, classes, nations regarding the creation and use of public authorities (state) for the realization of their interests and the management of public affairs. Legal institutions fulfill the need of society to regulate and control the behavior of people on the basis of norms and rules established and protected by state authorities. The administrative and regulatory activities of society, carried out through these institutions, constitute the main content of the political and legal sphere.

The political and legal sphere plays an important role in creating optimal conditions for the functioning and development of the social organism. From the level of development of the political and legal sphere, which is manifested in its ability to adequately reflect in its activities the diversity of interests and goals of various social groups and communities of people, to find forms and methods of solving economic, economic, social and other socially significant problems that are acceptable for the majority of the population, the stability of society as an integral entity, its well-being and prosperity largely depend.

The issues of managing public life, regulating human relationships with the help of political and legal mechanisms have attracted the attention of many famous philosophers who have devoted special studies to them. This is evidenced by such classic works on political and legal philosophy as "State" and "Laws" by Plato, "Politics" by Aristotle, "On the State" and "About Laws" by Cicero, "Sovereign" by Machiavelli, "Leviathan" by Hobbes , "On government" by Locke, "Political Treatise" by Spinoza, "On the Spirit of Laws" by Montesquieu, "On the Social Contract" by Rousseau, "Metaphysical Principles of the Doctrine of Law" by Kant, "Foundations of Natural Law" by Fichte, "Philosophy of Law" by Hegel, "The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State" by Engels et al.

The political and legal sphere of the life of society is a subsystem, the content of which is the exercise by a specially created institution (state) of power in society using legal norms and guarantees, the realization of the interests of citizens in relation to power. The political life of society and the activities of its institutions today are inseparable from the law and legal norms established by the state. The attitude of citizens to legal norms and laws, the perfection of legislation are a necessary basis for streamlining the political life of society, excluding political power voluntarism and permissiveness, abuse of official position, as well as anarchy and disorder on the part of citizens. The vital activity of the subjects of society can be associated with the conquest of power, the use of power functions or their loss, with lawmaking and the implementation of laws. The main subjects of this sphere of social life are the citizens of the country and the state as a special apparatus for governing the country (society), to which citizens delegate certain functions, give it powers and entrust it with solving specific problems. The subjects of politics and law are also various public organizations, unions and movements, the purpose of which is to participate in political and legal life, in the conquest or retention of power.

Political and legal life is carried out within a certain organizational framework - in the political organization of society as a set of political institutions - the state, political parties, movements, unions, as well as in law as an institution of society. An important characteristic of political life is its consistency. The political system of the life of society includes: the political and legal organization of society, political and legal relations of subjects, the functioning of political and legal consciousness, the regime of exercising power in the country.

The main criteria of political and legal life are: the consistency of the policy of the state apparatus with the interests of the country's citizens and the rule of law; the presence of political and legal freedoms and their implementation; democracy; the rule of law in the political activity of the subjects of society, etc.

The structure of the political and legal sphere of society is made up of:

Communication, behavior and activities of subjects as a system of political and legal relations of society;

A set of functioning political and legal institutions, primarily state institutions;

The functioning of the political and legal consciousness of the subjects;

Implementation of the regime of power.

The functions of the political system of society are diverse:

Powerful function;

Regulatory and legal;

Communicative (consular);

Ideological;

Organizational and managerial;

Property and distribution;

Harmonization of the interests of the main subjects of the political and legal process;

Law-making;

Stabilization;

Ensuring the safety of society, individuals and the state;

Controlling-coercive, etc.

The basis for the classification of political systems is, as a rule, the political regime, the nature and way of interaction between the authorities, individuals and society. According to this criterion, political systems can be divided into totalitarian, authoritarian and democratic.

There are four main elements of the political system, also called subsystems: 1) institutional, 2) communicative, 3) normative, 4) cultural and ideological.

TO institutional subsystem include political organizations (institutions), among which the state occupies a special place. Of the non-governmental organizations, political parties and socio-political movements play an important role in the political life of society. All political institutions can be roughly divided into three groups. Political organizations include organizations whose direct purpose of existence is to exercise power or influence it (the state, political parties and socio-political movements). The second group includes organizations operating in the economic, social, spiritual spheres of society (trade unions, religious and cooperative organizations, etc.). They do not set themselves special political tasks, do not participate in the struggle for state power. But their goals cannot be achieved outside the political system. Therefore, such organizations participate in the political life of society, defend their corporate interests, seeking to take them into account and implement them in politics. The third group includes organizations that are situationally involved in the political life of society. They arise and function to realize the personal interests and inclinations of a certain layer of people (clubs of interest, sports societies). They acquire a political connotation as objects of influence from the state and other proper political institutions. They themselves are not active subjects of political and legal life.

Communication subsystem the political system of society is a set of relations and forms of interaction that develop between ethnic communities, classes, social groups and strata, individuals about their participation in the exercise of state power, the development and implementation of policy. Political relations are the result of numerous and varied connections between the subjects of politics in the process of political behavior, communication and activity. Subjects are encouraged to enter into relationships by their own political interests and needs. There are primary and secondary (derivative) political relations. The former include various forms of interaction between social groups (classes, nations, estates, etc.), as well as within them, the latter - relations between states, political parties, other political institutions, reflecting in their activities the interests of certain social strata or the entire society ...

Political relations are built on the basis of certain rules (norms). Political and legal norms and rules that determine and regulate the political life of society, constitute regulatory subsystem the political system of society. The most important role in it is played by legal norms (constitutional norms, laws, other normative legal acts). The activities of political parties and other public organizations are regulated by their statutory and program norms. In a number of countries, along with the documented political and legal norms, customs and traditions, moral norms are of great importance. Therefore, another group of political norms is represented by ethical and moral norms, in which the ideas of the whole society or its individual layers about good and evil, truth, justice, democracy, freedom are fixed. Advanced modern societies have come close to realizing the need to return to politics such moral guidelines as honor, conscience, nobility, and dignity.

Cultural and ideological subsystem political system is a set of different in their content political ideas, views, principles, feelings and beliefs of participants in political life. The political consciousness of the subjects of the political process functions at two levels - theoretical and ordinary. The main element of the theoretical level is political ideology. Political psychology occupies an important place in everyday practical consciousness. The forms of manifestation of political ideology include ideas, concepts, teachings, political programs, slogans; and to political psychology - feelings, emotions, moods, prejudices, traditions, beliefs. The special state of political consciousness, political ideology and political psychology, the specificity of their manifestation in the real political life of the subjects form the political culture of society. It covers the spiritual, organizational-managerial and practical-activity aspects of political life, as well as the content and style (rules) of behavior and communication of political subjects.

The functioning of the political system of society is closely related to the legal basis of the state's activity. Thus, the main directions of the reform of the political system in our country are determined by the Constitution, adopted in a referendum on December 12, 1993. It proclaims the Russian Federation as a democratic federal legal state with a republican form of government (Article 1). The bearer of sovereignty and the only source of power in Russia is the people, exercising their will directly (through elections and referendums), as well as through state authorities and local self-government bodies (Art. 2). In Russia, in free elections, in which all citizens from the age of 18 participate (except for those recognized by the court as legally incompetent and held in places of imprisonment by a court verdict), the President, deputies of the State Duma, members of the highest legislative bodies and heads of the highest executive bodies of the constituent entities of the Federation, bodies local government, heads of city and district administrations. The Constitution of our state enshrines and guarantees fundamental human rights and freedoms. The foundations of the constitutional system are declared to be political and ideological pluralism, diversity and equality of various forms of ownership, separation of powers. But the real formation of a democratic regime in Russia has just begun.

Among the various regulators of social relations (economics, morality, science, art, etc.), law occupies a special place. The most common is the definition of law as a system of generally binding norms (rules) established and sanctioned by the state, secured for execution voluntarily or by coercive force. But along with such a normative approach, which characterizes law as a phenomenon of spiritual life and emphasizes the dependence of law on state will, there are other points of view in science. Law is also understood as a phenomenon of society, as a social institution of society and has a typical structure that is characteristic of other phenomena in society. In this sense, the law includes: the legal consciousness of the subjects, the totality of legal institutions and the system of legal relations.

Unlike other social phenomena, law is characterized by the following features:

1) generally binding - the norms of law regulate the behavior of all members of society or certain categories of non-personalized subjects, the requirements of the law are binding on everyone to whom they are addressed, regardless of the attitude of certain persons towards them;

2) formal certainty - the rules of law are established by the state in special acts, accurately and in detail reflect the requirements for the behavior, communication and activities of physical and legal entities;

3) the implementation of the rules of law is carried out voluntarily by the subjects and compulsorily - by the state (if necessary);

4) the rules of law are designed for an unlimited number of cases and facts.

The functions of law in society are diverse. First, the law, being a regulator of social relations, consolidates the foundations of the existing system. Secondly, by obliging to take active positive actions, the law contributes to the development of social relations. Third, by establishing the rights and obligations of specific individuals and organizations, the law introduces a certain order into society and the activities of the state, creates the preconditions for their purposeful and purposeful functioning. Fourth, in the practical activities of state bodies (and, first of all, courts), law acts as a criterion of lawful and illegal behavior of people and social communities, is the basis for the application of measures of state coercion against violators of law and order. Fifthly, law plays an important educational role, developing in people a sense of justice, legality, kindness, humanity.

Thus, the law acts as a kind of measure of human freedom in society, setting the boundaries of the social activity of subjects in relation to each other. Each participant in public relations can achieve their goals using various options. This is a manifestation of his relative independence, freedom of choice and decision. The law, reflecting the agreed interests of the entire society, limits and streamlines this choice by certain limits, puts barriers to undesirable behavior, but does not impose any particular option on the subject. The law also regulates the relationship between society and nature.