predictive connection. The question of predicative agreement. The difference between a predicative relationship and a subordinate one. Predicative syntactic links in a sentence (coordination, juxtaposition, gravitation) Predicative type of link
Predicative connection
The connection between the subject and the predicate, a form of expression of predicative relations,
Dictionary-reference book of linguistic terms. Ed. 2nd. - M.: Enlightenment. Rosenthal D. E., Telenkova M. A.. 1976 .
See what "predicative connection" is in other dictionaries:
PREDICATIVE, predicative, predicative (philosophical and grammatical). Being a predicate, containing a predicate that has the value of a predicate. Predicative relationship between a name and a verb. Predicative adjective, instrumental predicative… Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov
A phrase is a combination of two or more significant words, related in meaning and grammatically, which serves to divide the designation of a single concept (object, quality, action, etc.). The phrase is considered as ... ... Wikipedia
- (from lat. praedicatum said) a language expression denoting some kind of property or relationship. A item that indicates the property of an individual object (for example, to be green) is called single. P., denoting a relationship, is called double, ... ... Glossary of Logic Terms
Predicate (from late Latin praedicatum said), the same as property; in a narrow sense, the property of a single object, for example, "to be a person", in a broad sense, the property of a pair, three, in general, n objects, for example, "to be a relative." P. in ... ...
I Predicate (from late Latin praedicatum said) the same as property; in a narrow sense, the property of a single object, for example, "to be a person", in a broad sense, the property of a pair, three, in general, n objects, for example, "to be a relative." P … Great Soviet Encyclopedia
- (from lat. praedicatum said) a language expression denoting k. l. property or relationship. A item that indicates the property of a separate object (for example, “green”, “warm”) is called single. P., denoting a relationship, is called ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia
Predicativity (predicativeness) is a syntactic category that determines the functional specificity of the basic unit of sentence syntax. Contents 1 Definition ... Wikipedia
Combining the functions of attributive and predicative. Attributive predicative relationship. Attributive predicative relations. A sick person is irritable (in this sentence, the adjective sick performs not only an attributive function, ... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms
Predicativity- Predicativity is a syntactic category that determines the functional specificity of the main unit of the sentence syntax; the key constitutive feature of the sentence, relating information to reality and thereby forming a unit, ... ... Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary
This term has other meanings, see Basis. The grammatical basis (predicative basis, predicative core) of the sentence is the main part (structural diagram) of the sentence, consisting of its main members: subject and predicate ... Wikipedia
A predicative connection, that is, a connection between the predicate and the subject, which serves to convey predicative relations, can also be mandatory and optional. The property of obligatory and optional nature of this connection is established by the predicate - the exponent of predicative relations. The predicate (the personal form of the verb) has the ability to “predict” the presence and form of the subject in different ways with its form and lexical and grammatical meaning.
Consider these cases:
1. The predicate can predetermine the form and meaning of the subject so precisely that, in essence, there is no need to name the subject, since it simply repeats the same information that is already contained in the predicate, i.e. the very presence of the subject becomes optional, and the connection of the predicate with subject - optional. Wed: I love the storm in early May(Tyutchev) and I love thunder...; Will you be from Moscow? And Will you be from Moscow? If the predicative connection is optional, then there are two types of sentences in parallel in the language: two-part sentences with an implemented optional connection (the predicate in such sentences can only be expressed by a verb in the form of the 1st or 2nd person, singular or plural, present or future tense, only pronouns can act as the subject I, you, we, you) and one-part sentences with an unrealized facultative connection, definite-personal and generalized-personal types I love you, Petra creation!(Pushkin); You can't fill a bottomless barrel with water(proverb). Each two-part sentence with an optional predicative connection can be transferred to the category of the corresponding one-part sentences, one has only to omit the subject I, you, we, you and this does not make the sentence incomplete, since the predicate of these sentences expresses both the action and the person performing the action.
2. The predicate, by its form and lexico-grammatical meaning, indicates the necessity of the subject and can predetermine its form (although the latter is not necessary). In this case, the predicative connection is obligatory, i.e. the presence of the subject is necessary for the structure of the sentence, without the subject the sentence is incomplete and incomprehensible: Muffled music came from the city cinema. Fires were lit in the houses. Samovar smoke hung over the gardens. Stars were already shining behind the bare branches of trees.(Paustovsky). And the same sentences without a subject: It flew from the city cinema ... The houses were lit up ... It hung over the gardens ... They were already shining behind the bare branches of the trees .... A comparison of these sentences indicates that the predicative connection is mandatory if the predicate denotes an action performed by a certain actor (person or object) and is expressed by the verb in the form of the 3rd person singular or plural of the present or future tense or in the form of the past tense of the singular or plural: The child is sleeping; Kids are playing; The lecturer came; Holidays have begun.<…>
3. The predicate with its lexical and grammatical meaning, and in some cases with its form (for example, the form of words must, can't, can etc.) indicates the impossibility of using the subject, i.e., the impossibility of a predicative connection (predicative relations in this case are transmitted by other means, not due to the predicative connection), which is why impersonal sentences are defined in the school as sentences with a predicate in which there is no and there can be no subject.
Comparison of offers such as The garden smells of lilac And Lilac smells in the garden or Something smells strongly in the garden shows that, with apparent similarity, these are sentences of different semantics: an impersonal sentence indicates the presence of a smell, as well as what it smells like, that is, the action is depicted as independent of the agent, as occurring by itself (there is no predicative connection); two-part sentences report the smell of some well-known (lilac) or unknown (something) subject (predicative connection is required).
Thus, the obligatory and optional nature of the predicative connection reflects those grammatical properties that underlie the distinction between two-part and one-part personal sentences.<…>
DOUBLE LINKS AND DOUBLE DEPENDENCE OF WORDS
In addition to the main, single bonds (the connection of a dependent word with one main), there are so-called double bonds in the language. A double bond is a simultaneous explanation by a dependent word of two core words for it. With a double bond, the dependent word simultaneously participates in the expression of different syntactic relations with two words in the sentence - with the name and with the verb, which act as dominant in relation to this dependent word, although they are in a subordinate relationship with each other.
A word form that has a double dependence - on a name and a verb - can be called a verb-nominal determiner. There are several types of double bonds.
First type. The specificity of the first type of constructions with a double link is that the verb-nominal determiner is expressed by any nominal part of speech (more often by an adjective or a noun). It is connected with the dominant name by agreement, with the dominant verb by control or adjunction.
It is very important to emphasize that the dominant name can be in any case and perform any syntactic function in the sentence, and the dominant verb can have any form (personal, infinitive, participle, gerund). For example: Everything is covered with snow, a man, an animal, birds hid, and an ordinary one falls on the fly dead, and only me- alive soul- food uncertain, will I get home(Prishvin); The thought of leaving Trofim for the night frightens me. tied to the raft(Fedoseev); But for now, seeing him confused, I triumph(Bitter); I have to first open fire when the Japanese approach from the north(Stepanov); Aunt Arefa also loved the starling; he is always with him first cleaned the cage and first yes in al fresh seed and water(Bitter); Tired of him with a drunk mess around, listen to his nonsense(Simonov).
The double bond in this case combines agreement and control, or agreement and adjacency.
The agreement of the verb-nominal determiner is manifested in the likening of its forms to the categories of gender, number and case of the dominant name. Moreover, if the verb-nominal determinant has the form of instrumental case, then only the forms of gender and number (or only numbers) participate in the agreement: The boy sleeps dressed; girl sleeping dressed; Kids are sleeping dressed. If the verb-nominal determiner repeats the case form of the dominant name, that is, it has the form of the so-called second case, then the categories of gender, number and case (or only the categories of number and case) participate in the agreement: Brother is sitting upset; brother was seen upset; They approached my brother first.
The control of the verb-nominal determiner is carried out due to its case form. If the verb-nominal determiner has the instrumental form, and the dominant name has the nominative, accusative or dative form, then this mismatch of case forms indicates that the case form of the dependent name becomes a clear expression of another connection - the connection of control, connection with the verb. The forms of inflection of a dependent word, as it were, bifurcate in their functions: the word expresses dependence on one word with one part of its grammatical categories, and with another part - on another.
If the verb-nominal determiner has a form that matches the case form of the dominant name, then this case form performs two functions in the sentence: on the one hand, it participates in the connection of the determiner with the dominant name, on the other hand, it conveys the connection with the verb and participates in the connection management.
If the verb-nominal determiner has the form of the nominative case (Father sits upset) then the question arises, how is the dependence of the verb-nominal determiner on the verb expressed? It is impossible to talk about management here, since the nominative case is not a controlled, absolute case. In this case, all forms of inflection of the verb-nominal determiner participate in the expression of the connection of agreement with the name. The connection with the verb is carried out without the participation of the forms of inflection - as if the word did not have these forms. In other words, the connection turns out to be similar to the adjacency. In our case, the dependent word, although it has forms of inflection, but due to certain syntactic conditions, appears to be “without forms”. This is how a connection arises - an analogue of adjacency.<…>
The double connection of the verb-nominal determiner simultaneously expresses two types of syntactic relations: the connection with the verb serves to express adverbial or object relations, the connection with the name conveys attributive relations.<…>
Members of a sentence with a double link, expressing simultaneous dependence on a name and a verb, should be distinguished from constructions like The boy from the village came where is the word form from the village can also depend on the noun boy, and from the verb I arrived. But this possibility of dependence on the noun and on the verb is always realized only one-sidedly: the word form from the village in each particular sentence can be associated either only with a noun a boy from the village (a boy who lives in the village,- village boy) or only with the verb - came from the village.<…>
Second type. The specificity of the second type of constructions with a double link is that the verb-nominal determiner is expressed as an infinitive. The action expressed by the infinitive can be related to the subject or object of the verbal action. Wed: He promised me come And He told me come. In the first of the given examples, the infinitive action corresponds to the subject of the verbal action (He promised And He will come), in the second - with his object (He told me And I will come) in accordance with this, the subjective infinitive and the objective infinitive are distinguished as carriers of a double semantic dependence. The double semantic dependence of the infinitive lies in the fact that the infinitive characterizes a certain person by his additional action and at the same time conveys object or adverbial relations to the main action<…>
Third type. A feature of this type is that the gerund participle acts as a verb-nominal determiner. The gerund, referring to the personal form of the verb (or its equivalents) and conveying various adverbial relations, at the same time refers to the subject name and denotes the action that is performed by the subject named in the subject: He crawled high into the mountains Already and lay down there in a damp gorge, curled up into a knot and looking in the sea(Bitter); And along the gorge, in the darkness and spray, the stream rushed towards the sea, thundering stones(Bitter); The sea howled, threw big heavy waves on the coastal sand, breaking them into spray and foam(Bitter). In the lexical and grammatical meaning of the participle, there is an indication of a certain person performing the action. When a gerund is combined with another verb form, it correlates its action with the same person with whom the action of the main verb is correlated (I walk, waving my arms; He walks, waving his arms; Walking, waving his arms, is ugly). Due to this property, the subject in sentences with gerunds must name the person performing the action expressed by the predicate and the action conveyed by the gerund.<…>
Fourth type. A special case of dual dependence is the use of adjectives (participles, ordinal numbers, and nouns), in which, along with the main connection of this word with a noun, conveying attributive (defining) relations, an additional connection is established with the verb, conveying adverbial relations . Such definitions are usually called adverbial definitions: Confident in himself, he did not even look at how the enemy would poke into the ground(Field); It's been a hard road and people weary them, lose heart(Bitter).
The main attributive meaning also determines the way of expressing such members - an agreed adjective or noun or words similar to them in inflection. An additional circumstantial meaning is expressed due to: 1) the order of words compared to the usual definition; 2) the appearance of separation; 3) the ability to relate to a personal pronoun<…>
Fifth type. A special case of the manifestation of double dependence is the use of adjectives (participles, numerals), in which attributive relations to the name are clearly expressed through agreement, and adverbial relations to the verb do not have special forms for their expression and are transmitted only through the semantic relationships of words: New the broom sweeps well(proverb); Betrothed the bride is good(proverb); One the head is not poor, but so poor alone(proverb); An empty spoon rips your mouth(proverb); ripe cherries are sweet<…>
The sentence is characterized by special syntactic links that are different from the links in the phrase. Between subject and predicate- the main members of a two-part sentence arise reciprocal syntactic relationship, which is called coordination. Coordination is different from the agreement characteristic of the phrase. Compare: I write, they came And blue sky, warm weather.
Negotiation - one-way communication, since the form of the adjective depends entirely on the form of the noun, and not vice versa. Coordination - mutually directed communication, since, on the one hand, the form of the singular or plural pronoun predetermines the form of the verb-predicate, on the other hand, the form of the predicate is likened to the subject-pronoun. In addition, agreement is carried out in the entire paradigm (warm weather, warm weather, warm weather ...), and in coordination only two word forms are combined (I write, she speaks), in agreement, attributive syntactic relations are noted, and in coordination, always predicative syntactic relations .
Connection between subject and predicate may not be formally expressed: predicative relationships are revealed based on their relative position. Such a connection is called juxtaposition. For example: Mountain garden. Trees in bloom. Forest nearby. He is an employee.
In the above sentences, the connection is established on the basis of a logical sequence, a juxtaposition of word forms relative to each other - the concept of an object always precedes the concept of a sign.
Some two-part sentences with a special structure of the predicate are characterized by a syntactic connection called gravity, Where the nominal part of the compound predicate correlates with the subject through the third component, For example: He came tired. The night was cold.
Sentence as a constructive unit of syntax. The concept of the structural scheme of the proposal. General characteristics of two-part and one-part sentences.
A sentence is the smallest unit of human speech, which is a grammatically organized combination of words (or a word) that has a certain semantic and intonational completeness. The main features of the sentence are predicativity (the relation of the content of the sentence to reality), modality (the relation of the speaker to what is being expressed), intonation and relative semantic completeness.
The proposal is built according to an abstract model, a scheme. is a template from which a minimal self-contained message can be built. For example, suggestions Winter came; The student draws; Buds have blossomed on the trees built according to the verb-nominal pattern; offers Brother is a teacher; Rainbow - atmospheric pressure have a two-name scheme; offers It's getting dark; It's getting cold built according to the verb pattern. (Examples of block diagrams can be found in the tables at the end, after the definition of a one-part and two-part sentence)
Two-part sentences contain two The main members are the subject and the predicate. The boy is running; The earth is round.
One-part sentences contain one main member (subject or predicate). Evening; It's evening.
I block (two-component nominative)
| Structural diagram of the offer | Example | |
| N 1 V f | Noun in the nominative case + personal form of the verb | The Rooks Have Arrived; The trees are green; All things are done by people. |
| N 1 Cop f Adj f/t/5 | Noun in the nominative case + linking verb in the personal form + adjective (participle) in the nominative or instrumental case | The night was quiet (quiet, quiet); An hour later, a halt was announced; Machines are ready for testing; He's wounded. |
| N 1 Cop f N 1/5 | Noun in the nominative case + copula verb in the personal form + noun in the nominative or instrumental case | He was a student (student); Eagle- predator; This is our hostel. |
| N 1 Cop f N 2. ..pr / Advpr | Nominative noun + personal linking verb + oblique noun with preposition or adverb | This house will be without an elevator; We were in despair; Tea with sugar; The arrival of Ivan Ivanovich was by the way; Everyone was alert; He has bulging eyes. |
II block (two-component infinitive)
| Structural diagram of the offer | Block Diagram Explanation | Example |
| InfV f | Infinitive + personal form of the verb | Wouldn't it hurt us to meet more often(St.); You should not be silent; Smoking was forbidden; Every boy wants to be an astronaut (bold); Friends were allowed to be together. |
| InfCop f Adj f/t/5 | Infinitive + linking verb in personal form + adjective (participle) in nominative or instrumental case | It was wise to remain silent (more sensible, the most sensible, the most sensible); It was unnecessary to persuade him (too much, too much); Need to leave; It would be better to admit your mistake; It was difficult to be restrained. |
| InfCop f N 1/5 | Infinitive + linking verb in personal form + noun in nominative or instrumental case | call- problem (was a problem); His main goal was (his main goal was) to see everything with his own eyes; Building is joy; To love others is a heavy cross (Past.); It turns out that being an adult is not always an advantage (Nag.); An excellent position is to be a man on earth (M. Gorky). |
| InfCop f N 2. ..pr / Advpr | Infinitive + linking verb in personal form + noun in oblique cases with preposition or adverb | It was not in his nature to remain silent; Buying a car is beyond our means; Silence is inappropriate; It was unbearable to go any further; He couldn't be generous. |
| Inf Cop f Inf | Infinitive + linking verb in personal form + infinitive | To refuse was to offend; To be a student- it is constantly learning to think; be an actor- First of all, be a talented person. |
III block (one-component)
| Structural diagram of the offer | Block Diagram Explanation | Example |
| V s 3/n | 3rd person singular verb, or neuter singular | Creaked, whistled and howled in the forest(Zab.); It's getting dark; He is unwell; I breathed freshness; The roof was engulfed in flames; The steamer rocked; His heart boiled; This has already been written about. |
| Vpl 3 | The verb is in the form of the 3rd person plural. | There was a noise at the table; He was offended; Here, young specialists are taken care of, they are trusted; They don't talk while eating. |
| Cop s3/n Adj fsn | Linking verb in 3rd person singular neuter + short adjective in singular and neuter. | It was dark; Frosty; It will be cold at night; Stuffy without happiness and will(N.) |
| Cop s3/n N 2...pr /Adv pr | A linking verb in the form of the 3rd person singular of the neuter gender + a noun (with a preposition) in the indirect case or an adverb. | It was past midnight; Tomorrow it will be rainless; We are not up to sleep; She was unaware; Let it be your way; He is not in a hurry. |
| Cop pl3 Adj fpl | Linking verb in 3rd person plural + short adjective in plural. numbers. | He was welcome; They are satisfied; They were offended by the refusal. |
| Cop pl N 2...pr /Adv pr | A linking verb in the form of the 3rd person plural + a noun (with a preposition) in the indirect case or an adverb. | The houses were in tears; They were delighted with him; They were easy with him. |
| Cop f N 1 | Linking verb in the personal form + noun in the nominative case. | Whisper. Rough breathing. Nightingale's trills (Fet); Silence; It was winter. |
| inf | Infinitive | Break his horns(P.); Do not catch up with you crazy three(N.); Read only children's books. Only children's thoughts to cherish(Mand.) Be clean rivers; To be a boy poet; Be your way; Everyone be in sportswear. |
Typology of simple sentences (declarative, interrogative, incentive sentences; affirmative and negative; common and non-common; one-part and two-part; complete and incomplete).
According to the communicative purposefulness and the corresponding intonation of the sentence - narrative, interrogative, motivating.
The presence of a connection between objects and features in reality - a proposal affirmative. Absence, respectively - negative.
Offers are divided into one- and two-piece depending on whether they have one or two main members (subject and predicate) as organizing centers of the sentence.
By the presence or absence of secondary members of the proposal are divided into common and uncommon.
In full sentences verbally present all the necessary formal links of this structure, and in incomplete- Not all.
Predication is an act of connecting independent objects of thought, expressed by independent words, for displaying and interpreting in the language of an event, a situation of reality.
Predication involves the attribution of a certain attribute to an object (subject): S is R. This feature is called predicative, or predicate (from late Latin praedicatum- "said"). In many languages, this term was used to refer to the main member of the sentence (in Russian, the term "predicate" is a tracing paper from Latin praedicatum). However, it would be a mistake to identify the parts of the sentence connected by the relation of predication with the subject and the predicate. Subject and predicate my is, although the most common, but still only one of the possible ways of expressing predication. Compare personal and impersonal sentences: I I miss And I'm bored; these sentences have the same subject (me, me) and the same predicate (I miss, I'm bored) But V they are expressed in the first sentence V the form of the subject and the predicate, and in the second, the so-called "impersonal" sentence, there is no subject. At identity predications It has place the difference in its grammatical interpretation: in an impersonal sentence, the subject is expressed by the dative case of a personal pronoun, that is, the case of the addressee, as a result of which boredom is interpreted as a kind of force that has taken possession of the subject from the outside; in a personal sentence, boredom is a purely internal state of the person. The subject and predicate can not match and with theme and rheme. There are cases when both the subject and the predicate are related to the topic of the sentence, while the rheme turns out to be a minor member; if, for example, the proposal Vasya goes to school is the answer to the question Where is Vasya going? then its actual division will be as follows: Vasya is coming(T) to school(R).
Predicates are heterogeneous. There are: 1) taxonomic predicates - predicates indicating the entry of an object into a class: This flower is a lily of the valley. This tree is an oak; 2) characterizing predicates - predicates that indicate stable or transient, own or improper, dynamic or static signs of the subject: He is sick. He is tired. Harun ran faster than a doe (Lermontov); 3) relational predicates - predicates indicating the relationship of one substance to another: Anna Ivanovna - Tanya's grandmother; a) predicates of temporal and spatial localization: Classes - in the evening. Home is still far away. Sergei at home. As a result of predication, a “blindly creeping” object is assigned a definite and no longer blindly creeping semantic content.
Any sentence, in order to become an actualized unit of speech - an utterance, must characterize the described fact in relation to the time of the message and the position of the speaker, and the fact can be qualified as real or unreal; compare, for example, sentences with similar lexical content: Brought mail. - Bring the mail as soon as possible. - Let them bring the mail! Therefore, the most important feature of a sentence as a syntactic unit is predicativity. According to V.V. Vinogradov, predicativity is the relation of the expressed content to reality, grammatically expressed in the categories (syntactic, and not just morphological) of modality (mood), tense and lime. Thus, predicativity is the actualization of the reported, the establishment of its connection with reality and its interpretation. This creates a unit capable of actively participating in communication and expressing the message. It does not matter at all whether this relationship is true or false. Thus, the sentence It is snowing contains information relating to the present time and comprehended by the speaker as true and real; however, the information in the sentence It's raining fish is comprehended and interpreted in exactly the same way.
Predicativity is expressed in the syntactic categories of mood, tense and person. Thus, the message I am writing to you is interpreted as actually taking place in the present tense and associated with the action of the speaker himself. In the sentence Help me to need no aid from men - Help me not to need the help of people (Kipling), the speaker's motivation is expressed, which is not able to be actualized in a certain time frame. Predicativity is thus the grammatical expression of predication. If predication (in a broad sense) establishes a connection between an object and a feature, then predicativity establishes a connection between what is reported in the sentence and the situation in being itself. In other words, it is a complex of modal-temporal meanings that correlate the statement with the situation of being. The most important form of expression of predication is the relationship between the subject, indicating the subject of speech - thoughts, and the predicate, naming the predicative feature. The combination of subject and predicate is the predicative minimum of the sentence.
The construction He solved a difficult problem is a proposal, but the construction of His solution to a difficult problem is not a proposal. Why? It's all about predictability. The sentence has predicativity, the non-sentence does not.
The concept of predicativity will not be mysterious if you approach it as a grammatical form underlying the sentence. The grammatical form is the unity of the grammatical meaning and the means of its expression (see grammatical form). The grammatical meaning of predicativity is the relation to reality. He solved the problem - it is said about what is real. Solve the problem \ The action "solve the problem" is required, it must be, it is not yet a reality. As you can see, the attitude to reality is conveyed with the help of time and inclination. The main means of expressing predicativity is a verb in conjugated form: decided, decide, etc. It is precisely such verbs that convey tense and mood, therefore, they are good transmitters of the meaning of predicativity.
Construction His solution to a difficult problem does not contain the meaning of predicativity. No verb is a means of conveying this meaning.
Note, however, that the construction of His solution to a difficult problem can also become a proposal if it is the title to the corresponding text. In this case, this construction is a predicate to a hidden subject; compare: The following is his solution to a difficult problem. There is a zero verb connective here (see Zero units in the language).
Now let's compare the sentences: (1) The cloud was big and gloomy, (2) The cloud, big and gloomy, was slowly approaching the city, (3) The big and gloomy cloud was slowly approaching the city.
The adjectives large and gloomy in all three sentences are dependent on the same member of the sentence - the subject cloud. Nevertheless, the roles of these adjectives in these sentences are different. In what?
In (1) adjectives are the nominal part of the predicate, it is usually in the first roles in the sentence together with the subject: in order to express the relationship between the subject and the predicate, as a rule, a sentence is conceived; without a predicate as a carrier of predicativity, there can be no sentence at all.
In (3) adjectives play a far less important role, the sentence is not intended at all to report the features of the subject, the adjectives in this sentence have nothing to do with the expression of predicativity (predicative categories of tense and mood). Without these adjectives, the sentence will not only not collapse, but even its meaning will not suffer much.
In (2) adjectives, although not as important as in (1), are still significantly more important than in (3). Among all other non-main (secondary) members of the sentence, these definitions - adjectives are highlighted. In their significance, they occupy an intermediate position between the predicate, which, together with the subject, is the most significant member of the sentence, and the usual secondary member of the sentence.
The most significant relationships in a sentence - between the subject and the predicate - are called predicative. Relations like those between adjectives and nouns in a sentence like (2) are called semi-predicative. The relations that the ordinary secondary members of the sentence enter into in the sentence are characterized by their significance as non-predicative.
Nikitin
Question 10 Phoneme and phoneme variants. By the allowance of Khabirov
We call various sounds in which the same phoneme is realized variants of one phoneme, allophones, variations or shades of a phoneme (according to L.V. Shcherba). The latter appear in the strong position of the phoneme, i.e. in a stressed position next to soft consonants, for example, a variation of the phoneme /a/ in a word five. Among the shades of one phoneme, there is one that is the most typical; it is pronounced in an isolated form, that is, in the most independent position (from neighboring sounds). Such a position is usually a shell of a single word and, moreover, under stress, for example, in words (from worst to best position): five, five, pa, ah. A one-phonemic word performs both a constitutive (building material) and a distinctive function. It is often impossible to find the shell of a single word like the one above. A. In this case, you need to find a position in the word in which the most phonemes would differ (cf. dol-dul-dal-del): here, under stress in the same phonetic environment, the phonemes /o/, /u/, /a/, /e/ are distinguished). Position is a condition for the implementation of a phoneme in speech, its position in a word in relation to stress, another phoneme, the structure of the word as a whole. Depending on whether the phoneme “retains” or “loses” its “face”, strong and weak positions are distinguished. A strong position is a position of distinguishing phonemes, i.e. the position at which the greatest number of units differs. The phoneme appears here in its basic form, which allows it to perform its functions in the best possible way. For Russian vowels, this is a stressed position (at the beginning of a word before a hard consonant, in the middle - between hard consonants and at the end after hard consonants, cf. arch, barka, hand). For deaf / voiced consonants - the position before all vowels (cf. [t] ohm - [d] ohm), before sonorants (cf. [n] lesk - [b] lesk) and in if it is followed by a vowel or sonorant ( compare [t] palace - [d] palace, o [t] gate - to [d] gate). For hard / soft consonants - the position of the end of the word (cf. bra [t] - bra [t "]), before all vowels, except for e (cf. [m] al - [m"] al, for front-lingual consonants - before back-lingual (cf. ba-[n] ka - ba [n "] ka, and labial (cf. and [h] ba - re [h "] ba), for dental - in front of hard teeth (cf. ko [ns] cue - ju [n "s] cue), and for phonemes /l - l "/ - before all consonants (cf. in / l / on - in / l "] on), etc.
Weak position is the position of non-distinguishing phonemes, i.e. a position in which fewer units are distinguished than in a strong position, since phonemes have limited opportunities to perform their distinctive function (cf. [cGma]: which phoneme is realized in the sound [G] - /o/ or /a/?) In this position, two or more phonemes coincide in one sound (either as a result of reduction or under the influence of neighboring sounds), i.e. their phonological opposition is neutralized.
Indeed, in certain cases, phonemes may lose any of the distinguishing features, in which case the opposition is neutralized (contextually determined destruction of the opposition), for example, meadow / bow / - bow / bow / or phonemes / з / and / s / differ in positions before the vowel in the words goats and braids, but are neutralized at the end of the word - ko [s], coinciding in one sound. Trubetskoy calls this phoneme, appearing in a weak position, having common features of two phonemes (r - k, s - s) in the position of neutralization archi phoneme.
Thus, in the opposition /г-к/, upon neutralization, an archiphoneme is obtained, the content of which is characterized by the signs of stop and back language, plus the sign of correlation - voicedness. A phoneme that has an additional feature that distinguishes it from another member of the opposition is called marked, for example, the phoneme /g/, in contrast to /k/, has an additional feature - voicedness.
Instead of the concept of an archphoneme, representatives of the IPF introduced the concept of a hyperphoneme that appears only in an isolated weak position (harness, dispute, us). Both members of the opposition under conditions of neutralization are considered as one hyperphoneme. This is a complex unit that combines two or more phonemes that are not opposed in a given position and the choice between which is not possible. For example, the first vowel in the word cup represents the hyperphoneme /o/a/ and it is impossible to determine /o/ this or /a/, since it is impossible to translate this vowel into a strong position (see also dog, pea). Since Trubetskoy believed that in phonology the main role belongs to meaningful oppositions, he classified the different types of oppositions of phonemes identified by him in the language system, highlighting one-dimensional and multidimensional, isolated and proportional oppositions, within which a number of subtypes of these oppositions are distinguished. In this regard, Trubetskoy's definition of a phoneme takes the following form: a phoneme is the shortest part of a phonological opposition. Oppositions can be classified by the number of members: they can be privative (presence-absence of DP): m / b and equipotent,
binary (binary) - b / n, etc. Ternary (ternary) oppositions b / d / g (bam / dam / gam) - labial / anterior lingual / posterior lingual are distinguished by the active organ. Oppositions can be proportional or isolated. An opposition is called proportional if the relationship between its members is proportional to the relationship between the members of another or other oppositions, that is, if this relationship is repeated in other oppositions. So, in Russian, the relation b / b ', i.e. palatalized: non-palatalized is repeated in pairs n / n ', in / in ', d / d ', etc .; the ratio of b / n is repeated in pairs d / t, s / c ...; the ratio b / d / g is repeated in triplets p / t / k, b '/ d' / g ', etc. Where there is no proportionality, the opposition is isolated. For example, in German, l / r, i.e. lateral / trembling (German Leise "quietly": Reise "trip"). But in Russian, l / r is not an isolated opposition, because there is l '/ r ' (salt / sorry). If phonemes in one opposition correlate with each other in the same way as other phonemes in another opposition, then both oppositions form a correlation. An example of a correlation in Russian can be a correlation in voiced-deafness: [n] ~ [b] = [t] ~ [d] = [s] ~ [h] = [f] ~ [v] =
[w] ~ [g] = [k] ~ [g], according to hardness-softness: [n] ~ [n ’] = [b] ~ [b ’] ... etc. Correlations give clearly manifested groupings of phonemes to bring phonemes into a system. Accordingly, based on the above correlations, subclasses of voiced and deaf phonemes, hard and soft phonemes are distinguished in the phonological system.
Despite the fact that the phoneme is the shortest unit of the language, it is a complex and voluminous entity, which is interpreted ambiguously in different linguistic schools, depending on which side or function of the phoneme is brought to the fore by linguists. Thus, within the framework of the Moscow phonological school, the phoneme is considered as a semantic component or part of the morpheme, and representatives of the St. Petersburg (Leningrad) phonological school - as an independent unit of the language that has a direct connection with the meaning. These initial differences in the construction of a phonological theory lead to significant fundamental differences both in the interpretation of the nature, properties and function of phonemes, and in the methods for isolating and inventorying these units of the language.
In American descriptive linguistics, the phoneme is considered as a class of allophones. The distinctive function of phonemes and the presence of significant features by which one phoneme is opposed to others is also noted by American linguists. Despite the different definition of the essence of the phoneme in the American and Prague schools of structuralism, they are united by the consideration of the phoneme as a functional unit, the content of which is a set of certain phonological features that distinguish this phoneme from other members of the opposition, and the main function of the phoneme is considered to be distinctive. Comparing the phonological systems of two languages for the purposes of determining typological similarity or difference, we can easily verify that in a number of cases they turn out to be different. This concerns the composition, quality and quantity of phonemes they contain. Let us consider in comparative terms the main features of the phonological systems of the English and Russian languages.
Zakirova
Ticket 11. Simple and compound forms of the word.
A) He gave her a book.
Coordination
Subordination
Coordination and subordination are typical mandatory links. In organizing a sentence, coordination forms the predicative center, while subordination allows the spread of the sentence.
b) He gave her a book and a newspaper.
Essay included
A coordinative connection is not necessary for the organization of a simple sentence. Optional connection.
C) He gave her a big book with a bright cover.
Detached minor member.
semi-predicative relationship. A connection on the basis of which a sentence is complicated by a separate minor member. semi-predicative relationship.
BUT: He gave her a large book with a bright cover.
There are no complications.
D) It turns out that he gave her a book!
introductory word
Inclusion of a complicating component without a syntactic link.
E) my friend, he has already given her a book!
Appeal
Syntactic links are not established at the formal level
COMPLICATION - this is the inclusion in the sentence of elements based on syntactic links that are not typical for PP (composition, semi-predicative link) or without a formally expressed syntactic link.
Three types of complications:
- based on the coordinative connection (complication of P by homogeneous members)
- based on a predicative connection (complication by isolated secondary connections)
- complication without syntactic connection (introductory and plug-in constructions, different in volume, and appeals)
2. The nature of the connection of complicating elements with the structure of P.
Two groups:
Structures whose complicating elements are members of P (homogeneity, isolation)
Structures whose complicating elements do not enter into a formalized ... (introductory, plug-in constructions, appeals)
Pr .: Limping - he was on crutches - the colonel went to the window.
P with plug-in design
With predicativity, parts of a complex P necessarily enter into syntactic relations.
3. Other characteristics of complications.
1. The complication is not related to the P paradigm, since it does not affect either the structural basis of the P or its grammatical meaning. The complication has nothing to do with the structural scheme of P.
2. Some researchers tend to associate the complication with the introduction of elements into P with the meaning of additional predication. Additional predication is clearly observed when P is complicated by isolated secondary members of the sentence. Other complicating factors may not matter as an additional predication.
Uniformity. Homogeneous predicates are really capable of introducing additional predication into P. For other homogeneous members, there is no element of additional predication. The invocation does not introduce an additional predication.
Ex: As scientists say, the earth will fly into the celestial axis. Unfortunately, the problem could not be solved. (complicated modality)
The introduction of an element of additional predication is not a mandatory requirement of the complication. It may accompany complications.
4. How does the complication affect the informative (meaningful) volume of P.
I bought a book and a notebook.
I bought a book.
Ex: Winter, cold and long, is detrimental to birds. Cold and long winters are detrimental to birds.
The increase in the content of P.
Edit: Unfortunately, the problem could not be solved.
Expansion of the meaningful volume of P with the help of a modal element.
Ex: The noise in the classroom interferes with work. After the storm ends, the sun shines brighter.
Formal and semantic complication do not necessarily imply each other.
COMPLICATION - this is the introduction of some elements into the structure of a simple P on the basis of a syntactic connection that is generally not characteristic of PP (composition, semi-predicativeness), or outside a formally expressed syntactic connection. In a number of cases, the complicated elements of P introduce into it the value of an additional predication. They may or may not be members of the P and not included in the structural scheme of the P, and do not affect its paradigm.
COMPLICATION OF THE PROPOSITION BY HOMOGENEOUS MEMBERS
- The concept of syntactic homogeneity and homogeneous members of P.
Valgina: Members of P are homogeneous, connected by compositional relations and occupying the same syntactic position in P.
Lekant: Members of P are called homogeneous, performing the same syntactic function to the same subordinate or subordinate member of P or to the base of P as a whole.
In addition to coordinating relations, homogeneous members are necessarily characterized by joint reference to the same member of P.
When we talk about the joint assignment of homogeneous members to one control component, secondary members are included in the circle of homogeneity.
On the other hand, the joint assignment of homogeneous members to one dependent component includes the main members of P.
The joint attribution of homogeneous members to the basis of P as a whole allows us to speak about the homogeneity of the determinants. Rare phenomenon (homogeneity of determinants).
[Determinants - the distribution of PP can be twofold: a) verbal (when the minor member refers to one of the elements of the grammatical basis or another minor member) (Ex: We like to gather at the samovar. I bought a new disk.); b) primary (when the secondary member in meaning does not depend on one of the other members of the P, but on the grammatical basis as a whole (semantic relations)) (Ex: In the evenings we like to gather at the samovar.). Received the name of determinants. Two types: circumstantial and object-subject (determinants). The determinant gravitates towards the absolute initial position.]
- Composing relations (they can have both verbalized and non-verbalized forms (composing union; not formally expressed: union-free relations)).
- Unity of syntactic position.
- Homogeneity extends to any members of P.
- homogeneity properties.
- Unity of syntactic position
Ex: big brick wall
Speaking of the unity of the syntactic function, we must imply (in the case of homogeneity) the presence of a coordinating connection, but in this case, the coordinating relations between the members of P do not necessarily lead to the complete identity of their syntactic position.
Pr.: When and by whom was the Hermitage built? How could such an old woman be here at such a late hour and all alone? (The presence of a formal coordinating connection comes to the fore). In winter, in the evenings, we gathered with friends.
The unity of the syntactic function and the coordinating relations, in the case of homogeneity, must provide for each other. By themselves, they do not necessarily form homogeneity.
- Morphological expression of homogeneous members
The syntactic members of P, expressed by different parts of speech, do not have a ban on inclusion in a homogeneous series.
PR: He dresses well and tastefully. A man of about 35 enters me, swarthy, black-haired, with a mustache and a beard (“Dubrovsky”).
Morphological identity is not a prerequisite for homogeneity.
- Logical-semantic correlation of homogeneous members
Incorrectness.
Homogeneity should be realized not only in the formal structure of the P (here it is expressed through the unity of the syntactic function and the coordinative connection), but also at the semantic level: the components combined into a series of homogeneous syntactic members should be logically correlated. Semantic-syntactic phenomenon.
Ex: A small square in the center is occupied by pensioners, children and in autumn. She had magnificent bags and red hair. (Stylistic device).
Syntactic homogeneity is a complex phenomenon. Firstly, this phenomenon is realized both in the formal and in the content structure of the P. Secondly, for its implementation, homogeneity requires the simultaneous observance of a number of requirements: the unity of the syntactic function, the logical-semantic comparability of the combined components.
3. The concept of open and closed coordinative communication.
Suggested by Beloshapkova.
Distinguishing these two types of coordinative relations is important for characterizing homogeneity, and for the typology of the SSP.
An open connection is such a compositional connection that combines an unlimited number of components into one series. At the same time, one of the requirements of an open structure is the identity of the semantic relations between the combined components.
A closed connection is a coordinative connection that formally combines only two components.
Ex .: Buy milk, herring, pickles, chips in the store ... Buy not milk in the store, but herring.
The first construction is formally open, the second is formally closed (the composition (not, but) according to the principle of opposition).
Open and closed compositions are determined by the syntactic construction.
With a closed composition, the number of combined components (2) is limited by the syntactic structure itself, while with an open structure, the number of components is determined by extralinguistic factors.
- Question about P with several predicates.
Beloshapkova says that it is not entirely correct to consider such Ps as monopredicative. It is more adequate to refer to P complex. The predicate is the constructive and semantic center of P. It is the predicate that determines the predicativity of P, and it is the predicate that organizes the semantics of P as a whole (the structure of the fact or situation to which P refers). The question of the predicativity of P is the question of its predicate.
If there is more than one predicate in P, such P can no longer be called monopredicative, it goes into the category of polypredicative (considered as a complex P).
P of the type “He is kind and sympathetic” - only in such constructions, where not the predicates themselves, but only the nominal parts enter into homogeneous relations, one can speak of a simple P.
Pr .: I'm still studying, and then I would like to become a doctor. (Differences in the modal plane and the point of syntactic tense. There are grounds to speak of polypredicativity.)
Valgina tries to talk about transitional phenomena that gravitate towards either monopredicative or polypredicative structures. The structure of the event described in P.
If P describes two independent actions, P tends to be complex. If a single undifferentiated action is described, then such a P tends to be simple.
Pr .: One night, the Neva sighed menacingly and slammed. - Shevchenko fell face down on a straw mattress and sobbed. 1 - simple, 2 - complex.
It is rather difficult to draw a boundary between such Ps.
The criteria for classifying either simple or complex are quite mobile. To the greatest extent they are mobile in P with simple nominal predicates.
In some cases, such Ps contain formal indicators of mono- or polypredicativity.
A) P with the presence of two determinants in 2 different positions.
Pr .: In the mornings we swam in the pond, and in the evening we sat on the veranda by the samovar.
The determinant is the primary distributor.
The presence of two determinants - the presence of two predicative bases - polypredicativity.
B) Predicates differ in terms of modality and syntactic tense (polypredicate).
C) Various kinds of lexical concretizers of time or sequence of actions in the second part (polypredicate).
Pr .: Right now I'm watching TV, and tomorrow ...
monopredicativity
A) The homogeneity of not predicates as a whole, but parts of the predicate. Not only parts of the compound nominal, but also the verbal predicate.
Ex: The child was weak and unwell.
Predicativity provides a link - here it is one - monopredicativity.
- The question of authorial homogeneity.
Pr .: The mother-in-law was presented with a large, leather chair. Large combi oven.
The author's homogeneity is based on the idea of the semantic similarity of homogeneous members. Intentional syntactic convergence of heterogeneous elements can give rise to the effect of semantic convergence. Translation of semantic features.
Etc.: The park is hushed up by pensioners, children and in the fall.
COMPLICATION WITH SEPARATE SECONDARY TERMS
semi-predicative relationship.
In a number of cases, the structure of the P can be complicated by elements that, without having their own full-fledged predicativity, can be expanded into a predicative unit.
PR: Her clear, concise answers cleared things up right away. – Her answers, clear and precise, immediately cleared up the situation.
1 - the definition introduces a characteristic by feature. 2 - the definition is formal; acquires an additional, not peculiar to it earlier, adverbial meaning. Autonomization of definition (Her answers, which were clear and precise…). (Her answers immediately clarified the situation, because they were clear and precise.) - adverbial adverbial clause with the meaning of the reason. Syntax function change.
The semi-predicative connection does not simply introduce this or that member of P.
[A semi-predicative relationship is a kind of subordination that can be transformed into a predicative relationship. No subordinating relationship can give rise to predicativity.]
It makes this minor member more autonomous, more independent both in meaning and in syntactic function. A minor term that is introduced into the structure of P on the basis of a semi-predicative connection often has the ability to transform into a predicative unit.
Pr .: A boy was riding a bike, dangling his legs. - Isolation of the second predicate from the participle or participle turnover. Semipredicativity is provided by one more predicate. (A boy rode a bike and dangled his legs.)
1.5 - 2 (conditional scheme)
Why are only definitions and circumstances subject to isolation? Why not add-ons?
A definition is a description of something. Circumstance - a characteristic of the action on the basis. The complement is responsible for the indirect expression of subjectivity and objectivity.
The definition and the circumstance are correlated with the predicates (element of indicativeness), the object - with the subject.
Semi-predicative relations can be inherent in the definition and circumstance to the same extent as predicative relations in the predicate. And they are not peculiar to the addition, like predicativity to the subject.
A case is possible when a separate minor member is expressed by a substantive (a separate application).
Pr.: My friend, a lawyer, told me… - My friend is a lawyer.
Isolation is the allocation of a secondary member (definition or circumstance) to an independent syntactic position on the basis of: a) a semi-predicative connection and b) the acquisition by this secondary member of an increased semantic load and the expansion of its syntactic function.
SEMI-PREDICATIVE CONNECTION AND RELATION OF ADDITIONAL PREDICATIVE
Additional predication is of two types: a) on the one hand, it is the so-called direct additional predication, which is expressed in P by the corresponding word form, which allows the deployment of another predication; b) indirect additional predication is found in P through not a specialized word form, but through other phenomena (temporal determinant, function word, etc.).
Ex: Despite the measures taken, the water did not decrease. (indirect additional prev.) I will return home, and soon.
In the case of a direct complementary predication, as a rule, isolation is introduced precisely with the help of a semi-predicative connection. With indirect additional predication, the semi-predicative connection may be absent in P.
Isolation is mainly based on a semi-predicative connection, but in some cases it can exist without it.
Within direct complementary predication, two varieties can be distinguished. Firstly, this phenomenon of semi-predicativity as such is a syntactic relationship between a separate name and a defined substantive member P (name - name). Pr .: The girl, who looked like a maid, was standing in the shop, with her back to the threshold. Her husband, a respectable architect, came to the dacha once a week. In such situations, we see the possibility of expanding the predicate from the application (Her husband is a solid architect.). thus, with semi-predicativity, the isolated member P can be elevated, as a rule, to the nominal part of the compound nominal predicate. The same is true for the isolation of the definition expressed by the adjective. Ex: Her answers, clear and precise, immediately clarified the situation (Her clear and precise answers immediately clarified the situation.).
Proc.: The mother, tired with excitement, was sternly silent. Tired of excitement, the mother was sternly silent (semi-predicate relationship). (Mother was tired of excitement. - in the first case, this phrase cannot be translated, in the second - perhaps because of the semi-predicative relationship.)
The last example shows that semi-predicativity is often, but not necessarily, due to the position of the separable minor term.
Typical is the separation of agreed and inconsistent definitions in the position after the word being defined. However, isolation of the prepositive definition is also possible in the case when we attribute to it an increased semantic load and consider it as a semi-predicative element.
The second type of direct complementary predicativity is verbal complementary predicativity. Introduced by the verb form: gerund or infinitive. It is in this case that the additional predication is most obvious, since here it is morphologically conditioned. The isolated minor member, expressed by the verbal word form, is grammatically predisposed to provide additional predicativity.
Pr .: An old man was riding on a donkey, dangling his legs. The men went out into the corridor to exercise and smoke. (An old man rode on a donkey and dangled his legs. The men went out into the corridor to stretch themselves and smoke.)
In semi-predicativity, relations of additional predication arise in a grammatical form, which in itself does not have predicative possibilities.
In the second case, the additional predication relations are predetermined morphologically (grammatically).
Indirect predication:
- Rolled up. It is present in substantive phrases that allow expansion into a subjective-predicative construction. Provides the preposition "despite".
The isolation of constructions “despite” is subject to the general principle of isolation. “Despite” is a separate circumstance with the meaning of a concession. The circumstance is expressed by the nominative.
PR: Contrary to forecasts, winter does not end. (there were predictions)
- Reflected predictability. A rare event. It is observed in some constructions with a union, in which the second part does not have its own predicate, but, as it were, duplicates or reflects the predicate of the first part in meaning.
Separation of comparative turnover is subject to the general principles of separation. Comparative turnover has the very reflective predicativity.
The second P correlates with the complex one (the presence of a subordinating conjunction "if ... then"), however, its second part does not have predicativity, but reflected predicativity.
The first P. is the phenomenon of isolation.
In the first and second cases, it is somewhat difficult to determine the syntactic function of the isolated member.
Additional predicativity relations are quite a wide syntactic phenomenon. On the one hand, as in the case of direct additional predication, it is associated with a semi-predicative connection, on the other hand, there are cases when additional predication is provided by other means (prepositions, conjunctions). Finally, such a view of the phenomenon of additional predication makes it possible to clarify the syntactic status of a number of constructions, such as connecting constructions or turns with “despite” and “contrary”. There are reasons to define these constructions as varieties of isolation.
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