The most common definition of an economic institution is the definition given by Douglas North, who defined institutions as the rules of the game developed by people in society that set the framework for interaction between people and mechanisms for enforcing these rules. This definition of an institution, which includes three main components (formal rules, informal restrictions, and the level of enforcement of these rules) is widely used within the framework of the neo-institutional school. Mentality- these are the intellectual and emotional characteristics of an individual, whose thoughts and emotions are inseparable, where thoughts are dictated by culture, and emotions are a reaction to changes in the external environment, which is based on the cultural values ​​of the individual. Mentality is formed in the process of upbringing and gaining life experience. Thus, mentality is what distinguishes individuals raised in different cultural environments. Mentality is a way of seeing the world in which thought is not separated from emotions. Mental model- a term quite widespread in cognitive psychology Models are often poorly understood, difficult to verbalize, the knowledge contained in them is contextually mediated and extracted directly in the process of interaction with the object. The model stores information in a complex and interconnected manner about the object of interaction, the parameters of the interaction situation, oneself as an agent and the available means of transforming the object. There are two modes of existence of the model: the model as a unit of information storage and the actual model (reflection of the current situation), thus the model can be considered both in the structural aspect (features of the organization of experience) and in the procedural aspect (features of the actualization of knowledge). The model as a unit, in turn, is included in the larger structures of the organization of experience (naive theories, the image of the world, etc.) The formation of the strategy is influenced by the mental models of individuals, which are understood as the ways of perceiving processes or phenomena based on inherent human preferences, values , beliefs, feelings, etc. Mental models are a tool with which managers are able to reduce the complexity of situations and make decision-making techniques available. Mental models are formed at the highest levels of the organization and spread all the way to



to the level of departments. Routine- habitual techniques, methods of work, usual for this type of activity, addiction to a template; fear of change, stagnation. Development institutions - (the most popular form of which are banks and development corporations) allow reallocation of public funds in favor of “key segments”. Development institutions- specialized state (quasi-state) corporations (companies) whose activities are aimed at eliminating “market failures” that hinder the economic and social development of the country. More specifically, we are talking about solving four main tasks: 1) overcoming market failures in the field of innovation ("quasi-innovation" 1); 2) eliminating institutional failures (the formation of missing but necessary market segments); 3) economic development (energy, transport, other communications ) and social infrastructure; 4) elimination of significant regional imbalances in development. The main differences between the types of development institutions are determined by their spheres of activity and the set of tools used.

Economic behavior model. According to the model, people use various specific forms of reasoning and seek validity rather than optimality. If any method in the past has proven to be effective in a similar situation, then people are content to repeat their decision, and do not look for a more optimal one. First model, based on the methodology of the English economist and philosopher A. Smith, is based on the recognition of the compensatory role of wages as the basis of the economic behavior of the subject. The functioning of the model is determined by five main conditions that “compensate for small money earnings in some occupations and counterbalance large earnings in others:

1. the pleasantness or the unpleasantness of the activities themselves;

2. ease and low cost or difficulty and high cost of teaching them;

3. constancy or inconstancy of occupation;

4. more or less confidence in those who deal with them;

5. the likelihood or improbability of success in them.

These conditions determine the balance of real or imagined benefits and costs on which the rational choice of the individual is based.

The second model, based on the methodology of the American economist P. Heine, assumes that the economic way of thinking has four interrelated features: people choose; only individuals choose; individuals choose rationally; all social relations can be interpreted as market relations. Organizational behavior models.

The first model of organizational behavior: a dedicated and disciplined member of the organization. He fully accepts all organizational values ​​and norms of behavior. In this case, a person tries to behave in such a way that his actions do not in any way conflict with the interests of the organization. He sincerely tries to be disciplined, to fulfill his role completely in accordance with the norms and form of behavior accepted in the organization. Therefore, the results of the actions of such a person mainly depend on his personal capabilities and abilities and on how correctly the content of his role and functions in the organization is determined.

The second model of organizational behavior: the opportunist. A person does not accept the values ​​of the organization, however, he tries to behave, completely following the norms and forms of behavior adopted in the organization. Such a person can be characterized as an opportunist. He does everything correctly and according to the rules, but he cannot be considered a reliable member of the organization, since, although he is a good and efficient employee, he can nevertheless leave the organization at any time or take actions that may be contrary to the interests of the organization, but correspond to him. own interests. Fitters are the most common type of behavior among the personnel of any organization.

The third model of organizational behavior: original. The person accepts the goals of the organization, but does not accept the traditions and norms of behavior existing in it. In this case, a person can generate many difficulties in relationships with colleagues and management, in a team he looks like a "black sheep", an original. However, if the leadership of the organization finds the strength to abandon the well-established norms of behavior in relation to individual employees and give them the freedom to choose forms of behavior, then they can find their place in the organization and bring it significant benefits. This type includes many talented people of a creative (creative) mindset, capable of generating new ideas and original solutions.

Fourth model: rebel. The individual does not accept either the norms of behavior or the values ​​of the organization. This is an open rebel who always comes into conflict with the organizational environment and creates conflict situations. Very often "rebels" by their behavior give rise to many problems that significantly complicate the life of the organization and even damage it. There are also many gifted individuals among them, whose presence in the organization is of great benefit, despite all the inconveniences they create.

The mental model. These are deeply rooted in the minds of concepts, generalizations or even pictures and images that affect how we perceive the world and act. Very often people are not aware of how they relate to mental models or the influence they have on behavior. The mental models of what behavior is acceptable in various governance structures are equally deeply ingrained. Many concepts of new markets or organizational performance cannot be used in practice because they conflict with entrenched mental models.

Working with mental models begins with recreating the inner pictures of the world, carefully and attentively studying them. It also includes the ability to conduct "educational" conversations, which remove many questions when people demonstrate their thinking and make it open to the influence of others.

Institutions are, in fact, a common way of thinking about the particular relationship between society and the individual and the particular functions they perform; and the system of society's life, which is made up of the totality of those acting at a certain time or at any moment in the development of any society, can, from the psychological point of view, be characterized in general terms as a prevailing spiritual position or a widespread idea of ​​the way of life in society

Mental traps are familiar and familiar pathways along which our thought painfully and fruitlessly moves, burning incredible volumes of our time, sucking out energy and not creating any value either for ourselves or for anyone else.

Institutional traps are the main threat in reform. Universal mechanisms - the effects of coordination, learning, coupling, as well as cultural inertia and lobbying - are also responsible for the formation of institutional traps.

Due to the effect of coordination, an individual or a small group loses out when deviating from the corresponding stereotype of behavior, while the simultaneous transition of all agents to an alternative norm would increase social welfare. The rest of the effects reinforce the resulting rate (sometimes they can lead to the formation of a trap, regardless of the coordination effect).

If the effective norm prevailed in the system, then after a strong disturbance (which, however, does not change the structure of the set of equilibria), it can fall into an institutional trap, and then it will remain in it even when the disturbance is removed.

This so-called hysteresis effect is a typical phenomenon for the processes of forming norms and, in particular, institutional traps.

The structure of sustainable norms depends significantly on the transformation costs associated with the elimination of old institutions. Their presence leads to the emergence of new stable states - mixed norms of behavior. In a mixed equilibrium, the advantages of one norm over another are offset by the costs of transformation. In this case, the loss of asymptotic stability is typical for disturbances exceeding a certain threshold. In this sense, there is an analogy between transformation costs and static friction in mechanics. Some mixed equilibria may be effective while others may not, creating a range of institutional traps.

The increased costs of transformation under the influence of the conjugation effect can maintain the initially ineffective rate even when the coordination effect ceases to work. Once falling into an institutional trap, the system chooses an ineffective path of development, and over time, the transition to an effective trajectory may no longer be rational.

A striking example of ineffective technological development is given in the work of P. David. He examines the reason for the standard arrangement of the letters of the English alphabet on the keyboard of computers. On the first typewriters, it was chosen for random reasons, in particular, in the top row were placed the letters necessary for the salesman in order to print "type writer" in the presence of potential buyers. 65 years later, when an arrangement of letters was proposed, providing a higher - by 20-40% - typing speed, in order to switch to the new system, it would be necessary to retrain all typists who had already mastered the high-speed method.

The massive nature of this profession helped to reduce the cost of training one typist, as a result, the transition to a technically more advanced system turned out to be irrational. The process described is not difficult to interpret as a result of the effects of learning, coupling and cooperation (David talks about "technical interconnectedness" and "economies of scale").

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This topic belongs to the section:

Systems analysis in economics

Task 1 for the theoretical part. Topic: "Fundamentals of the theory of systems." Topic: "System analysis procedures". Topic: "System Modeling". Topic: "Models of Human Behavior and Societies."

This material includes sections:

Justify the characteristic features of systems research in the socio-economic sphere

Describe the goal setting procedure

Characterize the decomposition procedure

Describe the measurement procedure

Describe the syntax and purpose of the black box model

Describe the purpose and problems of constructing models of the composition and structure of socio-economic systems

Describe the syntax and purpose of the SADT model (idef0 standard)

Purpose and specification of econometric models

Purpose and procedure for constructing structural dynamics models

Provide definitions and examples of the system archetype and system pattern

Give definitions and examples of personality archetype and personality pattern

Describe the order of construction and purpose of system diagrams

The main indicators of the enterprise

Course project in the discipline of Enterprise Economics on the topic: The main indicators of the enterprise. The purpose of the course project is to assess the current economic condition of the contractor construction organization in terms of key aspects of production and financial activities.

The list of questions to prepare for the final interdisciplinary exam (section "Obstetrics and Gynecology")

Methodical instructions for conducting a practical lesson on the "Medical Service of Civil Defense"

The topic is "Organization of sanitary and hygienic and anti-epidemic measures among the population in wartime." Organizational and staff structure of SEA. Classification of foodstuffs according to the degree of contamination with radioactive substances, OM, SDYAV and contamination with BS. The procedure for sampling at the Central State Sanitary and Epidemiological Service and the expert opinion of the research results.

Kogamdyk Densaulyk Sagtau Peninen Test of Saraktar

Aleumettik medicine zhane densaulyk sautaudy basgaraudyk zertteu negizine zhatatyndar? Tuushylyk kursetkishin eseptegende berilgen zhyly. Tuylu zhunindegi malimet kuzi bolyp. Economicsқ damykan elderde khalyқ.

Mental models are the way we perceive the world, a set of tools with which we think. Each model offers its own system of views on life, allowing you to interpret different real-life situations.

The term "mental models" was first used by Scottish psychologist Kenneth Craik in The Nature of Explanation in the mid-20th century. Craik suggested that the brain creates "scaled-down models of reality" and uses them to assess future events.

In total, there are tens of thousands of different mental models related to different disciplines, however, as the famous American lawyer and economist Charlie Munger (Charlie Munger) said, “only 80 or 90 basic models can make you an experienced person who is confidently oriented in 90% of life. situations ".

In this article, we will try to highlight a few of the most important ones.

One of the earliest corporations to adopt the 80/20 Principle was the American company IBM. In 1963, IBM employees found that about 80% of computer time was spent processing 20% ​​of instructions. The company immediately rewrote the system software to make it more efficient. This allowed IBM to increase the speed of its computers and outperform competitors.

Normal Distribution

This law plays an extremely important role in the theory of probability. A physical quantity obeys a normal distribution when it is influenced by a huge number of random interference. In our realities, this is a fairly common occurrence, because the normal distribution is the most common.

Inaccurate modeling methods are based on the central limit theorem, which states that if you add up many independent quantities with the same distribution and finite variance, then the sum will be normally distributed.

Popular psychological tests often use lists of questions, the answers to which are compared with a certain number of points. Depending on the sum of these points, the subject is assigned to one category or another. It turns out that, according to the central limit theorem, if the questions do not make any sense and do not correspond in any way with the categories to which the subjects are assigned (that is, the test is fake), then the distribution of the sums will be approximately normal.

This means that most of the subjects will be ranked in some middle category. Therefore, if after passing any test you "hit" the middle of the scale, then, quite possibly, the normal distribution worked, and the test is useless. You can read more about the normal distribution.

Sensivity analysis

Sensitivity analysis is to assess the impact of changes in the initial parameters of the project on its final characteristics, which are usually used as the internal rate of return or net present value (NPV).

Sensitivity analysis is based on the question "What happens if ...?" This type of analysis identifies the most critical variables that are most likely to affect the feasibility and effectiveness of the project. Sales volume, unit price, payment delays, inflation rate, etc. can be taken as input variables.

Sensitivity analysis results are presented in tabular or graphical form, although the latter is more illustrative. However, sensitivity analysis has a serious limitation - it is a one-factor method, therefore it is not applicable in situations where a change in one variable entails a change in another.

Conclusion

The action of each of the above mental models goes beyond one particular discipline. For example, Pareto's law finds application in management, economics, trade and other areas.

“Models must be borrowed from different disciplines because the wisdom of the world is not contained in a single academic department,” writes Charles Munger in his autobiographical book Poor Charlie's Almanac.

The secret to success is to have as many models as possible, otherwise you risk ending up in the situation described by Maslow: "For a man with a hammer, any problem looks like a nail."

Mental models will help you see the situation from a different angle and solve a seemingly difficult problem. The effect of their use is especially noticeable when, as a result of mental training, you get the ability to see several options for solving a problem at once.

There is no universal method, however, having mastered several mental models, you can choose the most effective one for the situation. Trying to look at things in a new way is the best approach to overcoming difficulties.