Problems and difficulties in the organization of international cultural cooperation. Exchange of cultural values: essence and mechanisms Paleeva, Oksana Leonidovna What is cultural exchange

International cultural ties can be classified not only in terms of exchange participants, but also in terms of directions and forms of interaction. Turning to this issue, one can find examples of multilateral and bilateral cooperation at the state and non-state levels.

The forms of cultural exchange themselves are an interesting phenomenon of cultural and political life and deserve special attention.

In all the diversity of cultural exchange today, there are several areas and forms of cultural interaction that most clearly and fully reflect the features of modern international relations and the specifics of cultural development at the present stage.

The main areas of cultural exchange include: international musical relations, international relations in the field of theater and cinema, international sports relations, international scientific and educational relations, relations in the field of international tourism, commercial and industrial contacts. It is these areas that have received the greatest development in modern conditions. In this paper, we consider international relations in the field of education.

The main forms of international cultural exchange at the present stage include festivals, competitions, tours, competitions, sports congresses, scientific and educational conferences, research and educational exchange programs, the practice of scholarships and grants, the activities of foundations and scientific organizations, exhibitions, fairs, as well as joint cultural projects.

All these forms took shape quite a long time ago, but only in the conditions of integration and internationalization did they receive the most complete and consistent development.

Of course, the specifics of each area of cultural interaction will not always allow us to fully adhere to this scheme, therefore, in addition to common positions, when presenting each problem, we will first of all pay attention to its specifics.

Cultural exchange in the system of international relations, analysis of its main forms is a necessary knowledge not only for specialists, but also for a wide audience, which, on the basis of concrete material, will be able to present in all its diversity a real picture of modern cultural life.

2. International relations in the field of education

The theory of international relations in the field of education

Education is a process of spiritual and intellectual formation of a person 51 .

Higher education is the level of education obtained on the basis of secondary education in institutions such as universities, institutes, academies, colleges and which is certified by official documents (diploma, certificate, certificate) 52 .

The concept of education in the modern sense of the word was introduced into scientific circulation by two prominent public figures of modern times - the great German poet J.-W. Goethe and the Swiss teacher J.-G. Pestalozzi 53 . Education is secular and confessional; general and professional; primary, secondary and higher. All these characteristics extend to the concept of higher education. Let us dwell on the problems of international exchange in the field of higher education, since the processes of integration and interaction are most active here. In addition, educational contacts through higher education have the broadest regulatory framework, are developing most dynamically at the present stage, and are of practical importance for students of higher education.

Recently, international relations have been actively flowing in the field of higher, in particular, university education. For a long time, higher education was the property of the internal policy of the state, a purely national institution, with specific national or regional traditions, and only since the 20th century can we talk about active integration processes and the internationalization of education, about the creation of a single educational space.

Today, the following trends can be noted in the field of higher education, international educational relations: 54

Education integration. Integration processes are associated with an increase in the value of education and the political realities of the modern world. The result of the trend towards integration in the field of education was the signing of the Bologna Declaration on April 17, 2001 by 29 European countries. The meaning of this declaration boils down to the fact that Europe is seen as a single educational space that provides equal educational opportunities for citizens without distinction of national, linguistic, religious differences.

Humanitarianization of education. The goal of the process of humanitarization of education is to prepare not only a good professional specialist, but also a comprehensively educated person, cultured and erudite, able to take an active life position. The challenges and threats of the modern world put forward special requirements for the problem of the humanization of education. Today, it is obvious that without an understanding of the universal principles of coexistence, strong good neighborly relations cannot be built and the further development of human civilization is impossible. In addition, the humanization of education makes it possible to diversify curricula and make the learning process more exciting and interesting.

Links between education and industry and business. Today, representatives of large firms and corporations teach at universities and accept students for practice. In addition, with the participation of big capital, practical developments and research are carried out by teams of scientists and students, financial assistance is provided to students in the form of grants, scholarships, and contracts are also concluded to pay for the education of students who will later become employees of this company. The processes of merging education with industry at the present stage are a global trend.

Development of the commercial sector of higher education. Today we can safely say that not only individual universities, but also entire states are actively practicing the provision of international educational services on a commercial basis, which is a significant addition to the national budget. The United States, Great Britain, and Holland exploit their educational opportunities most actively.

The egalitarian nature of higher education, that is, providing access to it for everyone, regardless of social origin, national, religious and other differences.

Activation of academic mobility, that is, the exchange of students, interns, graduate students and teachers from all countries. The processes of academic exchange were also characteristic of an earlier period in the development of the education system. At the moment, they are proceeding, in addition, under the influence of scientific and technological progress, integration processes in Europe and around the world.

Thus, the following definition of international education can be proposed:

International education is one of the most common forms of education, when education is received in whole or in part abroad 55 .

At the present stage, international student exchange takes place at the state, non-state and individual levels, that is, it is carried out at the level of interstate agreements, relations at the level of public and other organizations, individual universities, as well as on an individual basis. However, the most common form of academic exchanges is participation in various programs, scholarships and grants.

Academic mobility programs can be classified as follows: they can be designed for an international circle of participants and serve as an example of a multilateral cultural exchange, they can be regional, as well as carried out on a bilateral basis.

An example of a student exchange program implemented on a multilateral basis is the TRACE program, created with the assistance of the International Association of Universities for the development of transnational academic mobility. Participants of this program are provided with diplomas that do not require confirmation in the countries participating in the program.

To date, there are a number of international organizations operating in the field of education, these primarily include: 56

UNESCO (Education Sector of the UNESCO Secretariat - Paris);

European Center for Higher Education (SEPES);

International Bureau of Education (headquarters in Geneva);

International Association of Universities;

UN University;

International Association of Francophone Universities;

Permanent conference of rectors, presidents, vice-presidents of European universities;

International Association of University Professors and Teachers;

Association of European University Teachers;

EU Cultural Development Council;

International Center for Research and Innovation in Education;

World Institute for Environmental Development Research (Helsinki).

Annotation. International relations can be defined as interactions between cultures, enclosed in a political shell. Consequently, cultural exchange and politics are inextricably linked. Cultural exchange, one way or another, either has political goals, or consequences, or both. Political goals are carried out by cultural exchange, often carried out by the state purposefully, that is, as a “soft power”. Non-targeted cultural exchange is also reflected in politics. Subconscious adherence to a particular culture affects the formation of economic blocs, and therefore international status due to economic power and prosperity. Today, the world community deliberately uses cultural exchange as a tool to maintain peace in the international arena based on mutual understanding, observance of human rights and freedoms and stability through the development of a dialogue of cultures, which has become especially relevant in the era of globalization, providing colossal access to all kinds of information sources.

Keywords: cultural exchange, globalization, integration, soft power, cultural policy, self-identification.

Abstract. International relations can be defined as interaction between cultures placed in a political shell. Thus, the cultural exchange and the policy are linked inseparably. Anyway the cultural exchange has political purposes or effects, or both of them. The cultural exchange often has political purposes if it is targeted by the state that is, as a “soft power”. Not targeted cultural exchange also affects the policy of the state. A subconscious commitment to any definite culture has an influence on the formation of economic blocks, and that is why it also effects on international statues improvement at the expense of economic power and welfare. Today the world community exploits the cultural exchange knowingly as a tool of maintenance the peace based on the mutual understanding, respect for human rights and freedoms and stability by development of the dialogue of cultures that has become especially actual in the era of globalization providing access to various sources of information.

keywords: cultural exchange, globalization, integration, soft power, cultural policy, self-identification.

Introduction.

The subject of this study is the political factor in cultural exchange, that is, the manifestation of the cultural direction of the foreign policy of states in connection with the processes of globalization and integration in the modern world. Cultural exchange between countries has existed since values, knowledge and skills were formed. Since antiquity, developed culture, construction technologies, art have been an indicator of the power and prosperity of the state. No wonder that one of the most important reasons for the superiority of the state, prominent American political scientists Z. Brzezinski and S. Huntington consider culture, a system of values and traditions that can unite peoples, create an image of the country, and spread its influence . Now, in the 20th century, a multipolar system of international relations is being formed, civilizational features are clearly manifested, the level of self-identification of the people is increasing, and at the same time, the process of globalization is gaining momentum, borders are being erased in the international arena, the integration of cultures is inevitable. According to S. Huntington, one of the responses to globalization processes was indigenization, a return to one's own national traditions, and cultural isolation. This phenomenon can be explained by the desire of states to preserve their integrity, borders in the era of “softening” of national sovereignty, which is extremely difficult, but it is culture that can cope with this task. Therefore, for states as actors in world politics, the problem of political influence on international cultural exchange is becoming especially relevant today. The direction of cultural exchange, its development or termination today depends on the foreign policy of the state.

Literature review.

A lot of scientific works are devoted to the problem of cultural policy, which once again confirms its relevance and significance. The American political scientist Joseph Nye introduced the concept of "soft power", which means pressure without the use of force, but with the help of tools such as culture. The idea of the cultural capital of countries, its advantages has become widespread within the framework of the civilizational approach of the American political scientist S. Huntington. The American political scientist Z. Brzezinski called culture one of the reasons for American superiority.

Review of documentary sources.

Various sources of information were used for this study. Particular attention is paid to international documents, regulations, programs. A lot of factual material was used, based on Internet sources: official websites of international events, news information portals.

Setting goals and objectives.

The purpose of the study is to identify the degree of influence of the political factor on international cultural exchange. To achieve this goal, the following tasks were set:

Describe the importance of culture for international relations

Determine the goals of the participation of states in the world cultural process

Determine the impact of international politics on the use of "soft power".

Classify the forms of cultural exchange

Give a general description of the work of the main international intergovernmental organizations in the field of cultural exchange and institutions whose cultural activities are encouraged by states.

Determine the purpose of creating an image by the state through culture.

Determine the trends of cultural integration in the modern world.

Make forecasts and assumptions about the further development of cultural exchange and the political factor in it based on current trends

Description of the study.

To determine the role of culture in international politics, the study examines various points of view on the formation of a multipolar world system and further interaction between civilizations. The civilizational paradigm, first formulated by the Russian scientist N.Ya. Danilevsky. Today, the civilizational paradigm suggests that in the 20th century, centers will appear on the international arena that have developed around certain "sacred values" of spiritual systems, determined by belonging to the main world civilizations.

The theory of "clash of civilizations" by S. Huntington is widely used within the framework of the civilizational paradigm. The American political scientist is convinced that faith, beliefs, traditions are what people identify with, this is what causes irreconcilable contradictions that exclude the possibility of compromise. At the same time, S. Huntington's opponents argue that economic ties are becoming increasingly important in the modern world. This is explained by such unions as NAFTA (a free trade area that includes Canada, the United States and Mexico, representatives of Western and Latin American civilizations) or the East Asian economic bloc, which links such countries as Japan, China, Taiwan, Singapore - representatives of Chinese, Japanese and Hindu civilizations. Many researchers argue that modern international relations are focused on cooperation and integration. Professor of St. Petersburg State University, statesman and politician V.S. Yagya.

Each civilization has a developed cultural heritage. The immutable foundations of the people's self-identification are their faith and language. The modern system of international relations is characterized by a “religious renaissance”, the revival of religions, their manifestation with renewed vigor, often conflicts flare up on the basis of the religious factor. Language also becomes the starting point, the basis for mutual understanding in building international relations. Doctor of Historical Sciences, statesman and politician V.S. Yagya and Associate Professor of the Department of World Politics of St. Petersburg State University I.V. Chernov believe that international relations are determined by the nature of interlingual relations, the institutionalized process of unification of countries and peoples who speak the same language, using it in building a single language policy. As an example, consider the activities of the international organization La Francophonie.

From all of the above, the role of culture in international relations becomes obvious. It performs such functions in international politics as establishing cooperation between countries, establishing close contacts, creating the image of a state in the international arena and spreading its influence to other states without the use of force. In the 20th century, cultural exchange, in addition to film festivals, sports, scientific organizations, is moving into a new dimension. Thanks to the Internet and television, it is becoming global and public. There are more and more ways to join the national culture of another people, which contributes to the establishment of mutual understanding between peoples, the development of globalization processes and is a step towards creating a single world community.

In the age of globalization, problems of demographic growth, ecology, energy resources, economic crises, nuclear proliferation, terrorism and cybercrime, the desire of states to ensure their own security, preserve national sovereignty and realize their national interests is no longer based on military force, cultural diplomacy is coming to the fore . The catastrophic consequences of a possible nuclear war are forcing the leaders of states to pay attention to cultural exchange, and to seek the realization of their national interests through cooperation and integration. It is culture that forms a favorable image of the country, causing a friendly attitude among other peoples, promotes mutual understanding and the establishment of cooperation.

Next, the influence of international politics on the way of applying "soft power" is considered. "Soft power" is the ability of the state to achieve the desired results on the world stage by non-military means using such factors as spiritual and material culture, social and political principles, the quality of the external and internal politicians. According to J. Nye, "soft power" has three components: culture, political ideology, foreign policy.

The ways of using "soft power" depend on the foreign policy goals of the state, which mainly consist in finding opportunities to expand its influence in the international arena, securing new allies, new trade relations and a favorable environment. For all states, the main tool of "soft power" is external cultural exchanges, carried out by holding festivals of national culture, exhibitions, mutual exchanges of cultural and artistic delegations in other countries, joint training of students, creation of cultural centers abroad and the dissemination of the national language. For example, in the US, "soft power" is especially pronounced in the field of education. The European strategy is the implementation of the "soft power" policy aimed at containing the US superpower through international organizations. China is widely known to the world as the "global factory" . In addition to its international image, one of the most important tools of China's "soft power" is cultural exchanges, which are represented by two areas: educational and cultural. At the same time, the PRC pursues a protectionist policy, protecting its national values and traditions from the influence of the West. The cultural foreign policy of Russia is aimed at returning to the country the status of a regional leader, lost with the collapse of the USSR and as a result of an ill-conceived policy of "carrot and stick" towards the CIS countries in subsequent decades.

The study examined the manifestations of cultural exchange in such areas as music, cinema, theater, education, science, sports and tourism. The variety of forms of cultural exchange makes it possible to realize both the political interests of the state and the private needs of individual actors in various areas. Forms of cultural exchange make connections at various levels of international relations: from narrow private contacts between individuals to global partnership agreements covering entire states. However, even with such a system of connections, competition is inevitable in the international arena, which manifests itself in competitions, contests, and festivals. This competition has a positive effect, it promotes improvement, renewal, development. It eliminates confrontation and promotes openness to cooperation, improving the conditions for partnership.

Since today the establishment of cultural ties affects the interests of almost all states of the world, governmental and non-governmental organizations appear on the international arena, designed to coordinate and facilitate the construction of international cooperation. States come to cooperation mainly because of the general directions in foreign cultural policy, which are the preservation of national culture and language in the context of integration, the protection of cultural values, opposition to second-rate samples of mass culture, the development of cultural ties and the search for effective forms of interaction. Examples of international organizations include the UN, UNESCO, the EU, the International Organization of La Francophonie, the International Olympic Committee, the World Health Organization, the World Tourism Organization and others. External coordination of cultural exchange also includes the opening of cultural centers representing the national culture of one's country abroad. These are institutions that combine many types of activities: the implementation of various cultural projects, language teaching, preparation of lectures and seminars, organization of dance courses and national arts, holding meetings with representatives of national culture, providing visitors with an extensive library base, etc. This form of organization of cultural exchange provides an opportunity to get acquainted with the culture of interest individually in all possible ways and bears fruit. The organization of cultural exchange is also influenced by factors such as the stability of the political situation (cultural exchange is now broken in Ukraine), a well-functioning economy that can finance cultural exchange, geographical location (for example, Oceania is too far from the continents to build strong cultural ties).

Professor at Moscow State University Lomonosova I.A. Vasilenko noted that thanks to the development of the information society, political power today has moved into the virtual space - into the world of images, images and symbols. Today, one of the priorities of the foreign policy of states is the creation of an objective image of power, the definition of the concept of national branding, designed to promote a positive image of the country through international communication channels. According to J. Nye, the resources of “flexible power”, that is, culture, political values and foreign policy , which has moral authority, form the image policy of the country. The image of the state is built at the expense of the “high” culture of countries, that is, art, literature, education, scientific achievements, classical music and pop culture aimed at mass entertainment. I. A. Vasilenko defines the “image of the state” as a stereotyped image of the country that exists in the mass consciousness due to both its spontaneous and purposeful formation by the elite and political technologists in order to exert a political and emotional-psychological impact on public opinion within the country and abroad. It should also be added that the main goal of the image of the state is to legitimize the foreign policy of the state both in the eyes of its citizens and in the eyes of the entire world community. The image is created through public diplomacy, an activity aimed at complementing the government's views on cultural policy with a variety of private opinions.

The study reveals that in order to build an image, it is necessary to compare, search for an antipode, and, consequently, propaganda spread through the media and other means of communication. The strength of the image created by the state is determined not so much by foreign opinion, which is far from always true and can be falsified, but by the faith of the people of the country in this image, faith in their own uniqueness, originality, faith in their national culture. In today's globalizing world, it is important not only to preserve one's identity, but also to gain new knowledge by establishing a dialogue between cultures, which can become a peaceful solution to many international contradictions.

Integration is a phenomenon accompanying globalization. Integration of cultures means their mixing, merging. The study raises the question: is it possible for cultures to enrich each other while maintaining their cultural identity? The answer depends on the strategy chosen for the integration. Peaceful coexistence of cultures is possible when building a dialogue between them, which is achieved in the conditions of building and observing the democratic norms of the modern global process of integration, mutual respect and pluralism of values, freedom of self-determination, autonomy and sovereignty of both each person and the state (ethnos, etc.) . In the modern world, integration processes are primarily motivated by economic goals and, consequently, by geographical proximity, which greatly simplifies the establishment of trade relations. At the same time, the cultural community of peoples can also be taken into account. For example, today the Asia-Pacific region is a region of intensively developing economies. The United States is geographically close to this region, but cannot establish equal contact with Asian countries because they do not trust Western culture. In terms of culture, Asian countries jealously guard their traditions. Often the answer to globalization is glocalization - the synthesis of the modernization of local cultures with the achievements of the emerging global multicultural civilization, which occurs with the mutual enrichment of cultures. Thus , integration is a way to create the most powerful competitive economic and political bloc, to strengthen the position of one's country. In such an association, a leader is necessarily distinguished (using the example of Asian countries, this is China, the chief researcher of the Institute for the USA and Canada of the Russian Academy of Sciences A. N. Panov calls it “a vacuum cleaner sucking up the exports of Asian countries”), a more economically strong state with great opportunities that supports the development of other members, spreading and strengthening its influence. Culture depends on the economic and political strength of the state, and if one state has much more potential than another, it suppresses its opponent both economically and culturally, which is a consequence of integration.

The study reveals that the future of cultural exchange is inextricably linked with the trends that emerged in the 20th century, that is, with the increasing importance of "soft power", the process of globalization and computerization. In this regard, the cultural policy of states is directed towards the assimilation of migrants in the national culture. Another trend of our time, which is likely to continue in the future, is an increase in the role of cosmopolitanism in the foreign policy of states, that is, reliance on international law in the implementation of international relations. Under the guise of good intentions to track the implementation of human rights, a group of cosmopolitan states gets the opportunity to freely influence the implementation of the domestic policy of other countries. Beck U. identifies two types of cosmopolitanism. For example, in the United States it is false and contains a hidden “national mission”, while in the European Union it is true, aimed precisely at establishing international relations on a legal basis.

Conclusion.

As a result of the study, the following conclusions can be drawn:

International relations are interactions between cultures, since each country has a cultural component that determines the identity of the people, its history and uniqueness.

Culture is the values, achievements, psychology of a particular society that distinguishes it from the rest. It manifests itself at the subconscious level (natural identity, civilization, religion, language), contributing to the emergence of conflicts and contradictions, and at the level of national achievements (in art, sports, science), establishing partnerships and mutual understanding, expressed in cultural exchange. In today's economically oriented, globalizing world, culture does not lose its significance, but determines the most likely directions for the consolidation or breakup of states, variations in international relations.

Cultural exchange is a continuous process, proceeding both unconsciously and chaotically, and purposefully, with the help of various strategies, consisting in the exchange of values, beliefs, languages, experience, skills, achievements between peoples.

The following goals of the participation of states in the international cultural process can be singled out. Firstly, it is the realization of the national interests of the state (ensuring the security and preservation of national sovereignty). Secondly, the solution of global problems (demographic growth, poverty in developing countries, environmental degradation, limited energy resources). Thirdly, strengthening the institutions of civil society, spreading the concept of human rights and freedoms. All these goals can be achieved without resorting to the methods of cultural diplomacy, but culture is a more profitable and effective tool for establishing cooperation than "hard power".

The power of the country determines the degree of its attractiveness. Consequently, the stronger the state, the more successful its use of "soft power", that is, the achievement of the desired results by non-military means through the use of culture (values significant for society), political ideology and diplomacy. However, even when using "soft power" in order to avoid conflicts, it is necessary to take into account the opinion of the world community.

Cultural exchange is diverse. It has many forms and is common in the fields of cinema, music, theater, education, science, sports and tourism. The forms of cultural exchange depend on the area in which it takes place. So in music, these are international music competitions, festivals, touring exchanges, repertoire exchanges, and creative actions. Festivals are especially popular in the film industry. In theatrical art - festivals, master classes, tours. Such forms of cultural exchange are often colorful, emotional, and have an impact on the general public. Forms of academic exchange are programs, scholarships and grants that stimulate international cooperation and improve the quality of education. Among the forms of international scientific exchange that stimulate the development of mankind, one can single out interlibrary exchange, scientific trips, scientific programs, conferences, exhibitions, seminars, and awards. The most striking and large-scale forms of sports exchange are the Olympic Games, world and regional championships, cup competitions, friendly sports meetings, which not only unite the peoples of the whole world, but also contribute to the development of transport communications in their venues. Congresses, fairs, exhibitions, conferences are forms of tourist exchange, tourists replenish the capital of the country and popularize its culture.

The UN and UNESCO are the most influential international organizations that see as their goal the strengthening of international peace by expanding cooperation between peoples in the field of education, science and culture. Today, UNESCO promotes the involvement of culture and intercultural dialogue in policy development in order to foster a culture of peace without cruelty.

In the XXΙ century, where, due to the development of information technology, the importance of symbols and images is great. The image of the country, stereotypes about it form the basis for its perception by the world community, therefore, the formation of the image of the country in the eyes of the world community is an integral part of the cultural policy of the state. Its main goal is to legitimize the state's foreign policy both in the eyes of its citizens and in the eyes of the entire world community. The basis and success of the image policy is the belief of the people in their national cultural uniqueness.

Cultural integration is a concomitant factor of economic integration, which is a ubiquitous phenomenon in the modern world.

The actions of the UN are aimed at developing intercultural dialogue in order to respect human rights and maintain international security in a globalizing world. At the same time, international politics is taking on a cosmopolitan focus, turning human rights into a powerful resource that promotes the spread of influence, that is, into a tool that allows states to realize their national interests.

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8. Does the globalization of the economy create value for the new civilization? Speeches by Mr. Koichiro Matsuura // UNESCO Courier. 2000. September. FROM

9. International educational aspects as an element of strategy // Higher education in Russia. 2000. No. 5. S. 12 - 16.

10. Will education become part of the world market? // UNESCO Courier. 2000 . February . FROM . 5 - 9.

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14. Walderrama F. A History of UNESCO. UNESCO. Paris, 1995.

TopicIX. Problems and prospects of cultural exchange at the beginning XXIcentury (4 hours).

Lecture 15. St. Petersburg is an international scientific and cultural center. The history of the formation and development of cultural and scientific relations of St. Petersburg. The main directions and forms of international cultural interaction of St. Petersburg in the present. XX I century. International cultural and scientific organizations, foundations and centers in St. Petersburg in the XX - n. XXI in. in. (structure, principles and main activities). St. Petersburg is the cultural capital of Russia. St. Petersburg is the scientific and cultural center of the Northwestern region. Bilateral and multilateral cultural relations of St. Petersburg in n. XXI century. Problems and prospects for the development of cultural ties of our city at the turn of XX - XXI century in.

Lecture 16 XXIin.

Features of the development of international cultural exchange at the present stage. The main problems and contradictions of modern cultural exchange. Interdependence of international cultural relations and international relations. International cultural exchange in the context of internationalization, integration and globalization of culture. Prospects for the development of international cultural relations at the beginning 21st century

Literature on the topic:

1. Mandatory:

Mexico City Declaration on Cultural Policy.//Culture: Dialogue of the Peoples of the World. UNESCO, 1984. No. 3. Law of the Russian Federation "Fundamentals of the Legislation of the Russian Federation on Culture" // Rossiyskaya gazeta. - July 02, 1999., N 124. The concept of the development of exhibition and fair activities in the Russian Federation.// Magazine-reference book about exhibitions and business meetings "Expomir" 2001 No. 3-4. Culture of Russia (). federal program. Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation., 2001. Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of 01.01.2001 N 740 "On the federal target program "Culture of Russia (years)"// http://www. gov. *****/gov/admin/otrasl/c_culture/conception. Interaction with international organizations. http://www. gov. *****/gov/admin/otrasl/c_foreign/otshet/megdorg. Exhibition Policy of the Administration of St. Petersburg// http://media. *****/library_view_book. php? chapter_num=11&bid=96. Partner cities of St. Petersburg//http: //www. kvs. *****/ru/activity/international/city/ Tasks of the Foreign Relations Committee// kvs. *****/en/tasks/ Information about the work of the Committee. Annual report for 2005 //kvs. *****/en/activity/reports/2005/ Information about the work of the Committee. Annual report for 2006 //kvs. *****/en/activity/reports/2006 Information about the work of the Committee. Annual report for 2007 //kvs. *****/ru/activity/reports/ 2007 International cooperation of St. Petersburg// http://www. gov. *****/gov/admin/otrasl/c_foreign/otshet/sotrmegd International and interregional relations of St. Petersburg// http://www. gov. *****/day/inter On the cooperation of the Administration of St. Petersburg with the Nordic countries and the countries of the Baltic Sea.//Memorandum to the Session of the Nordic Council of Ministers, Oslo, November 1-12). On the preparation of high-level meetings during the celebration of the 300th anniversary of St. Petersburg (Official site of the Legislative Assembly of St. Petersburg) // http://www. gov. *****/today? newsid=7875 //http://www. assembly. *****. Official website of the Committee for External Relations//www. kvs. ***** Official site of documents of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation. //http://www. ln. *****/ns-dksu. nsf. Official collection of sources Alliance Française. http://www. af. *****/af10/af2_ru. htm Cooperation agreement with the Goethe Institute.// http://www. *****/newsheadlines/index. html. Cooperation of UNESCO with Russia//. http://ced. *****/schools/web/g11/media/sotrud/sotrud2.htm Organizations of the Baltic region// http://www. . Official website of the British Council// http://www. *****. Official website of the organization Goethe Institute// http://www. goethe. de/ins/ru/pet/uun/ruindex. htm Official site of the St. Petersburg Center for International Cooperation// http://cic. *****/ Official site of the French Institute in Russia. http://www. /rus/index. php Official site of UNESCO in the Russian Federation. http://www. ***** St. Petersburg Center for International Cooperation //http://www. cic. ***** St. Petersburg. Calendar of events. SPb., 2001; 2002; 2003. // http://www. 300 spb. ru. Country Plan . . The full text of the document has not been published, the document is at the disposal of the British Council//http://www. *****/rian/intro. cfm? nws_id=25222 FROM operation culturelle, scientifique et technique// http://www. france. diplomacy. gouv. fr/actu/article. asp? ART=45015. Public policy in the field of soft security. St. Petersburg Humanitarian and Political Science Center "Strategy". SPb., 2003. Dawn over Petersburg. St. Petersburg in the world community. St. Petersburg, European House, 2005. Ryazantsev connections of St. Petersburg with the Baltic countries, history and modernity. St. Petersburg, 2003. From Leningrad to Petersburg: A Journey through Time and Space. - St. Petersburg: Buttress, 1999. Sherikh 300 years day by day. -M: Tsentrpoligraf, 2003. Bogolyubov of St. Petersburg in the formation of the foreign cultural policy of Russia.//Materials of the scientific-practical conference-sminar. June 2-3, 2004, St. Petersburg, 2005. , Nikolaeva, analysis of the activities of foreign cultural centers in Russia and the problems of foreign cultural policy.// Comparative studies - II . Almanac of Comparative Socio-Humanitarian Studies. SPb., 2002. S. 267 - 271. St. Petersburg in Russia's foreign policy. //International life. 2003. No. 6. St. Petersburg as a cultural phenomenon / // St. Petersburg in world culture: Sat. Art. Ed. ,.- SPb., 2005. S. 7-29.

Note: as part of the lessons, viewing of video materials is provided.

2. Optional:

, Shlapentokh of cultural development: their study and forecasting. M., 1976. City and culture. Digest of articles . SPb., 1992. Intercontacts. From the history of international artistic relations between Leningrad and St. Petersburg in the last quarter of the 20th century. SPb., 2000. , The problem of "West-East" in cultural studies: the interaction of artistic cultures. M., 1994. The mentality and political development of Russia. M., 1996. Greenhouses for everyone. Mass culture and modern man. M., 1996. Cort D Revolution by cliche. N.Y., 1970. Popular culture and social relation. Philad., 1986 Richards B. Disaplines of delight: the psychoanalysis of popular culture. London. 1994. Sillars S. visualization in popular fiction. London. 1995.

DOCUMENTS FOR WORK AT SEMINAR CLASSES

Foreign cultural policy

1. Foreign cultural policy of Russia.//Diplomatic Bulletin. 2000 No. 4. S. 76-84. European Higher Education Zone (Bologna, 1999)//International Cultural Exchange in Documents and Materials. Reader. Compiling authors, . SPb., 2004 (FMO library).

2. "Roadmap" for the common space of science and education, including cultural aspects// www . kremlin/ru

UNESCO Documentation

1. Declaration of Principles of International Cultural Cooperation//International cultural exchange in documents and materials. Reader. Authors-compilers, . SPb., 2004

2. Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity//International cultural exchange in documents and materials. Reader. Authors - compilers, . SPb., 2004

Documentation of international tourism

1. World Conference on Tourism (Manila, 1980)// International cultural exchange in documents and materials. Reader. Authors - compilers, . SPb., 2004

2. Global Code of Ethics for Tourism // International Cultural Exchange in Documents and Materials. Reader. Authors - compilers, . SPb., 2004

3. Tourist Code//International cultural exchange in documents and materials. Reader. Authors - compilers, . SPb., 2004

4. Interparliamentary Conference on Tourism (The Hague, 1989)//International cultural exchange in documents and materials. Reader. Authors - compilers, . SPb., 2004

5. Osaka Declaration on World Tourism (Osaka, 2001) // International Cultural Exchange in Documents and Materials. Reader. Authors - compilers, . SPb., 2004

6. Tourist Charter//International cultural exchange in documents and materials. Reader. Authors - compilers, . SPb., 2004.

Documentation of the Bologna process

European Higher Education Zone (Bologna, 1999)//International Cultural Exchange in Documents and Materials. Reader. Compiling authors, . SPb., 2004 (FMO library). Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications Relating to Higher Education in the European Region (Lisbon, 1997)//International cultural exchange in documents and materials. Reader. Compiling authors, . SPb., 2004 (FMO library). Common European Educational Space - Achieving Goals (Bergen, 2005)//Official Documents in Education. 2005. No. 21.С; see also// http://www. tempus-russia. ru / bolon-1. htm Joint Declaration on the Harmonization of the Architecture of the European Higher Education System (Sorbonne, 1998) International cultural exchange in documents and materials. Reader. Compiling authors, . SPb., 2004 (FMO library). Creation of a common European area of higher education (Berlin, 2003)// International cultural exchange in documents and materials. Reader. Compiling authors, . SPb., 2004 (FMO library). Bologna Process Stocktaking London 2007. Summery of findings from stocktaking. BP Stocktaking Report 2007//http://www. dfes. gov. uk/bologna/uploads/documents/6909-BolognaProcessST. pdf

Documentation of the International Olympic Committee

Olympic Charter//International cultural exchange in documents and materials. Reader. Compiling authors, . SPb., 2004 (FMO library).

REFERENCES FOR THE COLLOQUIUM

1. Alexandrov tourism. M., 2001 (FMO library).

2. Box of civilizations. M., 2001 (FMO library).

3. Galumov's image of Russia. M., 2003.

4. Derkach imageology. M., 2006.

5. The economy of symbolic exchange. M., 2006.

6. Cannes Festival. Vinnitsa, 1998.

7. Kasevich process in questions and answers. SPb., 2004 (FMO library).

8. Diplomacy of many faces: Confession of an ambassador. M., 2004 (FMO library).

9. , Smirnova of the image of the state in international relations. SPb., 2006.

10. , Smirnova state and decision-making in international relations. SPb., 2004.

America - Russia: The Cold War of Cultures. How American values refract the vision of Russia. M., 2007 (FMO Library).

12. PR - text in the system of public communications. SPb., 2002 (FMO library).

13. Trade fairs and exhibitions. M., 1997.

14. Russian theater Paris. SPb., 2003.

15. , Ushakov of Russia and the West XVIII - p. p. XIX centuries. SPb., 2006.

16. Pocheptsov. M., 2000.

17. Dawn over Petersburg. St. Petersburg in the world community. SPb., 2005 (FMO library).

18. Ryazantsev connections of St. Petersburg with the Baltic countries, history and modernity. St. Petersburg, 2003 (FMO library).

CMirnov leader and political elite in the UK press. SPb., 2006 (FMO library).

20. Fokin cultural exchange and the USSR in the 20-30s. SP., 1999.

21. Shanin. History of ancient athleticism. SPb., 2001 (FMO library).

Shepel. Secrets of personal charm. M., 2000. background. Europe and the Soul of the East. M., 2003. (see also: http:// imwerden. de/ pdf/ Schubart_ europa_ und_ Seele_ des_ ostens_ en_2000. pdf)

Sample Topics for Exam Preparation

1. The concept of international cultural exchange.

2. The main stages in the development of international cultural exchange.

3. Foreign cultural centers: theoretical aspect (the problem of sources and historiography, development of a definition, classification, main stages of formation and development, areas of activity).

4. The activities of foreign cultural centers in the context of the implementation of foreign cultural policy (British Council, Alliance Française, French Institute, American Cultural Center, Goethe Institute, Japanese Cultural Center, Nordic Council of Ministers).

5. Activities of Russian cultural centers abroad. Rosszarubezhtsentr and Russian centers of science and culture.

6. The main directions and forms of international musical and theatrical cooperation.

7. The main stages in the formation of international musical relations.

8. International music competitions in Russia.

9. International theater festivals in St. Petersburg.

10. Domestic cinema at international film festivals (Cannes, Berlin, Venice).

11. Cultural and educational programs of UNESCO.

12. Russia and UNESCO. The main directions and forms of interaction, problems and prospects for cooperation.

13. St. Petersburg as an international cultural and scientific center.

14. Cultural ties between Russia and the CIS countries.

15. Cultural relations of Russia with the countries of the Baltic region.

16. The role of Russia's bilateral relations in the context of foreign cultural policy.

17. The role of multilateral relations in the context of foreign cultural policy.

18. The problem of restitution of cultural values in modern cultural exchange.

19. The problem of preserving national culture in the context of integration and globalization.

20. The problem of the formation of foreign policy images in international relations: the main sources and methods of formation. The concept of ethnic image and stereotype.

21. Ethnic stereotypes in international cultural exchange: main sources and methods of formation.

22. Features and practical significance of the study of ethnic and foreign policy images: domestic and foreign scientific schools.

23. The role of ethnic and foreign policy images in international relations.

24. Russia in the international Olympic movement.

25. International sports organizations in cultural exchange (general characteristics and main activities).

26. International relations in the field of sports (basic forms and directions).

27. The main stages in the development of international sports relations.

28. International Olympic Committee and International Olympic Movement

29. International relations in the field of science (basic forms and directions).

30. International scientific foundations and awards in cultural exchange.

31. Nobel Foundation and Nobel Prizes. International scientific awards.

32. International scientific programs.

33. The role of science in modern international relations.

34. The concept of academic mobility: international student exchange programs.

35. International educational relations (main forms and directions).

36. The main stages of the formation of educational ties.

37. The concept of the Bologna process.

38. Russia in the Bologna process: main problems and prospects for participation.

39. The concept of cultural and natural heritage. UNESCO activities for the protection of monuments of cultural and natural heritage.

40. Russia in international cultural exchange.

41. international film festivals. Typology and classification.

42. International festivals of class A. Cannes Film Festival.

43. Typology and classification of theatrical connections.

44. The concept and typology of international tourism.

45. The main stages of formation and development of international tourism.

46. International organizations regulating the work of international fairs and exhibitions.

47. Typology of international exhibitions.

48. The main stages of formation and development of international exhibitions.

49. The concept of foreign cultural policy.

50. Foreign cultural policy of the USSR in the XX century.

51. The activities of the VOKS on the implementation of the foreign cultural policy of the USSR.

52. Institutional and functional analysis of the activities of the VOKS.

53. Features of the foreign cultural policy of the USSR after the Second World War.

54. Peculiarities of documenting foreign cultural policy: a comparative analysis on the example of Russia and European countries.

55. Foreign cultural policy of Russia. The main directions and forms of implementation.

56. Bilateral ties in Russia's foreign cultural policy.

57. Multilateral Relations in Russia's Foreign Cultural Policy.

58. The main forms of cultural ties in the Concept of foreign cultural policy.

59. Priority areas of cultural interaction in the Concept of Russia's foreign cultural policy.

60. Cultural Relations of Russia with International Organizations and Centers in the Concept of Russia's Foreign Cultural Policy.

61. Foreign cultural policy of European countries (France, Great Britain, Germany), USA.

62. The main problems of cultural interaction in the XX 1st century

63. The concept of the foreign cultural policy of Russia (analysis of the document "Theses of the Foreign Cultural Policy of Russia - the year 2000").

64. Documentation of the Bologna process.

65. The Olympic Charter is the main document of the international Olympic movement.

66. Documentation in the field of international tourism.

67. International cultural exchange in the era of antiquity and the Middle Ages.

68. International cultural exchange in the era of modern times.

69. Features of international cultural exchange in the twentieth century.

70. Prospects for the development of international cultural exchange in the early twentieth century 1st century

Educational and methodological support of the course

List of videos for the course

Ancient Olympia (BBC documentary) - The theme is "International Sports Relations". L. Riefenstahl. Olympia (documentary, fragment) - the theme is "International Sports Relations". Elections of the Olympic capital - 2012 (video report from the meeting of the IOC Session, fragment) topic "International Sports Relations"; "The problem of images, images and stereotypes in international relations". Opening of the Olympic Games in Athens 2004 (documentary film, fragment) - theme "International Sports Relations". L. Parfenov. The other day (materials on the holding of international music competitions, the international music Olympiad, film festivals, Eurovision contests) topic "International musical, theatrical relations" Nobel laureates are Russians. The Nobel Prize Ceremony (documentary, fragment) - the theme is "International Scientific Relations". Fragments of feature films and documentaries on the problems of images and stereotypes - the theme "The problem of images, images and stereotypes in international relations". L. Parfenov. From the history of international cultural relations: P. Tchaikovsky's speech in the USA, Diaghilev's seasons in Paris (fragment) - the theme “History of the development of cultural relations. Russia in international cultural exchange.

Technical equipment of the course . As part of the course, the authors use video materials on the development of the international sports movement, international scientific and educational activities. The course also includes DVD materials on formation and development of international festivals, competitions.

DVD collection and video materials is copyrighted and collected by the course developers from various original sources.

Active learning methods

As part of the seminars, students analyze the international status event held in St. Petersburg, and they are invited to develop their own concept and program for such an event.

Methodological recommendations for teachers. Teachers should actively involve the latest materials on the main problems of the course, use the current one. Operational information illustrating the main trends in the development of international cultural cooperation. During the presentation of the course, international class A film festivals, sporting events, and international music competitions are traditionally held. Discussion of these events can become a separate topic within the framework of lectures and seminars.

Material support of the course. In order to successfully present the course to the authors-developers, it is necessary DVD player and laptop

Methodical instructions to students. To successfully master the course materials, students need to get acquainted with the legal documents for this course, as well as with the current documentation and the latest events in international cultural interaction.

Response Requirements stem from its main goals and objectives:

The student must show a certain level of knowledge on the studied material, master the basic concepts and categories of the course,

The student should have an idea of the most important sources of the issue being studied, have knowledge of modern factual material,

The student has an idea of the most important debatable issues within the framework of the problems under consideration,

The student has the skills to conduct a discussion, be able to express and motivate their own judgment.

Exam preparation tips . When preparing for the test, the student must familiarize himself with the proposed volume of compulsory literature, read at least five titles of works from the list of additional literature, and also get acquainted in an independent form with modern published material on the topic of the course.

Cultural exchange in the system of international relations

Introduction

Lecture plan

Lectures 9. Main directions of socio-cultural exchange and cooperation between countries

Introduction

1. Cultural exchange in the system of international relations:

1.1. The concept of international cultural exchange

1.2. The main forms and directions of international cultural exchange at the turn of the XX-XXI centuries

2. International relations in the field of education:

2.1. The theory of international relations in the field of education

Today, at the beginning of the 21st century, cultural ties and humanitarian contacts are of particular importance in international relations. The new challenges of the time, the problems of globalization, cultural expansion give the issues of international cultural exchange undeniable significance and relevance.

At the present stage, international cultural exchange is not only a necessary condition for the movement of mankind along the path of progress, but also an important factor in international relations in the context of democratization and integration of world society.

Modern cultural ties are distinguished by considerable diversity, wide geography, and proceed in various forms and directions. The processes of democratization and transparency of borders give even greater importance to cultural exchange in the system of international relations, which unites peoples, regardless of social, religious, political affiliation.

In addition, many issues of cultural interaction are actively discussed today by authoritative international organizations, more and more intergovernmental associations are emerging, where great importance is attached to the problems of cultural interaction, dialogue - cultures.

The purpose of the lecture is to study the main areas of socio-cultural exchange and cooperation between countries.

The objectives of the lecture are to consider the main directions and forms of international cultural exchange at the turn of the 20th-21st century, to analyze international relations in the field of education.

In modern international relations, issues of international cultural cooperation are of particular importance. Today there is not a single country that would not pay close attention to the issues of building strong cultural contacts with the peoples of other states.

Culture, being a process of spiritual, creative, intellectual communication, implies mutual enrichment with new ideas in the context of cultural exchange and thus performs an important communicative function, uniting groups of people that are different in their social, ethnic, religious affiliation. It is culture that today is becoming the “language” on which the entire system of modern international relations can be built.

The centuries-old experience of cultural contacts, which date back to ancient times, is of great importance in the development of the main directions, forms and principles of international cultural interaction.

The theoretical and practical significance of cultural ties in the modern political space, the active processes of integration and globalization in the modern world, the problems of cultural expansion dictate the need to address the issues of international cultural exchange in the system of international relations.

Cultural exchange in the system of international relations has a certain specificity, which is dictated by the main content of the concept of culture and the essence of the definition of international relations. International cultural exchange includes all the features of culture and reflects the main stages of its formation, which are directly related to contacts between peoples, states, civilizations and are part of international relations. Cultural ties have a significant difference from international relations in that the cultural dialogue between countries continues even when political contacts are complicated by interstate conflicts.

Thus, taking into account the specifics of international cultural relations, we can come to the following definitions of this concept - to the general and particular.

Cultural exchange in the system of international relations is a complex, complex phenomenon that reflects the general patterns of international relations and the world cultural process. This is a complex of diverse cultural ties along the state and non-state lines, including the entire spectrum of various forms and areas of interaction, reflecting both modern international relations and historically established forms, with significant stability and breadth of influence on political, economic, social, cultural life.

The main forms and directions of international cultural exchange at the turn of the XX-XXI centuries.

The forms of cultural exchange themselves are an interesting phenomenon of cultural and political life and deserve special attention.

All these forms took shape quite a long time ago, but only in the conditions of integration and internationalization did they receive the most complete and consistent development.

The textbook is intended for students of humanitarian specialties involved in the study of issues of intercultural communication. It deals with a wide range of issues reflecting the specifics of modern cultural exchange and intercultural communications, their main forms and directions. The book covers intercultural communications in the field of music, theater and cinema, sports, scientific and educational ties, festivals and exhibitions. Separate parts of the manual are devoted to the problem of images, images and stereotypes, in particular, the problem of images of modern states. The book will be useful not only for students, but also for graduate students, teachers, and anyone interested in issues of culture and intercultural relations.

* * *

by the LitRes company.

Images, images and stereotypes in intercultural communications and international cultural exchange

The concept of images, images, stereotypes. Images, images, stereotypes in international relations. Images, images, stereotypes as a form of intercultural communication. Theoretical aspects of the problem of images, images, stereotypes. Historiography of studies of images, images, stereotypes. ethnic stereotypes. foreign policy images. The concept of branding in international relations. Ways to build a new image of Russia.

§ 1. The concept of image, image and stereotype

The processes of cultural exchange and intercultural communication are directly related to the problem of perception of one culture by representatives of another. In turn, the process of intercultural interaction gives rise to such phenomena as images, images, stereotypes, reflecting the complex ideas of one nation about another. In modern science, there are a number of terms to refer to such ideas that are formed in the process of interaction between different peoples and states: image", "image", "stereotype".

There is no consensus among scientists regarding their nature and functions in the modern world. In modern science, there are many approaches to the study of images, images, stereotypes. It is also necessary to take into account that all these concepts are still under scientific discussion, and in modern publications one can find different approaches to the development of these concepts. As a rule, these approaches are based on the established methods of a number of humanities: sociology, philosophy, history, political science, ethnology, cultural studies. Even the concepts themselves are in the stage of scientific discussion. Currently, there are many disputes among scientists about what exactly should be understood as images, images and stereotypes and what are their fundamental differences from each other.

Perhaps the greatest unanimity among researchers is observed regarding the definition of what a stereotype is. Based on the opinion of most experts, we can offer the following definition of a stereotype. Stereotype(translated from Greek - “solid imprint”, “fixed integrity”) - a schematic, standardized image or idea of an object, phenomenon, people, country, usually emotionally colored and highly stable. A stereotype reflects the habitual attitude of a person or a group of people to some phenomenon, another person, a group of people, a people, a country, formed under the influence of social, political, historical conditions and on the basis of previous experience.

Much more discussion is connected with understanding the phenomenon of image and image. This discussion is especially clear when it comes to political image and political image. There is no consensus among scientists about whether these concepts are identical. Obviously, the concepts of “image” and “image” are close in meaning, since the word “image” comes from the Latin word “imago”, which means “image, reflection”.

In Russian science, there is a tendency to differentiate the concepts of image and image, while in the English literature, the semantics of the term "image" combines both of these concepts. At the same time, it should be noted that some Russian-speaking authors also interpret the concepts of "image" and "image" as identical.

It seems to us quite logical to join those researchers who believe that there are certain differences between image and image. This allows you to more clearly define the representations themselves and their nature. Based on this, we propose the following definitions:

Image- a reality adequately reflected in human consciousness, which is formed naturally in the process of cognition and perception of objective reality.

Image - impression, opinion about a person, object, team, state, etc., created by interested parties in accordance with certain goals.

As can be seen from the above definitions, the image is more objective than the image, which, in turn, is formed as a result of certain actions. In addition, unlike the image, the image has a certain mobility and can change under the influence of the situation.

The same opinion regarding the specifics of the image is shared by the well-known Russian specialist E. A. Galumov, who defines the image as a symbolic symbol that reflects the main features of the subject (object, person, people, state, etc.) and is formed, as a rule, as a result of certain efforts aimed at its creation in accordance with certain tasks of the subject himself. St. Petersburg researcher I. Yu. Kiselev, the author of the concept of the image “I am the state”, considering the concepts of image and image, draws attention to the greater predeterminedness of the first, in contrast to the second. According to I. Yu. Kiselev, in contrast to the image, the image has a more objective nature. The Russian expert on ethnic stereotypes S. V. Chugrov wrote about the difference between image and image.

Unlike the image, the image is idealistic, it idealizes the subject, exaggerates its best qualities, emphasizes specific properties. An image can be called a purposefully formed image that develops as a result of certain actions and corresponds to certain goals or expectations. At the same time, unlike stereotypes, the image is more mobile. Stereotypes prepare the basis for the perception of images, generalize the accumulated information. And images, and images, and stereotypes are associated with the peculiarities of the human psyche and human thinking. They are a natural product of processing a large amount of information and help a person to get an idea about many things, phenomena, etc., even without personal acquaintance with them. For example, from newspapers, books, stories of other people, as well as from other sources, we get the necessary information about any country in the world, even without visiting it personally.

A number of Russian authors highlight the expediency, pragmatism of the image as one of its main distinguishing characteristics. There are even definitions that highlight the main goals of building an image, for example, the following: "an individual appearance or halo created by the media, a social group or the individual's own efforts in order to attract attention to himself."

Note that many experts give definitions of the image, indicating that it can be formed both purposefully and consciously, and spontaneously. Let us cite, in particular, the following: "An image is a purposefully created or spontaneously arisen form of reflection of an object in people's minds." The same position is shared by specialists involved in the study of images, E. B. Perelygina and O. F. Potemkina.

"formed in the mass consciousness and having the character of a stereotype, a strongly emotionally colored image of something or someone";

“a set of information reflecting and characterizing the features of a real object of information sent in the form of certain symbols to the addressees in the process of communication of the image carrier with its recipient, perceived and evaluated by the addressees, taking the form of a stereotype, taking a certain place in the consciousness and value system of the subject and capable of predetermining its decisions and actions in relation to this object, the carrier of image information”;

"a stereotyped image of a particular object that exists in the mass consciousness."

However, in our opinion, it would be wrong to completely identify the image with the stereotype. This is also noted by many experts. The image emphasizes the uniqueness of the object, reflects its specific features, which is fundamentally different from the stereotype, which generalizes, integrates, and does not individualize phenomena. Therefore, when comparing an image and a stereotype, one should rather talk about their differences, the opposite of functions: a stereotype generalizes phenomena, depersonalizes them; the image, on the contrary, is focused on the unique, special. Finally, speaking about the similarities and differences between the image and the stereotype, it should be borne in mind that the image is more mobile and dynamic, and the stereotype is very stable.

At the same time, the stereotypes that currently exist in the public mind are preparing the basis for the formation of the image. As a “ready-made formula”, a stereotype can participate in the creation of an image in its core, as a set of “starting points”, facilitate, due to its divergence and schematicity, the perception of a concretized image, but it cannot replace it.

Scientists identify two main sources of stereotyping:

1. individual or group past experience and limited information that people have in everyday everyday life, as well as some specific phenomena that arise in the field of interpersonal communication and interaction - subjective selectivity, the influence of attitudes, rumors, halo effects, primacy, novelty and etc.

2. targeted activities of the media and political propaganda.

Thus, the subjects of international relations can manage the formation of not only their own images, but also favorable, desirable stereotypes. On the one hand, it takes much more time and effort to create a stereotype than to create an image. On the other hand, once formed, the stereotype is practically not subjected to critical rethinking, correction, it is much more tenacious and little subject to change, compared to the image.

Stereotypes are the most powerful means of manipulating the consciousness of individuals, groups and masses in politics. From this point of view, the content of a stereotype can be defined as standard uniform ways of understanding socio-political phenomena and problems that are constantly declared and imposed on people as “truths”, constantly repeated and used by the political elite, supported and disseminated by the media.

Currently, in domestic science there are a large number of definitions of the image. Here are some of them:

“a socio-psychological phenomenon that reflects the influence on it of not only the conscious, but also the unconscious components of the psyche of various social groups, the motivation of their behavior, as well as the formation of images<…>which are demanded today by the masses of the people”;

“the complete picture of you that you present to others. It includes how you look, talk, dress, act; your skills, your posture, posture and body language; your accessories, your environment and the company you support”;

“outward-facing “I” of a person, his public “I”;

“what and who I appear to be in my environment, how “They” see and perceive me. This is a symbolic refraction of my "I" in the minds of others.

These definitions reflect the various aspects of the image, the diversity of its functions. In addition, in the context of international relations, these characteristics of the image indicate the plurality of audiences for the image of the state. Each of the audiences has its own specifics, as a result of which the same signal sent by a state representative can be interpreted differently. Moreover, often image signals that have a significant impact on representatives of one audience may be unnoticed and not perceived in any way by representatives of another audience with a different cultural specificity. The multiplicity of audiences is precisely the most significant difficulty in forming the image of the state. On the one hand, it is necessary that the signals sent by the state do not cause rejection among any of the target audiences, on the other hand, these signals must be universal enough to interest representatives of various audiences.

Image is a category, universal. The image may belong to a real person or a fictional character (personal image), social position (image of a politician), profession (image of a lawyer), small or large group of people (gender image, ethnic image), education (image of a graduate of St. Petersburg State University), trademark ( "Mercedes"), structure - corporate image (organization, region, country), objects (image of gold, diamonds), etc.

An effective image of any subject must have a certain set of characteristics:

1) an effective image is holistic and consistent, corresponds to unambiguous generalized ideas;

2) as an ideal education, the image is unstable, it constantly needs to be “reinforced”;

3) as a stereotype, the image contains a limited number of components: the complexity of the design only interferes with its perception, and therefore makes the attitude towards it ambiguous;

4) the image, although it is an illusory image, is to some extent realistic: a clear embellishment of merits will lead to a decrease in trust;

5) the image is pragmatic, that is, focused on a limited range of tasks;

6) an effective image has the property of variability: an absolutely “rigid and unchanging structure” is unacceptable, the situation of image translation is always dynamic, it may be necessary to make adjustments.

Speaking about the foreign policy image of the state, it is very important to take into account the audience for which it is intended. Usually the audience of the image of the state can be the public inside this state or the foreign public. Within each of these groups, separate audiences can be distinguished depending on the goals of building an image and the specifics of their perception of image signals. So, within the framework of the foreign public, one can single out the public of different countries or regions belonging to different cultures. It is possible to divide the foreign audiences of the image of the state on other grounds, for example, the business community is more interested in certain characteristics of the state, potential tourists in others, environmental organizations in third, etc.

Nowadays, the image has become an integral attribute of most politicians. The image of such personalities is polished literally to the smallest detail. For example, on the faces of older people, facial expressions capture age-related changes more strongly, therefore, during television programs, their faces appear at a certain distance from the camera. Or this fact: the background against which the personality is presented is very important. It was difficult for Margaret Thatcher to gain political recognition in a country with such a conservative order. Therefore, her image makers paid close attention to the choice of interiors: most of her TV appearances were filmed at home with a lit fireplace in the background. Purely in the English classical spirit.

The principles and patterns of image formation are studied by imageology. Imageology (imagology)- a special interdisciplinary direction in the humanities, studying the images, images and stereotypes that arise in the process of international, intercultural communication. Here is another definition posted on the website of the Academy of Imageology in Moscow:

Imageology (imagology) is a new interdisciplinary scientific and applied discipline that arises at the intersection of psychology, sociology, philosophy, cultural studies and a number of other sciences. Imageology studies the patterns of formation, functioning and management of the image. It reveals the general, particular and singular in the ontology of all types of images.

There are other, narrower approaches to the definition of a new scientific direction. Thus, the authors often emphasize the practical, applied aspect of this discipline: “imageology is a complex practical discipline that uses individual results of a number of sciences, including social psychology, cultural studies, etc., the purpose of which is to create methodological and methodological equipment for professional activities to create and image transformation.

The practical significance of imageology is to scientifically substantiate how to create an attractive image.

Imageology (imagology) is a young science. As an independent discipline, it began to take shape in the 1920s and 1930s. last century. At its origins in this scientific direction was the American sociologist W. Lippman, who was the first to turn to the study of ethnic stereotypes. The term "imageology" was coined by the sociologist and philosopher Jürgen Habermas.

In addition to imageology, political branding, which is the most modern direction of political marketing, deals with the problems of forming and promoting images of states. The main concept of political branding is that, like commercial brands, brands in politics are "based on trust and customer satisfaction."

In addition to imageology, as well as the increasingly popular political branding, political advertising and political marketing in general, a number of other sciences deal with theoretical and applied issues of controlled construction of a political image: political PR, political psychology, social psychology.

In modern science, it is customary to distinguish two large groups of ideas that arise in the process of international communication. First, ethnic images and stereotypes, i.e. ideas about peoples and ethnic communities. Secondly, foreign policy images, images and stereotypes, i.e. ideas about states. Foreign policy images as a broader phenomenon can include ethnic images and stereotypes. At the same time, ethnic stereotypes have a significant impact on the formation of ideas about the state. In turn, they may differ in the way they are formed. From this point of view, two main groups can be distinguished. Firstly, these are images created purposefully, with the help of various political and diplomatic means and technologies, and even as a result of propaganda and manipulative actions. Secondly, images that are created outside the context of political and diplomatic efforts, in the process of intercultural communication, international cultural contacts, in the process of getting different peoples to know each other, within the framework of public and cultural diplomacy.

Today, images, images, stereotypes have taken a firm place in almost all aspects of public life, including international relations. How this or that state is perceived by the international community, what its image in the world depends on the success of this state in building political, economic and cultural relations with other countries, its authority, reputation in the world. Positive images can improve the perception of the state and thus contribute to the establishment of beneficial contacts, the implementation of certain policies. Negative images can significantly complicate the development of interstate relations and create ground for conflicts. This is especially true of negative stereotypes, which are characterized by a high degree of stability. Given this property of images and stereotypes, it is necessary to purposefully form a positive image of the country and its people both within the country and abroad, and avoid forming negative ideas about them.

These circumstances have prompted many modern states to allocate significant funds for image campaigns, and in some cases, targeted image policy, the primary task of which is precisely the formation of a positive image. As an example, we can cite the experience of such countries as Germany, Great Britain, France, the USA, which for a number of years have been spending significant funds on creating a positive image of the country abroad.

The formation of a positive image of the state, the maintenance of international state prestige is the ultimate goal of the foreign cultural policy of many modern states. So, for example, in the theses of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs "Foreign cultural policy of Russia - the year 2000" it is noted that in the process of creating an objective and favorable image of Russia in the world, one of the "most flexible and therefore most effective levers in the mechanism of foreign policy activity" is culture. Today, the formation of a positive image of the state is a priority for politicians, diplomats, public and state figures.

The practical need to study foreign policy images, images, stereotypes is primarily due to the strengthening of their role in modern intercultural communications, since knowledge of images, images, stereotypes facilitates intercultural communication. If we know how others imagine us, it is easier to choose the right policy, the optimal model of behavior. Knowledge of the peculiarities of peoples' perception of each other, which arises in the process of intercultural communications, makes it possible to correct the negative features of the image and strengthen its positive characteristics.

Great importance in solving the problem of forming the image of any country and its people abroad should be given to sources of information. In the process of forming a positive image of the country, it is advisable to use all sources of information: from the "classic", which include, for example, periodicals, literary works, to modern ones, such as the Internet, which covers a very wide socially diverse audience.

At present, on the world stage, the image of a state or another subject of international relations is becoming increasingly important - in many respects, it is this image that guides other subjects when making their decisions. Image and reputation are turning into the most important mechanisms of interstate relations. A bad reputation can become a serious handicap for a country seeking to remain competitive in the international arena. We talk about the personality of a country in the same way that we talk about people - we call them "friendly" and "trustworthy" or "aggressive" and "not trustworthy."

Note that the image of the state also affects the image of the citizens of this state. Thus, a study conducted by Peter Walker in 28 states showed that, in relation to those countries that were described as "countries with a strong economy", respondents believe that the citizens of these countries "are trustworthy and keep their promises."

Various image specialists offer many options for classifying an image by media type. In particular, E. B. Perelygina distinguishes four types of images according to the image carrier:

1. individual image (human image),

2. group image (image of a social group),

3. corporate image (image of the organization),

4. subject image (image of a product, service, cultural phenomenon, etc.).

Based on this classification, the following options for political images can be distinguished:

The individual image of a politician,

The image of a political party

State image.

Recently, the image of the country's political leader has acquired particular importance. The image of a political leader is based on the perception of such characteristics as appearance, features of verbal and non-verbal behavior, facial expressions, gestures, smile, speech, socio-demographic characteristics (gender, age, level of education, income, housing, family life cycle, etc.). .), behavior, social background, professional career stages, family environment, interests, opinions, activity outside of work.

The image of the head of the country is only one of the elements of its image, but it is quite important. Ultimately, the degree of trust in the country as a whole largely depends on the public's perception of the leaders of the state. This is evidenced, in particular, by the words of V. N. Zadorozhny about the image of Russia: “In a foreign audience, the political image of the state is formed as a result of the activities of officials of state structures of Russia and, first of all, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, as well as politicians speaking to foreign audiences at international conferences etc. This is all the more important in the conditions of developed communication systems, since today's speech and those theses that will interest the mass audience will be replicated in the media tomorrow and provided with analysts' comments. Therefore, the responsibility of politicians for any public speech is significantly increased.”

Without a doubt, the foreign policy image of a state largely depends on the image of its leader. But the head of state is only one of the elements of his image, the image of the country is also influenced by financial institutions, the tourism industry, transport, the hotel business, and citizens.

The structure of a country's image is more complex than the structure of a political leader's image. It includes many elements and is based on the perception of many characteristics of the state, a complete list of which is hardly possible.

The “providers” of the country's image abroad include the country's politicians, especially its leadership, as well as the diplomatic corps. But, in addition, the image is influenced by all subjects of foreign economic activity - financial institutions, the tourism industry, transport, hotel business - as well as citizens engaged in business or involved in the processes of labor migration abroad.

The basis for the formation of the country's image is its individuality, which includes, on the one hand, the official, so to speak, "identifying" characteristics of the country. This is a complex of visual, verbal and other signs by which people identify a country (place on the map, name, coat of arms, flag, anthem, etc.). In fact, this is a “passport” of a country with a “photo” - a map, indicating its “name” - the name, “registration” - location, etc.

In addition, the identity of the country also includes a characteristic of the totality of the features and resources of the country. These include: natural, demographic, historical, social and cultural features and resources; economic features and resources; organizational, legal and information features and resources. The individuality of a country also reflects technologies and approaches to work, the trust of partners and expert information, the level and quality of leadership, the degree of development of corruption, communication features, and much more.

A special role in the process of forming the image of the state belongs to culture, to what material and spiritual values it exports. Here are the words of Z. Brzezinski on this subject: “Rome exported laws, England exported parliamentary party democracy, France exported culture and republican nationalism, and the modern United States exported scientific and technological innovations and mass culture…”. Culture has unique capabilities associated with the formation of a positive image of peoples, states, which ultimately helps in solving political problems.

Among other factors that are important in shaping the image of the country, in particular, given the growing interest in other cultures, peoples and nature of other regions, tourism infrastructure acquires a special role in the image of any state.

In modern science, there are quite a lot of points of view about what images, images and stereotypes are, what their nature and essence are. However, despite the difference in views and the debatability of many issues, all researchers are unanimous that these categories must be taken into account in the practice of international relations.

§ 2. Ethnic stereotypes in intercultural communication

Each person, like the people as a whole, has a set of stable ideas about other people, peoples, states, which have been formed in the process of a long process of intercultural communication based on extensive information. Such ideas are formed, as a rule, at the level of everyday consciousness. In this case, we have ethnic stereotypes. They are well known to us in the form of jokes about representatives of various nationalities. Ethnic stereotypes can also be exemplified by such stable statements as “gallant French”, “prim English”, “punctual Germans”. Such statements are so ingrained in our minds that we can say "typical Englishman" or "typical German" referring to a certain set of national characteristics, and in most cases such a statement will be clear to others.

Similarly, we make statements not only about peoples, but also about states. For example, most people usually associate France with high fashion, Brazil with football, Holland with tulips and windmills. Such stable stereotypes are associated with a long process of intercultural interaction of peoples with each other, they are inherited, passed down from generation to generation and are particularly resilient. True, under the influence of various factors, these ideas can change, but at the same time, many features of these ideas continue to exist in their original form. So, for example, the Russians associated Germany with the image of the enemy for a long time, because these countries fought each other for a long time.

An ethnic (national) stereotype is a schematized image of a people, an ethnic community, usually simplified, sometimes inaccurate or even distorted, expressing knowledge or ideas about the psychological, behavioral and everyday characteristics of representatives of some other nation.

There are other definitions of ethnic stereotypes:

1) The totality of expectations for the characteristic features and behavior of representatives of social, ethnic groups, entire peoples,

2) A schematized image of one's own or someone else's ethnic community, which reflects a simplified and sometimes distorted knowledge about the psychological characteristics and behavior of representatives of a particular people, and on the basis of which a stable, emotionally colored opinion of one nation about another or about itself is formed.

Ethnic stereotypes are assimilated by people in early childhood and are transmitted almost unchanged from generation to generation. They are explained by the universal human need to simplify information, since it is easier for people to characterize ethnic groups in an undifferentiated way.

The basis of the stereotype is, as a rule, some noticeable sign - skin color, character traits, external features, demeanor, etc.: Italians are eccentric and emotional, British are thin, Scandinavians are blond. Some ethnic stereotypes can be formed around some natural phenomenon (a symbolic, mythologized element of the stereotype): Russia - winter, snow, England - fog. Also, the basis for the formation of a stereotype can be things, manufactured products: Russia - a samovar, a balalaika, France - perfumes, cheese, wine, Switzerland - chocolate, watches, Holland - tulips. Stereotypes can be grouped around a historical or natural monument: Japan - Mount Fuji, France - the Eiffel Tower, etc. Sometimes associations can arise in connection with eating habits, with national cuisine characteristics - Italians - pasta, French - paddling pools.

Here are the most characteristic examples of ethnic stereotypes about Russia: bagels, samovars, balalaikas, nesting dolls, vodka, troika, bear, cold, caviar, tea with lemon.

Stereotypes can be manifested in proverbs, sayings: "the Russian gave the German pepper." There are linguistic stereotypes, for example, the phrase “sharks of capitalism” common in Soviet times.

The formation of ethnic stereotypes is influenced by factors such as climate, country territory, features of the national character, way of life, religion, education, family, social composition of society, political and administrative system, historical features of society. The stereotype is based on many years of experience in observing reality. No less serious influence on the nature of ethnic stereotypes is exerted by interstate relations, the presence or absence of interethnic conflicts. So, for Russians, the Germans for a long time were associated with the image of the enemy because of the long wars waged by these peoples.

The mechanisms for the formation of stereotypes are due to the peculiarities of historical development, social and political interaction and the psychological make-up of people. Throughout human history, there has been a kind of polar attitude towards other cultures. On the one hand, this is an interest in representatives of other communities and cultures, on the other hand, the desire to isolate oneself from incomprehensible, dissimilar customs, not to accept them.

The process of interethnic, intercultural, interstate communication is accompanied by a number of difficulties associated with the fact that representatives of different cultures do not decipher the information received in the same way. When meeting with representatives of other cultures, a person tends to interpret their behavior from the standpoint of their own culture, which leads to a misunderstanding of a foreign language, facial expressions, gestures, symbols, etc. Thus, the roots of ethnic stereotypes lie in repetitive life situations fixed in the human mind in the form of standard schemes and models of thinking.

A prerequisite for the formation of stereotypes is the ability of human thinking to consolidate information about homogeneous phenomena, facts and people in the form of stable ideal formations. Stereotypes contain social experience, they are a product of collective, group consciousness. The formation of ethnic stereotypes is also influenced by such a basic personality quality as ethnocentrism, associated with the idea that one's own ethnic group is the center of everything, and all the others are grouped around it, which, as a result, forms a sense of superiority of one's ethnic group over the rest.

Insufficient information about the cultural life of other peoples is also a factor influencing the formation of ethnic stereotypes, since the unknown in people's minds quickly acquires mystical rumors.

An important role in the process of stereotyping, especially in modern society, is played by the dominant ideology, propaganda, art, and the media. Media information is capable of influencing people's thoughts and replacing their individual attitudes.

Another prerequisite for the formation of stereotypes is such a psychological quality of a person as the need to cope with information overload, process and simplify it, classify it into more convenient models, which become stereotypes.

The formation of ethnic stereotypes begins in the psyche of individuals, and then in the process of communication in the exchange of opinions, information is distributed throughout the group. The formation of stereotypes is a very long process, because it is formed on the basis of the opinion of a large number of people and for a long time.

Scientists distinguish several main types of stereotypes:

1. According to the level of assimilation by human consciousness, opinions and judgments are distinguished from stereotypes. Opinion stereotypes are stereotypes that can be easily applied when new information arrives. Stereotypes-beliefs are stereotypes that have great motivating power, stability, which can become a motive for human behavior.

2. According to the perceived object, I distinguish hetero- and auto-stereotypes. Heterostereotypes are ideas of peoples about other peoples, ethnic groups (as a rule, negative characteristics predominate in them). Autostereotypes - stereotypical ideas of peoples about themselves (positive qualities prevail here)

3. There are positive and negative stereotypes in terms of the quality of assessment. As a rule, stereotypes are very complex phenomena that combine the features of all of the above groups. Such stereotypes are called ambivalent.

4. According to the degree of variability, some scientists distinguish basic or modal stereotypes that are associated with the leading features of an ethnic character and do not change under the influence of circumstances. Superficial stereotypes are ideas about a particular people that are conditioned by historical factors, international relations, the domestic political situation, and temporal factors. They change depending on changes in the world, society, and, as a rule, are associated with historical realities. So, in the 90s. ideas about Gorbachev, Yeltsin, Zhirinovsky, the KGB, the mafia were associated with Russia. Gone are the ideas of the red flag, the hammer and sickle. Deep stereotypes are immutable ideas that do not depend on time and situation.

Ethnic stereotypes have a number of features:

Emotionality, appraisal,

Imagery, schematic, simplistic

Symbolism, subjectivity

sustainability, conservatism

Integrity.

In society, stereotypes perform very important functions:

Stereotypes are an essential tool of human cognition. They help to "save" thinking by simplifying the picture of objective reality, facilitate thought processes

Stereotypes help in the process of social adaptation to the conditions of existence. They help to understand in what social world an individual or group is located, and help to occupy a certain niche.

Stereotypes are a way of transferring the social, cultural, ethnic and other experience of an ethnic group from generation to generation (rules of conduct, rituals and customs, values).

Stereotypes serve as indicators of the process of interethnic communication. In particular, the appearance of negative stereotypes serves as a signal of the appearance of a psychological protest against an unpleasant reality, they indicate the emergence of a conflict.

Stereotypes can also be used for propaganda purposes: the dissemination of distorted information about life, the characteristic features of an ethnic group.

Stereotypes express the values of a particular group.

Sometimes negative stereotypes can be protective.

This is especially noticeable in multinational, ethnically ranked societies, where the position of various social groups is not uniform. In this case, the dominant groups usually create a large number of negative stereotypes about the lower ethnic groups in order to justify their higher status in society.

In addition, in modern international relations, ethnic stereotypes also play an important role:

Ethnic stereotypes are an important communication tool, they simplify the ways of transferring the previous experience of international communication,

They serve as a kind of indicator of interethnic communication: the appearance of negative ethnic stereotypes indicates the possibility of an ethnic conflict,

Ethnic stereotypes can be used for propaganda purposes, to disseminate distorted information about a particular ethnic group,

They contribute to the understanding of the way of thinking, the way of life of a people, reflect its values, help to develop a certain model of behavior that adequately corresponds to the ideas of this people. It must be remembered that ethnic stereotypes themselves can be both harmful, when they distort reality, and useful, since they simplify the process of assimilation of information. This testifies to the dual nature of ethnic stereotypes.

Thus, depending on the application, ethnic stereotypes can be both useful and harmful for interethnic communication. The benefit of the process of stereotyping is to simplify the understanding of the situation, to develop adequate actions in relation to a representative of another ethnic group. To do this, the stereotype should be approached as an informational, descriptive phenomenon, and not as an informational one.

From this follows the practical significance of studying stereotypes:

Knowledge of stereotypes helps in the process of communication: interpersonal, international, international. If you know how you are presented, it is easier to choose a method of communication. For international relations, this is the choice of the right policy.

Knowing the ideas of peoples, states about each other helps to build and correct a positive image. This, in particular, is stated in the "Theses of the Foreign Cultural Policy of Russia".

The study of ideas allows you to identify the position of states and peoples in relation to each other and find possible routes in international relations, choose the optimal model of behavior.

The most common method for identifying ethnic stereotypes is the questionnaire method. So, on the basis of this method, the most common stereotypical ideas of peoples about each other were identified:

German - accuracy, punctuality,

Russian - hospitality, sincerity, fear of power,

French - elegant, cheerful, amorous, inventive,

American - business, self-confident, athletic,

Jew - smart, intelligent.

In this case, as an example, heterostereotypes were given, that is, ideas about peoples that arise in the perception of other peoples. Along with them, there are autostereotypes, i.e., ideas of peoples about themselves. Autostereotypes do not always coincide with what others think about this people. For example: Germans' ideas about themselves: positive - punctuality, politeness, negative - stinginess, greed, arrogance. Russian ideas about themselves: positive - hospitality, kindness, mercy, negative - laziness, disorganization, gullibility.

At the same time, Russians see Germans as positive traits: punctuality, scrupulousness, and stinginess as negative traits. Germans have developed positive stereotypes about Russians as hospitable, hospitable, but lazy people (negative stereotype).

Thus, in self-assessment, positive traits dominate among Germans, while negative traits dominate among Russians, which also reflects the specifics of the national character and ethnic perception.

The widespread ethnic stereotypes of some peoples fit into the specifics of their historical past and explain many features of their socio-political and social development.

So, the most important standards of the Russian stereotype:

Etatism is the cult of the state, a strong hand, faith in a good ruler,

Bureaucracy, lack of democratic traditions,

Despotism, dogmatism in personal and social relations (traditions of "Domostroy"),

Patience, sacrifice, willingness to suffer,

Messianism - faith in the special mission of the Russian people, a wary attitude towards the West,

Paternalism - hope for someone else's help, and not for one's own strength, lack of initiative,

Collectivism - catholicity, hospitality, kindness, responsiveness, the ability to compassion,

Disorganization, irresponsibility, lack of sense of duty,

Selflessness - the priority of the spiritual over the material, the breadth of nature,

Susceptibility to others

The irrationality of behavior, the lack of common sense, the mystery of the Russian soul.

Comparing these characteristics with the main features of the communist ideal, we can conclude that communism was not a random event in Russian history, it most corresponded to the main features of the Russian stereotype. One of the first to draw this correspondence was the Russian philosopher N. A. Berdyaev. The features of communism are the construction of an ideal classless society, faith in the world-historical role of the proletariat, the priority of public interests over personal ones, the totalitarian nature of the state, the abolition of private property, centralism and unanimity, collectivism, mass heroism in the struggle for communist ideals.

The most important standards of the Prussian (German) stereotype:

Belief in the exceptional character of the Prussian state,

The desire for work as one of the highest values,

Careerism as one of the highest values,

Dogmatism, decisiveness in action,

The feeling of national superiority, the cult of the Germanic race,

Imperialist spirit - the desire to expand the state,

Soldier's spirit - humility, obedience, discipline.

Similarly, one can compare the main features of the German stereotype with the features of the fascist system and come to the conclusion that they coincide.

The most important norms of the British stereotype:

Individualism and the cult of freedom,

The cult of money and wealth, accuracy and prudence,

Purposefulness, efficiency and common sense,

composure,

Love for the sea and sports,

traditionalism,

Closeness and stiffness

Feeling of ethnic superiority.

The presence of such national basic characteristics explains the preservation of the monarchy, the traditional role of the fleet, the development of Britain as a maritime and colonial power. It is significant that Britain is the birthplace of many modern sports.

It is interesting that the phenomenon of the ethnic stereotype has many echoes in various humanities, especially in philosophy, where similar phenomena were considered in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, as well as a number of similar definitions. Plots related to the peculiarities of perception by different peoples, cultures of each other, the characteristic features of nations were touched upon in their works by such famous philosophers as N. Ya. Danilevsky "Russia and Europe", O. Spengler "The Decline of Europe", A. Toynbee "Comprehension of History" , as well as ethnographers and anthropologists J. Fraser, K. Levi-Strauss, L. Gumilyov and others.

So, one of the basic concepts of philosophy and cultural studies is the concept cultural property nation, people, civilization. This is a specific category that expresses the idea of one people about what is good, what is bad, what is desirable, what is undesirable, true - false. Each national culture develops its own set of cultural values that influence the formation of a national character, and, consequently, the peculiarities of its perception by other peoples. The process of formation of cultural values is very long and complex, and it depends on a number of factors: geopolitical, historical, etc.

Thus, the cultural values of antiquity can be expressed by the concept of "kalokagatia", that is, the combination of a beautiful soul with a beautiful body, the cultural values of Medieval Europe are usually associated with the Christian tradition. American cultural values are success, activity, work, practicality, social and material comfort, democracy, freedom, individualism.

Another similar concept used by a number of humanities (ethnosociology, theory of intercultural communication, cultural anthropology) is national character. This is a specific category denoting a set of qualities, characteristic features of a people, manifested in everyday life, behavior, morality, art, religion, language, and traditions. The national character reflects the peculiarities of climate, nature, geographical location. It is the result of the richest history of the people, the country.

The most interesting illustration for this story is the work of the Dutch sociologist Geert Hofstede, based on the concept of national character. He was one of the first in the sociology of culture to try to use significant statistical data for the analysis of cultural values. The theory of G. Hofstede was called the theory of cultural dimensions.

From the point of view of G. Hofstede, under the influence of individual characteristics of the psyche, social environment and specific features of ethnic culture, each person perceives the world around him in a special way, becoming the bearer of a certain way of thinking and potential actions. The result of the process of formation of sensations, thoughts and behavior are the so-called mental programs, which can be investigated using the measurements of culture in four indicators:

Power Distance (low to high);

Collectivism - individualism;

Masculinity - femininity;

Uncertainty avoidance (strong to weak).

Hofstede's theory of cultural dimensions is based on the results of a written survey conducted by him in 40 countries of the world, with the exception of the former socialist countries, which explains the lack of mention of all Eastern European countries, including Russia. These studies made it possible to establish that various cultural phenomena can be measured by the four indicated parameters, which in practice act in various combinations with each other, which determines the mentality of the corresponding culture.

Another concept is close to the concept of national character - national mentality (national mentality). This is a set of characteristic features characteristic of the majority of representatives of a given people, an invariant of the national character. This category depends on geographical, historical, linguistic factors, socio-cultural traditions, etc.

And, finally, one more concept, which is also in a certain way consonant with the concept of an ethnic stereotype, is cultural archetype. This is the most generalized model of the culture of a particular country, civilization, a set of the most typical and significant cultural features based on averaged characteristics. Thus, the archetype of Russian culture, developed in the works of Russian philosophers of the late 19th century. catholicity, extraversion, collectivism, communality. Hence such phenomena as serfdom, communism. The archetype of Western culture is pragmatism, individualism, rationalism, universalism, respect for traditions. The archetype of Eastern culture is asceticism, irrationalism, the high role of religion, the dominance of the spiritual over the material.

The formation of cultural archetypes is especially influenced by the geographical factor and the specifics of historical and cultural development. So, lying at the junction of Europe and Asia, West and East, such a concept as Eurasianism is characteristic, combining the features of two different cultures. On the contrary, Europe is a single whole, hence the common cultural value system, strong tendencies towards cultural integration.

Such phenomena as national character, national mentality, cultural archetype and cultural values are very tenacious and stable, as well as the concepts of image, image and stereotype, with which they have much in common. They must be taken into account not only in the theoretical understanding of issues of ethnic stereotypes, but also in the practice of international relations, in particular, when choosing a foreign policy, in the practice of negotiating, etc. The task of modern specialists in the field of international relations is to find ways of compatibility of archetypes of cultures and their adaptation to each other. Understanding the archetype of the culture of the partner country, the peculiarities of the national character of its people, its cultural values contributes to the establishment of closer contacts, mutual understanding, activation of a positive vector in their relations, and avoids possible conflicts.

The beginning of the study of ethnic stereotypes dates back to the 1920s. For the first time, this term began to be used in typography, printing to refer to the set of the entire line or page of text. In foreign historiography, this term in a sociological sense was first introduced by an American publicist, journalist and sociologist. Walter Lippman in his Public Opinion, published in New York in 1922. Lippman did not share the concept of image, image, stereotype, did not single out foreign policy stereotypes. For his research, he used sociological material and methodology. W. Lippman gave the first definition of a stereotype, which he designated as an image that exists in a person's head, which becomes between him and reality. According to Lippman, a stereotype is a special form of perception of the surrounding world, which has a certain influence on the data of our senses even before this information reaches our consciousness.

Lippman believed that stereotypes are passed down from generation to generation, often perceived by people as a kind of reality and reality. Stereotypes, in his opinion, are extremely stable. Lippman did not consider stereotypes to be unequivocally false ideas, seeing in them a combination of fiction with real features.

The significance of the work of Walter Lippmann lies in the fact that he laid the theoretical foundations for the study of stereotypes and gave them the first definition. Lippmann's work stimulated the appearance of other works devoted to the study of this topic.

Influenced by the study of W. Lippmann in the 30s. 20th century the American school of imageology begins to take shape. Its representatives were predominantly sociologists. In 1928 the American sociologist Robert Binkley proposed his own definition of a stereotype and continued the developments begun by Lippmann. Under the stereotype, he understood the universal universal denominator (symbol), which helps the layman to adequately evaluate objects, phenomena, etc., removed from the sphere of his life and activity. Thus, he singled out one more quality of stereotypes, in addition to emotional coloring and stability - evaluation and connection with the psychological process of assimilation and processing of information.

In the mid 30s. XX century, the study of ethnic stereotypes was continued by American sociologists D. Katz And C. Brailey, who in 1933 developed a methodology for the study of stereotypes using the methods of sociological research, called the "attribution of qualities" methodology. This technique has found wide application in further studies. Scientists conducted a study of stereotypes based on a survey of students at Princeton University in the USA: 10 different ethnic groups were studied (white Americans, African Americans, British, Irish, Germans, Italians, Jews, Turks, Chinese and Japanese). They refined the definition of a stereotype given by W. Lippmann. A stereotype, according to D. Katz and K. Braley, is a stable representation arising from the inherent property of a person to first determine a phenomenon, and then observe it. Ethnic stereotypes, in their opinion, are not consistent with reality.

As opposed to the concept of a stereotype, they introduced the concept of an image, which, according to scientists, was a purely objective reflection of reality and is a complex system of ideas that have their own laws, forming a certain psychological environment in which decisions are made. In their opinion, a person, comprehending the world, creates a certain picture in his head, which is the image of the perceived reality.

Thus, the American school of studying ethnic stereotypes, which developed in the 1920s and 1930s. of the last century, based on sociological data, for the first time proposed the concept of a stereotype, developed a methodology for working with it, and outlined its main features.

Further studies of stereotypes are connected with the activities of UNESCO. In the context of a warming international climate after the end of the Second World War and the desire of peoples for mutual understanding, the prevention of armed conflicts, scientific research was undertaken on the reasons for the negative attitude of peoples towards each other. Such studies have been carried out both in European countries and in the USA. In 1950 Otto Klenberg gave his own definition of an ethnic stereotype. O. Klenberg characterized the stereotype as a picture of the world in the minds of people in relation to their own or another national group. These stereotypes, in his opinion, are extremely widespread in society, but very primitive and not receptive to reality.

In 1961 Arnold Rose gave another definition of a stereotype. According to this definition, a stereotype is a false belief, an exaggeration of physical traits or cultural characteristics, which first appears in individual members of a group, and then is adopted by all other members of it. In general, the scientist treated stereotypes as a negative phenomenon, racial prejudice, which was characteristic of Western science in the 1960s and 1980s. At the same time, A. Rose noted such an important feature of stereotypes as a reflection not only of the characteristic features of the perceived individual, people, etc., but also the character of the perceiver himself.

In 1967 a French researcher Sylvain Marandon made an attempt to explore the nature of ethnic stereotypes on historical material. In her work, devoted to the peculiarities of the mutual perception of the French and the English in the first half of the 19th century, she studies the ways of forming ethnic stereotypes and their components - society, national character, family, morality, religion, church, education, art. S. Marandon singled out several groups of stereotypes, thus proposing one of the first classifications. So, she singled out opinions, ideas, images, images, stereotypes, ethnic prejudices. By stereotypes, she understands simplistic ideas that are not very consistent with reality.

In domestic science, interest in the problem of ethnic stereotypes can be traced back to the end of the 19th century. This problem was studied mainly within the framework of the historical school on special sources - letters, diaries, notes of travelers, memoirs, etc. One of the first in Russian science addressed the problem of the image of one people through the eyes of another, an outstanding Russian historian Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky considered the "image" of pre-Petrine Russia in the memoirs of foreign travelers. Of course, the concept of "ethnic stereotype" has not yet been used in the works of V. O. Klyuchevsky. However, the meaning of his work was precisely to outline the most typical ideas associated with the ideas of foreigners about Russians, which he identified on the basis of an analysis of memoirs, epistolary literature, and travel notes.

The study of other Russian historians A. M. Vasyutinskiy and A. K. Dzhivelegov “The French in Russia: 1812 according to the memoirs of foreign contemporaries”, published in the year of the centennial anniversary of the victory over Napoleon’s army, is devoted to the same topic. The book contains the most interesting material depicting our country at the beginning of the 19th century. through the eyes of soldiers and officers of the Napoleonic army. The authors of these notes are people from different social strata, different ages, with different values, views and beliefs. However, the more voluminous, objective and interesting is the image of Russia and Russians seen through their eyes.

On the pages of the book, we come across very different and sometimes opposite impressions about Russia. So, the regimental doctor of the French army, Roos, wrote the following about his feelings when crossing the Russian border: “... having arrived in Russia, we immediately got on a good military road and the first houses we met looked very nice. Here we saw more order than in Poland. First impressions made us change for the better our wrong opinion about this country.” But another participant in the campaign, officer de la Flies, described his first impressions of Russia as follows: “... this is not Italy and not Austria! Local savagery, impassable roads, every day we had to deal with difficulties. As can be seen from the above passages, the assessment of Russian reality is very different. Naturally, such different reviews of eyewitnesses contributed to the formation of a dual, contradictory opinion about our country, but, at the same time, made it more objective.

On the material of memoirs, letters, travel notes left by the participants of the campaign against Moscow, the authors undertook a description of Russia and the Russians, as the officers and soldiers of the Napoleonic army saw it. In the works of V. O. Klyuchevsky, A. M. Vasyutinskiy and A. K. Dzhivelegov, the main stereotypes of perception of our country that existed at that time among Europeans were described. These studies provide us with invaluable historical material for the study of modern ethnic stereotypes about Russians, many of which have come down to us almost unchanged.

In the 80–90s of the 20th century, the St. Petersburg historian Yuri Alexandrovich Limonov, dedicated a whole series of books to her. The merit of Yu. A. Limonov lies in the fact that he turned to the richest source - memoirs, travel notes, letters. These works consistently present the image of Russia and Russians of different historical eras in its evolution based on the writings of foreigners who visited our country in different years and left their memories of it.

Diplomats, merchants, soldiers, and writers wrote about Russia. Among them are Italians, Poles, British, French, Dutch, Austrians of simple and noble origin. Their notes are filled with different attitudes towards our country and its people. Some of them are clearly tendentious, such as "The History and Anecdotes of the Revolution in Russia in 1762" the secretary of the French ambassador in St. Petersburg, Chevalier de Rulière, others are more objective.

On the pages of memoirs, descriptions of nature, cities, customs and mores of the Russian people appear before us. Many sketches are devoted to the state structure and the description of Russian rulers, their character, methods of government. Those travelers who arrived in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century unanimously noted the dramatic changes associated with Peter's reforms. Yes, and Peter I himself is described in the memoirs of foreign travelers in great detail: for most of them, he is associated with Russia itself.

Foreign contemporaries describe Russians as generous, hardworking, hospitable, while noting good health, outward beauty and the natural mind of the people. “They have no shortage of good heads for learning. Among them there are very talented people, gifted with a good mind and memory,” wrote Adam Olearius, who visited the Muscovite state in the first half of the 17th century, about the Russians. Many of the foreign authors have noticed that the Russian people despises obstacles and physical suffering, they have patience and vital zeal, gaiety, pride and courage. Foreign travelers noted that Russians are more hospitable and cordial than other peoples. Another feature characteristic of the Russian nation, all foreigners called generosity, bordering on wastefulness. Some of them believed that it was common for the Russian nobility to throw money out the window.

In general, foreigners wrote about Russians more in benevolent tones than critically: they were bribed by the generosity of Russians, their cordiality and hospitality, which are not typical of all Europeans. “There is something gigantic in this people, you cannot measure it with ordinary standards,” Madame de Stael said about the Russians.

Many of the sources underlying the studies of the image of Russia, conducted by Yu. A. Limonov, were not previously used in historical science. At the same time, these sources are very interesting material, which allowed the researcher to plunge into the world contemporary to the authors of these works and see the world, era, country and people he studied, as if from the inside. The personal impressions of the authors about the events of those times allowed Yu. A. Limonov to restore and concretize many of the nuances of intercultural relations of those years, seen through the prism of the image of Russia through the eyes of contemporaries-foreigners.

In his works, Yu. A. Limonov emphasized that the notes of travelers who visited Russia are of particular importance for recreating the image of a typical Russian from different historical eras through the eyes of a contemporary foreigner. As a source on the history of international cultural relations and intercultural communications, these notes provide an opportunity to see the country through the prism of its perception by people of a different culture, with a different mentality. The memories of foreigners about Russia describe those features of Russian life that our compatriots sometimes ignore, and although these sources are often biased, like all sources of a private nature, they serve as an excellent addition to Russian memoirs, since foreigners pay attention to those aspects of life that for domestic observer is not of interest.

An attempt to recreate the image of one people in the mass consciousness of another people, arising in the course of intercultural communication, was also undertaken by other domestic historians. Especially many such works appeared in the 80-90s. of the twentieth century, which considered the image of our country through the eyes of other peoples.

Thus, first in Russian, then in Soviet historical science, a special direction in the study of ethnic stereotypes was created, which was based on work with certain sources. In a series of books devoted to Russia through the eyes of foreigners, memoirs of foreign travelers, the image of our country and people is consistently recreated in the mass consciousness of Europeans. It is interesting to note that many features of these stereotypes remained practically unchanged in the mass perception of foreigners during the 17th-20th centuries. In addition, these works help to trace the roots of the emergence of persistent stereotypes about Russia and Russians that exist in the mass consciousness of Europeans even now, and also provide an opportunity to complete the picture of cultural communication between Russia and foreign countries with interesting facts that are not always

Own understanding of the phenomenon of ethnic stereotypes in Russian science in the 60–90s. of the last century is presented in the works of philosophers. One of the first definitions of a stereotype in Soviet science was proposed by V. A. Yadov, who described them as “sensually colored social images”. Another representative of philosophical science, Igor Semenovich Kon, in 1968 he published the article "National Character: Myth or Reality?", where he gave one of the first definitions of ethnic stereotypes in Russian science. By ethnic stereotypes, he understood "the embodiment of ideas inherent in everyday consciousness about one's own or another people, sensually colored social images." I. S. Kon considered ethnic stereotypes as schemes that fix some features of a phenomenon, sometimes not existing, but attributed to it subjectively.

According to T. Vasilyeva, which also addressed the problems of ethnic stereotypes in a philosophical aspect, the process of stereotyping is a part of human thinking and a form of communication through which various information is accumulated. A stereotype helps to explain oneself to another and another to oneself. It is important to note that the researcher considers the stereotype to be an integral part of international relations.

Further development of the doctrine of ethnic stereotypes in domestic science in the 70–80s. received in the works of scientists N. A. Erofeev, T. E. Vasilyeva.

A special place among the works devoted to the study of ethnic stereotypes is occupied by a monograph by a specialist in the history of England N. A. Erofeeva. The author proposed his own definition of an ethnic stereotype, according to which ethnic representations are a verbal portrait or image of a foreign people, which reflects its most significant features. Ethnic representations, in his opinion, are the result of assimilation and processing of certain information. N. A. Erofeev noted that different social strata may have different ideas about the same people, phenomenon. The author studied ethnic and foreign policy stereotypes, their relationship, noted that positive images of the people and the state contribute to a more active establishment of contacts with them (negative ones, on the contrary). N. A. Erofeev repeatedly pointed out the need to include the study of stereotypes in the work of foreign affairs agencies, referring to the experience of England, which since 1934 has taken a course towards the formation of a positive image.

Considering the history of the study of ethnic stereotypes in Russian historiography, it is impossible not to note the work E. Egorova And K. Pleshkova who addressed the relationship of ethnic and foreign policy stereotypes. According to the authors, a stereotype is a phenomenon of social consciousness, in which a schematized idea of the world around is fixed. It is characterized by emotional coloring, evaluation, connection with the archetypes of consciousness. A foreign policy stereotype is a specially created, purposefully formed political image for certain propaganda purposes. These researchers dealt with the issue of sources of formation of ethnic and foreign policy stereotypes: propaganda, the attitude of the political elite, official political attitudes.

In the works of T. Vasilyeva, N. Erofeev, K. Pleshkov, E. Egorova, their own definitions of ethnic stereotypes were given, the mechanisms of their formation were clarified, and their role in modern life was determined. It is important to emphasize that scientists considered not only ethnic stereotypes, but also foreign policy stereotypes, that is, ideas about states.

Significant interest in the problems of stereotypes emerged in domestic science in the 1990s. and early 2000s. At this time, many works were published on various aspects of this phenomenon. Speaking about the study of stereotypes in modern domestic science, one should, first of all, pay attention, first of all, to the works of S. V. Chugrov, A. V. Pavlovskaya, A. V. Golubev.

A significant contribution to the formation of the theoretical basis for the study of ethnic stereotypes was made by Sergei Vladislavovich Chugrov, who devoted a number of works to this problem. S. V. Chugrov used the concept of “national stereotype”, which, according to his definition, is a collective representation of one people about another, a natural element of national consciousness and international relations. National images are based on the socio-historical experience of the nation and its traditions.

S. V. Chugrov did not identify the concepts of "stereotype", "image" and "image", but he saw their relationship. The image is an adequate reflection of reality, the image is artificially formed, distorted, the stereotype is the deep basis of the image. The stereotypes themselves are based on certain psychological attitudes, that is, on the readiness to perceive something in a certain light, in a certain way. The author gives a historical picture of the formation of images and stereotypes in various cultural and historical conditions. He directly connects the nature of stereotypes with mythological consciousness, the most ancient form of human thinking.

The author of a number of essays on the problems of ethnic stereotypes is Anna Valentinovna Pavlovskaya. On her initiative in the 1990s several scientific conferences devoted to the problems of ethnic stereotypes took place. According to the definition of A. V. Pavlovskaya, a stereotype is a schematized, one-sided image of a phenomenon, people, country that exists in the human mind and at the same time its assessment, learned even before getting to know them.

Historian A.V. Golubev offered his own definition of a stereotype. According to the scientist, a stereotype is a stable, simplified, emotionally colored representation based on group experience, one of the forms of perception of the surrounding world. The foreign policy stereotype is wider, because it includes the idea of the political system, socio-political, economic situation, culture, but is more ideological than the ethnic stereotype. Unfortunately, in the early 2000s, interest in the problem of ethnic stereotypes in domestic science has noticeably decreased, as evidenced by the decrease in scientific publications devoted to this problem. At the same time, in the early 2000s, the study of ethnic stereotypes was replaced by the problem of images.

The contribution to the development of the theoretical aspects of imageology was made by a domestic researcher G. G. Pocheptsov, which considered, in particular, foreign policy images: the images of countries, politicians, peoples. G. Pocheptsov gives the following definition: an image is a symbolic symbol that reflects the main features of a person, a group of people, peoples, states. Another domestic scientist V. M. Shepel, the author of a textbook on imageology, offers his own concept of image, but, first of all, refers to the individual image. The most important is his view on the role of the image of a political leader, the processes of its formation. In general, a rather extensive scientific literature on the problems of image has now been formed, which studies the various facets of this phenomenon: individual, collective, political, etc.

The problem of ethnic stereotypes is one of the most interesting problems of modern humanities. Unfortunately, in the last decade, this problem has not been as actively interested in scientists as, for example, the problem of the image of the state or state branding. However, without taking into account ethnic ideas, without knowledge of ethnic stereotypes, none of the most large-scale image policy will be successful.

§ 3. Foreign policy image of the state

Along with ethnic stereotypes in the system of international relations, especially international cultural exchange, an important place is occupied by the problem of the image of the state, foreign policy stereotypes. A favorable image of the state helps to attract tourists to it (hence, the influx of financial resources), creates a favorable climate for investing in the economy, science, education (improving the lives of citizens), establishing contacts in all areas of public and cultural life, a positive psychological mood of citizens and society in in general.

The study of foreign policy stereotypes is a young area of modern humanities. Foreign policy stereotypes have been considered by various scholars since the mid-1970s. 20th century Like ethnic stereotypes, foreign policy images were considered by scientists representing various humanities: history, political science, sociology, philosophy, which indicates the interdisciplinary nature of the problem.

However, foreign policy stereotypes received independent study in the work L. Zaka, who for the first time in Russian science defined foreign policy stereotypes, examined in detail their nature, methods of formation, and features of manifestation. In the monograph by L. Zak, a theoretical substantiation of this phenomenon is given and its place in international relations is determined. The author examined in detail the problem of foreign policy stereotypes and their role in international relations. According to him definition of a foreign policy stereotype- this is a phenomenon that covers the most important features of the state. He referred to these traits as:

recognized boundaries,

Power, strength of the country

The nature of relations with other states (the degree of friendliness and hostility)

Way of conducting foreign policy

The value system in the country

Ways of making decisions

The nature of public opinion.

L. Zak noted that in international relations the importance of creating and maintaining a positive image of the state is not disputed. "It's not just who you are that matters, but how you appear to be." The scientist singled out a system of certain signs used in the practice of forming foreign policy stereotypes.

1. Official signs (messages, speeches expressing the official state position of the state on a specific issue; declarations of participation in certain international events, organizations; diplomatic protests, notes, union treaties, communiqués, etc.). These signs are made taking into account existing stereotypes and with the aim of making a certain impression on other states.

2. Symbolic signs-gestures (friendly visits, congratulations, treaties and agreements on cultural, technical or trade cooperation, reviews of ambassadors, military maneuvers)

3. Information signs, information are created with the help of the media, the press, with the help of a certain selection of information. The role of the media in the formation of foreign policy stereotypes is very important. In addition, the media, to a certain extent, depend on the government and express the official point of view.

In general, the system of signs and symbols, according to the author, is aimed not only at foreign policy stereotypes, but also at propaganda stereotypes. The main factors influencing the formation of foreign policy stereotypes L. Zak include:

1. All kinds of media. The media can create certain stereotypes not only by selecting information, but also by using its nature, the way it is presented (first page, detailed information, etc.). Many people get information about other countries exclusively from the media, not being direct participants in international events. At the same time, the media often form propaganda stereotypes in the interests of certain social strata and groups.

2. Public opinion. The position of the masses to a certain extent can indirectly influence foreign policy. At the same time, public opinion can become a real force in some situations. Public opinion can be influenced by the media, political leaders.

In the work of L. Zak, the main methods of influencing foreign policy stereotypes are identified:

1. Methods of a political nature (negotiations, statements on foreign policy, diplomatic recognition and non-recognition of a country, government, etc.).

2. Methods of a military nature (maneuvers, threat of war, war).

3. Methods of an economic nature (provision of economic, technical assistance, economic sanctions).

4. Methods of a cultural nature (tours, exhibitions, festivals, etc.).

5. Propaganda methods (media, speeches by politicians, political leaders).

For example, during the reign of Charles de Gaulle in France in the 50-60s. pursued a great power policy. In the context of the policy pursued, various declarations were made about the need to fight for the greatness of France, there was criticism of US policy, in particular, the Vietnam War, there was a reduction in participation in NATO (since 1958), a statement was made about the need to move away from the dollar as an international currency, a policy was pursued to reduce the use of English words. On the other hand, the establishment of friendly relations with a number of countries in Asia and Africa, for example, with Cambodia.

Foreign policy stereotypes are heterogeneous and, as a rule, combine layers of three chronological periods - foreign policy stereotypes of previous times, the real state of affairs in foreign policy, and forecasting possible steps in the future. An important role in the formation of foreign policy stereotypes is played by people's diplomacy, which became especially widespread after World War II (various public organizations, student and youth exchanges, sports diplomacy, private individuals).

As a criticism of L. Zak's work, it should be noted that the author almost completely excluded such an important factor in the formation of a positive image of the country as culture, which is now assigned the main role by most states in their image policy. This topic was reflected, in particular, in the work of Yu. A. Kashlev, who was in the diplomatic service for a long time. Using various examples, the author examines the phenomenon of cultural diplomacy, gives a number of important definitions, such as "cultural diplomacy", "public diplomacy", etc.

Among the large number of domestic works devoted to the problems of the image of the state and which have appeared over the past ten years, it is necessary to dwell on the works of E. A. Galumov. This is one of the most authoritative specialists of modern Russian science on foreign policy images. Erast Alexandrovich Galumov devoted many works to theoretical and practical issues of images, in particular, the problem of forming a new image of Russia.

In modern science in the 2000s. one of the most complete, substantiated theories of images in international relations belongs to E. A. Galumov. Unlike L. Zak, E. A. Galumov uses another scientific concept - the image (image) of the country. E. A. Galumov proposed the following definition image (image) of the country- “a complex of objective, interconnected characteristics of the state system (economy, geography, demography, culture, etc.), the development of the state as a complex, multifaceted subsystem of the world order, the effectiveness of the interaction of the links of which determines the trends of the socio-economic, socio-political, national-confessional and other processes in the country”.

It seems to us that this definition could be supplemented - the image of the state determines not only the processes taking place within it, but also the behavior of the subjects of international relations towards it. Further, I would like to note that the image of the state is not its own characteristics, but the result of the perception of these characteristics by certain audiences, and this perception is associated with a certain assessment of certain characteristics.

Thus, it can be argued that in the context of international relations, the image of a state is the result of an assessment by the subjects of international relations of all the perceptible characteristics of this state, which determines the behavior of the above subjects in relation to it.

The main function of the image (including the image of the state) is the formation of a positive attitude. If a positive attitude is formed, then, as a result of the influence of social ties, it will be followed by trust and, in turn, high marks and a confident choice. . In addition, a positive image, as a rule, contributes to an increase in prestige. , and hence authority and influence. A positive image is also an important factor in a high ranking.

According to the point of view of E. A. Galumov, the main tools for forming a positive image of the country are:

1. The media, which contribute to the dissemination of positive information about the country, propagate it.

2. Diplomacy, which should position the policy pursued by the state in the interests of forming a positive image of the country in the eyes of the world community. In particular, the image of a diplomat is of great importance, since it reproduces the features of the national character. Usually the image of a diplomat and the image of the country are interconnected (peacefulness of the Russian nation/generosity of the Russian people).

3. Language. Preservation of the national language abroad, language policy. The national language contributes to familiarization with the national culture of other peoples, activates intercultural dialogue.

4. National culture. The dissemination of national culture and works of art abroad is of particular importance in the formation of a positive image of the country abroad. Sports, tourism, science, education, literature, music, theater - all this contributes to creating a positive image and strengthening cultural ties.

5. Cultural centers that promote their national culture, language abroad (for example, the Goethe Institute, the French Institute, etc.).

The use of a positive image of the country abroad in international relations has, first of all, ideological significance - it forms a favorable public opinion, provides conditions for the implementation of desirable political goals. Thus, the main function of the country's foreign policy image is the formation of a positive attitude towards it in the world.

Speaking about the mechanisms of forming a positive image of the country, E. A. Galumov believes that:

1. It is based on certain historical, geopolitical, civilizational, cultural, ethno-religious, demographic foundations.

2. The process of forming a positive image of the country is influenced by a number of factors: the image of power, the image of a political leader, national stereotypes, etc.

3. A wide range of actors participate in the formation of a positive image of the country - legislative and executive authorities, public organizations, scientists, representatives of creative professions, and the media.

E. A. Galumov distinguishes several types of the country's image:

1. Objective (real) - this is the idea that the domestic or foreign public has about a given country.

2. Subjective - an idea of the leader of the country, his environment.

3. Modeled - the image that image makers or a team of state leaders are trying to create.

As a rule, the state has a number of objective images - social, economic, humanitarian, political, cultural, environmental, etc. These images can be both positive and negative. They can change depending on the situation and, therefore, can be formed in certain interests. At the same time, the basic features of the image can be preserved, while the superficial ones, reflecting new realities, can change.

In the works of E. A. Galumov, a detailed description of the country's image is proposed, which includes such provisions as:

1. The image of the country is simplified in comparison with the object, at the same time it emphasizes the specificity, uniqueness of the object

2. The image is symbolic. A huge amount of information about an object is reduced to a set of certain characters

3. The image is specific, mobile, changeable, adapts to a specific situation.

4. The image to a certain extent idealizes the object, emphasizing its advantageous features, and sometimes endowing them with them. Disadvantages are hidden

5. Image takes a place between the real and the desired, combining real and fictional characteristics.

According to the scientist, the structure of the country's image includes the following elements:

The image of the state structure

Image of power

The image of a political leader

The image of the economy

The image of the armed forces

Image of information policy

Foreign policy image

E. A. Galumov considers the most effective factors in the formation of the image:

Natural resource potential of the country

National and cultural heritage

Geopolitical position (size of the territory, borders of the state, access to the sea)

Historical events, the contribution of citizens to the development of national and world culture

Sustainability of the economic and political development of the country

The standard of living and income of the population

The effectiveness of government institutions

Legal field (observance of fundamental rights and freedoms)

Now many countries have a so-called "politics of images", the purpose of which is to create the most structured space to promote a positive perception of the national interests of the state.

E. A. Galumov divides the images (images) of the state into 6 types. Its classification is based on the cultural potential of the country, which emphasizes the importance of culture in shaping a positive image of the country.

1. Political and geographical image (the concentration of the main geographical signs and symbols of the country in political terms). USA - the New World, Switzerland - the pearl of the Alps, Egypt - the gift of the Nile, China - China

2. Natural resource image (concentration of the main features, symbols of national resources - landscape, nature, climate). Japan is the country of the rising sun, England is foggy Albion, Russia is the country of snows.

3. Civilizational and cultural image (the concentration of national cultural signs and symbols of the country in the historical and civilizational dimension). USA - the Statue of Liberty, Egypt - the pyramids.

4. Socio-mental image (the concentration of the main features, symbols, traits of the people with the most typical socio-psychological characteristics). The Germans are punctual, the Americans are businesslike, the British are stiff.

5. Production and economic image (concentration of the main economic signs, symbols and opportunities in the economy, scientific, industrial sphere). USA - McDonald's, France - high fashion, Russia - space, ballet, Germany - cars.

6. National-holistic image (concentration of signs and symbols expressing state interests. The state and the people with their historical values, the ideas that the state defends on the world stage). USA - freedom and independence, Europe - civilization, Asia - respect for traditions.

Undoubtedly, the works of E. A. Galumov made a significant contribution to the development of the theoretical foundations of the problem of the image of the state. The main merit of the author, in our opinion, lies in the consistent study of the problem posed precisely in the theoretical aspect. However, as a criticism, we note, for example, that the researcher does not share the concepts of "image" and "image" of the state, while the differentiation of these concepts would allow a deeper study of the whole complex of ideas about states: both those formed as a result of a certain policy, and natural way. Nevertheless, the works of E. Galumov contain the most complete analysis of the image of the state in modern domestic science.

An interesting theory of the image of the state in international relations was proposed by another modern researcher - I. Yu. Kiselev. I. Yu. Kiselev is one of the authors of the book “The Dynamics of the Image of the State in International Relations”. The paper proposes the concept of the so-called "I - the image" of the state, built mainly on the basis of sociological methods. I. Yu. Kiselev, unlike E. A. Galumov, shares the concepts of “image” and “image” of the state, believing that the image is a more general phenomenon, and the image is an image formed specifically in accordance with expectations. The author puts three components into the concept of the image “I am the state”: identity, the status of the state and its authority in the international arena. In practical terms, "I - the image" of the state is considered on the example of the USSR, USA, Great Britain. The main sources for the study by I. Yu. Kiselev and A. G. Smirnova were such specific documents as the speeches of the presidents, leaders of the states under study, their political statements.

According to the authors, the state in the international arena is simultaneously positioned in three different spheres. First, it is characterized by a unique geographical position, peculiarities of the organization of political and economic life, military power, culture and history, ethnic and religious composition of the population, shared values and beliefs. In scientific literature, such a set of characteristics is denoted by the concept of national identity. Secondly, the state is distinguished by a special position in the system of international relations, membership in international organizations, friendly or hostile relations with certain countries. In other words, the state is characterized by a special status. Thirdly, each state implements a certain list of roles in the international arena.

Thus, the representation of the state about itself and other participants in international relations has a three-component structure, which includes: national identity, status and roles. We have highlighted the word "representation" to emphasize the fact that states learn not only about other states, but, above all, about themselves. The result of the process of cognition is the construction of the image of the state, which reflects precisely the idea of the subject of cognition about the national identity, status and role of the country, which do not necessarily coincide with its objective characteristics in the three named areas of positioning. At the same time, it should be noted that each of the components of the image can be characterized by positive, negative or ambivalent emotional coloring.

An interesting look at the processes of forming a political image is presented in the work of V. M. Shepel, the author of a textbook on imageology. V. M. Shepel distributes all the functions of the image into two groups: personal and technological. The basis of Shepel's concept is the point of view that personal functions allow the bearer of the image to experience positive feelings from his own positive image. Technological functions allow the image carrier to achieve certain goals. Despite the fact that the work of V. M. Shepel is devoted to the problem of forming a personal image, many methods of its formation, of course, can be taken into account and are very effective in building the image of the state.

1. Adaptation function. Thanks to a correctly chosen image, the country easily enters a specific environment, attracts attention, inspires trust and sympathy.

2. The function of highlighting the best qualities. A favorable image makes it possible to represent the most attractive qualities of the state, allowing people in contact with it to know precisely these features that cause sympathy or good disposition.

3. The function of shading negative characteristics. This function is associated with the ability to smooth out the shortcomings that the state has.

4. The function of organizing attention. An attractive image involuntarily attracts people, it impresses them, and therefore they are psychologically more easily disposed to what comes from the image carrier.

At the same time, not all factors influencing the formation of the image and the further chain "positive attitude - trust – confident choice”, are subject to control by state authorities. For example, in Turkey in 2006, due to an outbreak of bird flu on the eve of the tourist season and an attack by Kurdish separatists, the number of foreign tourists decreased by 6.8% over 11 months. In order to combat this phenomenon, in 2006 the country had to significantly increase spending on advertising and marketing campaigns to promote Turkey as a tourist destination in the world.

Thus, it seems possible for us to divide all the factors influencing the formation of the image of the state in the world into three categories according to the criterion of controllability of the highest state leadership:

1. Controlled (words and behavior of the head of state, representatives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, government officials, information coming from state bodies and state media, etc.);

2. Conditionally controlled (legislative framework, words and behavior of businessmen, representatives of public organizations, politicians who are not members of government bodies, stereotypes, etc.);

3. Uncontrolled (natural factors, culture, the behavior of citizens of the state observed by foreign audiences, etc.).

The image of the state rarely reflects the real state of affairs. In the case of developing countries, the most common reason for this discrepancy is time. A country (both economically, culturally, and politically) can develop rather quickly, but the image earned by it at the initial stage of development may not change for years or even centuries.

One of the elements of the image of the state are national stereotypes. For example, "Americans are primitive, unscrupulous consumers" or "The French are an arrogant community that has lost its once significant position."

In order to meet the requirements of the time, the image of the state must constantly change, be refined, especially with the development of economic, social, geopolitical, technological, informational and demographic processes.

From the point of view of professionals, the image of the state is a specially modeled purposeful reflection, that is, a reflection of an image already created by professionals based on some reality. It includes four components that can be thought of as image levels:

1. some source material, pre-sighted to minimize negative features and maximize positive ones;

2. such a model itself superimposed on a previously prepared source material;

3. inevitable distortions introduced by the channels of image transmission (first of all, the mass media) and ways of its replication;

4. the result of the active own work of the audience or a separate subject of perception, reconstructing the final holistic image in their minds based on the imposed model, but taking into account their own ideas.

Public opinion studies show that the image of the state is effectively formed only if several conditions are met:

1. the fight against the distortion of the image of the country should be carried out concretely and reasonably; it is necessary to respond to every case of lies of both national and foreign politicians or the media;

2. It is important to consider the efforts of image makers to form a positive image of the country only as an addition to correcting the real state of affairs;

3. The image of a politician - especially from the first echelons of power - must “morally” correspond to the image of the country being built.

The country's image is the base on which the country's reputation is built in the minds of the world community as a result of certain actions. As a multifaceted category, the image of the state includes social, artistic, psychological, economic, political aspects. In addition, the modern image of the country is largely determined by its past, as well as the presence of a national idea, since society is united not only on the basis of economic, political and material interests, but also on the basis of cultural and spiritual values.

Of course, the studies of E. A. Galumov, I. Yu. Kiselev, V. M. Shepel do not limit the entire scientific literature on the problems of the foreign policy image. Currently, there is a sufficient number of works by domestic researchers on this issue, which allows us to speak about the formation of the domestic theory of the foreign policy image of the state. Based on the analysis of the main studies, it is possible to identify the following theoretical positions on the problems of the foreign policy image of the state.

Image is a complex form of communication that provides a person with the most complete impression of an object, contributing to the achievement of the strategic goals of communication.

The formation of the image of any state occurs at two levels. Private - a matter of self-education, spontaneous interest in the country, private friendly communication with its citizens (books, culinary experience, inclusions in the interior, clothing). Such an image is formed at the personal level. Official - is the object of state policy.

The international image of the state is a set of interconnected characteristics of the state system, formed as a result of the development of statehood, the effectiveness of the interaction of the links of which determines the trends of political, economic, social, public and other processes in the country. Image is that detail that determines what reputation a state will acquire or acquire in the minds of the world community as a result of the interaction of certain subjects interacting with the rest of the world.

In modern science, there are many approaches to the classification of the international image of the state:

Objective image - the impression of the country that exists in the majority of the internal or external public (economic, political, social, humanitarian, cultural, etc.).

The modeled image is the image of the state that teams of the head of the country or special image makers are trying to create.

It is possible to distinguish primary and secondary image. The primary image is a complex idea of the country as a subject of a certain activity (political, economic), which is formed and focused in the mind as a result of the initial acquaintance. In the process of competition, the image of the state is transformed in the eyes of the public, retaining the basic principles, but at the same time, new features appear, leading to the formation of a new image of the state, called secondary.

Usually, communications are considered as mechanisms for forming the country's image. There are several subjects that ensure the organization of communicative image relations:

The state represented by the authorities,

diplomatic service,

Mass media (domestic and foreign),

non-governmental organizations,

State and public cultural organizations, foreign cultural centers, sports, individuals.

According to the definition of the UN-WTO (World Tourism Organization), the image of a country is a set of emotional and rational ideas arising from a comparison of all the features of the country, one's own experience and rumors that influence the creation of a certain image.

The politics of images is the purposeful positioning and manipulation of specialized political-cultural, economic-geographical and other images.

In shaping the image of the state, natural resources, recreational areas, advanced industries, literary and artistic heritage, and the success of social policy occupy bright positions. At the same time, image characteristics of the state are transferred to goods, organizations, and other internal objects of the country, and vice versa, iconic objects - the best objects of production, the quality of education, which have already become a symbol, recognized by target audiences, competitors, “work” for the image of the state. It is in such cases that cultural and social stereotypes arise - "a country of forests", "German quality".

Also, modern literature uses the concept of "state style", which includes information and communication and sign-symbolic elements of the state identification system, as well as emblems, insignia, visual ways of presenting information (protocol principles of state etiquette and ceremonial).

Membership in international organizations is important for the formation of the state image. In addition, this entails certain economic benefits: additional jobs, commercial promotion of goods, conclusion of new contracts, development of new markets, etc.

Public diplomacy is purposeful informing the international community about creating a positive opinion about the country, as well as maintaining contacts with other peoples in the field of culture and education, aimed at creating a favorable image of one's country.

In recent years, many scientific articles have appeared on the problems of the image of Russia. One of the most interesting articles in this regard V. A. Kononenko"To create an image of Russia". Despite the fact that the article is devoted to the practical aspect of the problem, i.e. the formation of the image of our country, it also outlines the author's theoretical views on the phenomenon of the state image. The work can be divided into several main parts. First, the author examines the problems associated with the formation of the image of modern Russia. In particular, the author of the article notes the low effectiveness of Russia's image campaigns. The very concept of "Russia's image" in the world is a very vague concept, including various, disparate aspects from culture to foreign policy. Also, V. A. Kononenko believes that today in our country there is no strategy of image policy, where the priorities and the expected result would be clearly defined. And, finally, the author believes that the effect of individual successful actions is lost due to the lack of coordination between the departments and agencies that are entrusted with these functions.

Indeed, at present Russia's image is largely associated with insufficiently attractive subjects: Chechnya, instability in the Caucasus, corruption, crime. If we turn to the materials of the Western press about Russia, one gets the impression that the image of Russia in a foreign audience is much darker than reality. On the other hand, the USSR is still memorable, which managed to create a worthy image. The achievements of Soviet cosmonautics, Soviet ballet, Soviet sports were known all over the world, and the Soviet ideology was a serious opponent of the capitalist one. In addition, the USSR not only created the image of a superpower, but also corresponded to it.

The author connects the problems of forming the image of modern Russia with the fact that the interest in our country in the world is not as high as in Soviet times or perestroika. This leads to a simplification of perception, clichéd image. In addition, Russia does not have a clearly defined position in the modern world (the United States is the flagship of freedom and democracy, Norway is a country that advocates the peaceful resolution of conflicts).

In the United States, the problem of forming a positive image was formulated quite a long time ago, unlike in Russia, and is one of the traditional priorities of foreign policy. Now the US is actively trying to change its image in the Islamic world. Attempts to change their image are made by China, India, the countries of Southeast Asia, the European Union (especially after France and the Netherlands refused to accept the European Constitution).

Also in the work of V. A. Kononenko, the special role of public diplomacy in the process of creating a positive image of the country is considered. Public diplomacy is a set of measures to study and inform foreign audiences, as well as to establish contacts. It covers a much wider area than ordinary diplomacy: the media, non-governmental organizations, foundations (for example, the Adenauer Foundation, the Ford Foundation, and many others), political parties and movements, representatives of creative professions, athletes, students and university professors.

Unlike propaganda, which is in the nature of imposing one's position, public diplomacy is designed to build trusting relationships. To do this, it is enough to convince the opposite side that cooperation is beneficial for it. As a rule, in such cases, the so-called "soft power" is used. This term was first introduced by the American professor Joseph Nye in the books Doomed to Lead. The Changing Nature of American Power” and “Soft Power. How to Succeed in World Politics.

J. Nye sees the main advantage of soft power over military or financial power in the ability to attract someone to his side thanks to the positive content of foreign policy, and not just a set of pressure levers. There are three components through which the state can influence: culture (where it is popular: American pop culture, French high fashion), values, foreign policy. At the same time, culture is put in the first place in this list.

Along with culture, an important component of the country's foreign policy image is the image of political leaders, heads of state, diplomats, representatives of the political elite, and public figures. The political leader is the "face of the state" in the international arena. For many people, it is the political leader of the country with his character, demeanor and other personal characteristics that is associated with the image of the state as a whole. Therefore, it becomes clear why many states pay so much attention to the formation of a positive image of their leader.

Problems of the political image are considered in detail V. M. Shepel, the author of one of the first textbooks in Russia on imageology, as well as G. G. Pocheptsov, who dealt directly with the problems of the image of a political leader.

The political image is important precisely in a practical perspective. In science, there are several types of images: self-image, perceived image, required image, ideal image, real image. Within the framework of the image of a political leader, three aspects are distinguished: the image is portrait, professional, and social.

Usually, the image of a politician is built taking into account the individual character traits of the person himself and in the context of a specific political, economic, social situation, as well as taking into account world events. There are a number of additional components to the image of a politician - family, home, hobby, pets, etc. Both the political image of the leader of the country and the foreign policy images of the state should be based on the national characteristics inherent in this society, on the cultural values that dominate in it, take into account features of mentality. At the same time, they should be understandable to external audiences and evoke positive associations with them.

In this way, political image- a specially created, deliberately formed image of a particular figure, leader to achieve certain political goals.

At present, the new term “State-brand” is increasingly common in scientific circulation. It is associated with the "promotion" of the state, its promotion on the world stage, strengthening its authority, and the formation of a positive image. The study of the essence of the state brand and the applicability of branding technologies to such an object as the state is devoted to the work of the most prominent specialist in the field of commercial marketing F. Kotler, and P. van Hem, who attempted to develop the theoretical foundations of this phenomenon. In general, we note that, despite the experience of a number of states in conducting branding campaigns, the theory of state branding is still in the stage of scientific development and is a debatable topic.

The concept of the brand of the state is often confused with the concept of the image or image of the state. However, the concepts of "brand" and "image" are not identical: the concept of a brand is broader, it implies, in addition to the image, also other aspects. One of the well-known marketing experts F. Kotler gives the following definition of a brand: “a name, term, sign, symbol or design, or a combination of them, designed to identify the goods or services of one seller or group of sellers and differentiate them from competing ones.” Thus, a brand is not only the image itself, but also the tools through which it is formed. When forming the image of the state, branding techniques are used.

End of introductory segment.

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The following excerpt from the book Intercultural communication and international cultural exchange: textbook (N. M. Bogolyubova, 2009) provided by our book partner -