The origin and development of the vocabulary of the word. The origin and composition of the modern vocabulary of the Russian language. The period of the formation of the Russian people

5
Introduction

Language is a social phenomenon. The emergence of a word and its life in a language - changes in its pronunciation, meaning, forms, its preservation for many centuries or its disappearance or replacement with another word - are connected, on the one hand, with the history of the language, and on the other hand, with the life of the people - the native speaker , with the development of its material and spiritual culture, with the natural conditions of its habitation, with its social development, contacts with other peoples. We can say that the relevance of the topic of this topic of work lies in the fact that the words that we have in everyday use play a significant role in our life. Saying them every day, we do not think about the origin, i.e. native Russian words or borrowed ones.
The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has come a long way of formation and to this day it does not remain unattended, even today it is replenished and developed by scientists every day. The study of the etymology of words is dealt with by the section of linguistics, which is also called etymology. The replenishment of the Russian vocabulary went in two directions:
1. New words were created from the word-building elements available in the language (roots, suffixes, prefixes)
2. New words poured into the Russian language from other languages and as a result of the economic, political and cultural ties of the Russian people with other peoples.
The etymological decision is based on scientific reconstruction, reconstruction of changes experienced by the word, and almost always represents a hypothesis. The consequence of this is the multiplicity of etymological interpretations of one word, not only replacing each other, but also not infrequently accepted by specialists simultaneously at a certain stage in the development of science.
Object this term paper is vocabulary in terms of its origin.
Subject is a borrowed vocabulary in the naming of sporting goods.
The purpose This work is to consider a thematic group of words in the names of sporting goods.
The main tasks of this course work are:
1. Consideration of the concept of borrowed vocabulary.
2. Allocation of a thematic group of words in catalogs of sports stores.
3. Description of thematic groups of words of the borrowed vocabulary.
The goals and objectives determined the structure of this work. The course work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion, a bibliography and an application.
ChapterIFormation of Russian vocabulary

1.1

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has come a long way of development. Our vocabulary consists not only of originally Russian words, but also of words borrowed from other languages. Foreign language sources supplemented and enriched the Russian language throughout the entire process of its historical development. Some borrowings were made in antiquity, others - relatively recently.
The replenishment of the Russian vocabulary went in two directions:
1. New words were created from word-building elements available in the language.(roots, suffixes, prefixes). This is how the primordial Russian vocabulary expanded and developed. The primordial Russian vocabulary includes words that go back to the Indo-European, Common Slavic, East Slavic, Old Russian, Great Russian periods or originated in the national Russian language (mother, father, brother, fish, beard, swan, white, yellow, healthy, evil, etc.).
2. New words poured into the Russian language from other languages and as a result economic, political and cultural ties of the Russian people with otherspeoples. Borrowed vocabulary includes words and tracing papers (literal translation of words and phraseological units) that came into the Russian language from different languages upon contact: coat(fr.), football(English), zinc(German), influence(tracing paper fr. in- flu- ence), make big eyes(literal translation of the German phraseological unit grofie Augen machen).
The composition of the Russian vocabulary from the point of view of its origin can be schematically represented in Fig. 1.
41
Rice. 1. Vocabulary of the modern Russian language
Primordially Russian vocabulary
The primordially Russian vocabulary is heterogeneous in origin: it consists of several layers, which differ in the time of their formation.
1.2 Borrowed vocabulary

From ancient times to written times, borrowed words entered the Russian language through language contacts on everyday, economic, cultural, and political grounds. Borrowed vocabulary includes related borrowings, Slavic and non-Slavic, and foreign.
Borrowings from Slavic languages
A special place in the Russian vocabulary among the Slavic borrowings is occupied by Old Slavonic words, or Old Slavicisms (Church Slavicisms). These are the words of the oldest Slavic language, well known in Russia since the spread of Christianity (988) ..
As part of the Old Slavicisms that have replenished the Russian vocabulary, several groups can be distinguished: 1) words dating back to the common Slavic language, having East Slavic variants of a different sounding or affixal design (gold, fisherman, boat; 2) Old Slavicisms, which do not have consonant Russian words: finger, mouth, cheeks, percy (cf. Russians: finger, lips, cheeks, chest); 3) semantic Old Slavicisms, that is, common Slavic words that have received a new meaning in the Old Church Slavonic language associated with Christianity: God, sin, sacrifice, fornication.
2. Those that do not stand out stylistically against the background of the rest of the vocabulary sharply differ from such Old Slavicisms (many of them have supplanted the corresponding East Slavic variants, duplicating their meaning): helmet, sweet, work, moisture, cf. obsolete old Russian shelom, licorice, vologa.
3. A special group is made up of Old Slavicisms, used along with the Russian variants that have received a different meaning in the language: ashes is gunpowder, betray is to transfer, the head (of the government) is the head, the citizen is a city dweller, etc.
The history of our people is reflected in the borrowing of foreign words by the Russian language in different eras. Economic, political, cultural contacts with other countries, military clashes left their mark on the development of the language.
The very first borrowings from non-Slavic languages penetrated into the Russian language as early as the VIII-XII centuries. From the Scandinavian languages (Swedish, Norwegian), words related to sea fishing came to us: Skerries, anchor, hook, hook, proper names: Rurik, Oleg, Olga, Igor, Askold. In the official business speech of Ancient Rus, the now outdated words faith, tiun, sneak, brand were used, from the Finno-Ugric languages we borrowed the names of fish: whitefish, navaga, salmon, herring, shark, smelt, herring, as well as some words associated with the life of the northern peoples: sipi, tundra, blizzard, school desks, dumplings, etc.
Among the ancient borrowings are individual words of the Germanic languages: armor, sword, shell, cauldron, hill, beech, prince, boron, pig, camel and others. Scientists argue about the origin of some words, therefore, the number of borrowings from ancient Germanic languages is presented to different researchers ambiguously (from 20 to 200 words).
The close proximity of Turkic peoples (Polovtsy, Pechenegs, Khazars), military clashes with them, and then the Mongol-Tatar invasion left Turkic words in the Russian language. They secretly refer to the nomadic life of these peoples, clothing, utensils: a quiver, lasso, hut, beshmet, sash, heel, tobacco pouch, kumach, chest, brush, shackles, bondage, treasury, guard, etc.
Many names of household items, vegetables, fruits are Greek in origin: cherry, cucumber, doll, ribbon, tub, beet, lantern, bench, bath; words related to science, education: grammar, mathematics, history, philosophy, notebook, alphabet, dialect; borrowings from the field of religion: angel, altar, pulpit, anathema, archimandrite, antichrist, archbishop, demon, oil, gospel, icon, incense, cell, schema, lamp, monk, monastery, sexton, archpriest, requiem, etc.
Later borrowings from the Greek language relate exclusively to the field of sciences and art. Many Greekisms came to us through other European languages and are widely used in scientific terminology that has received universal recognition: logic, psychology, department, idyll, idea, climate, criticism, metal, museum, magnet, syntax, lexicon, comedy, tragedy, chronograph, planet, stage, stage, theater and under.
The Latin language also played a significant role in the enrichment of Russian vocabulary (including terminology), associated mainly with the sphere of scientific, technical and socio-political life. The words go back to the Latin source: author, administrator, audience,student, exam, external student, minister, justice, operation, censorship, dictatorship, republic, deputy, delegate, rector, excursion, expedition, revolution, constitution etc. These Latinisms came into our language, as well as into other European languages, not only through direct contact of the Latin language with any other (which, of course, was not excluded, especially through various educational institutions), but and through other languages. Latin in many European states was the language of literature, science, official papers and religion (Catholicism). Scientific works up to the XV1 century. they were often written in Latin; medicine still uses Latin. All this contributed to the creation of an international fund of scientific terminology, which was mastered by many European languages, including Russian ..
Nowadays, scientific terms are often created from Greek and Latin roots, denoting concepts unknown in the era of antiquity: astronaut (gr. (Cosmos - Universe + gr. Nautes - (sea) - swimmer); futurology (future + gr. Logos - word , teaching); aqualung (lat. aqua - water + English lung - lung). This is due to the exceptional productivity of Latin and Greek roots included in various scientific terms, as well as their international character, which makes it easier to understand such basics in different languages.
The later lexical influence of European languages on Russian began to be felt in the 16th-17th centuries. and especially intensified in the Petrine era, in the 18th century. The transformation of all aspects of Russian life under Peter I, his administrative and military reforms, the success of education, the development of science - all this contributed to the enrichment of Russian vocabulary with foreign words. These were the numerous names of then new household items, military and naval terms, words from the field of science and art.
The following words were borrowed from the German language: sandwich, tie, decanter, hat, office, package, price list, interest, accountant, bill of exchange, action, agent, camp, headquarters, commander, cadet, corporal, gun carriage, bandolier, workbench, jointer, nickel, quartz, saltpeter, tungsten, potatoes, onions.
From the Dutch language came the nautical terms: shipyard, harbor, pennant, berth, drift, pilot, sailor, roadstead, yacht, rudder, navy, flag, fairway, skipper, navigator, boat, ballast.
Marine terms were also borrowed from English: boat, brig, barge, schooner, yacht, midshipman. The influence of the English language turned out to be relatively stable: words penetrated from it into the Russian language throughout the 19th century. and later. So, words from the sphere of public relations, technical and sports terms, names of everyday objects go back to this source: leader, department, rally, boycott, parliament, station, elevator, dock, budget, square, cottage, trolleybus, rail, mac, beefsteak, pudding, rum, whiskey, grog, cake, plaid, sweater, jacket, jacket, finish, sport, athlete, football, basketball, volleyball, boxing, croquet, poker, hockey, jockey, bridge, spinning and etc..
The French language left a significant mark on the Russian vocabulary. The first gallicisms penetrated it in the Peter's era, and then, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, borrowing from the French language became especially popular in connection with the Gallomania of the secular society. Among them are words for everyday use: suit, hood, corset, corsage :, jacket, vest, coat, cloak, blouse, tailcoat, bracelet, veil, frill, floor :, furniture, chest of drawers, office, buffet, salon, toilet, dressing table, chandelier, lampshade, curtain, service, footman, broth, cutlet, cream, stew, dessert, marmalade, ice cream and so on., military terms: vanguard, captain, sergeant, artillery, march, arena, cavalry, redoubt, attack, breach, battalion, salute, garrison, courier, general, lieutenant, dugout, recruit, sapper, cornet; corps, landing, fleet, squadron.
A lot of words from the field of art also go back to the French language: mezzanine, parterre, play, actor, prompter, director, intermission, foyer, plot, role, ramp, repertoire, farce, ballet, genre, role, stage... All these words have become the property of our language, therefore, not only the names, but also the concepts necessary for the enrichment of Russian culture were borrowed. Some French borrowings, reflecting a narrow circle of interests of an exquisite noble society, did not take root in Russian soil and went out of use: rendezvous, plezir, polite, etc.
Some Italian words also came to us through the French language. : baroque,carbonarium, dome, mezzanine, mosaic, cavalier, trousers, gasoline, arch, barricade, watercolor, credit, corridor, bastion, carnival, arsenal, bandit, balcony, charlatan, basta, balustrade and etc.
Musical terms came from the Italian language to all European languages, including Russian: adagio, arioso, aria, alto, bass, cello, bandura, cappella, tenor, cavatina, canzona, mandolin, libretto, forte,piano, moderato etc. The words go back to the Italian source: harpsichord,ballerina, harlequin, opera, impresario, bravo.
There are few borrowings from the Spanish language, which often penetrated into the Russian language through French means: alcove, guitar, castanets,mantilla, serenade, caramel, vanilla, tobacco, tomato, cigar, lemon, jasmine, banana.
Foreign language borrowings should include not only individual words, but also some derivational elements: the Greek prefixes a-, anti-, arch-, pan-: immoral, anti-perestroika, stupid, pan-German; latin prefixes: de-, counter-, trans-, ultra-, inter-: degradation, counterplay, trans-European, ultra-left, intervocal; Latin suffixes: -ism, -ist, -or, -tor, etc.: tailism, accordionist, combinator... Such prefixes and suffixes have become entrenched not only in the Russian language, they have gained international distribution.
It should be noted that Russian words are also borrowed by other languages. Moreover, in different periods of our history, not only Russian words such as samovar, borscht, cabbage soup, cranberries and under., but such as satellite, advice, restructuring, glasnost... The successes of the Soviet Union in space exploration contributed to the fact that the terms of this sphere, born in our language, were perceived in other languages: cosmonaut, lunar rover.

Conclusion on the first chapter

Having studied the material presented in the first chapter, we can conclude that the origin of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language has passed a long way of formation. We can say that the purpose of etymology is to clarify the origin of the word. In the historical and etymological dictionary, obligatory attention to changes in the word, including the time of its use in writing, up to the modern state, is proposed. As we found out in the first chapter of our course work, borrowed vocabulary has replenished the Russian language for many centuries and centuries. It is in the time and place of borrowing that the etymological dictionary helps to understand. The hypothetical nature of the interpretations, and even more so - their plurality, require from the compiler of the dictionary, firstly, the indication of the authors of the interpretations and, secondly, at least a brief summary of the author's argumentation, especially if the compiler prefers one of several interpretations or proposes a new solution.

ChapterIIBorrowed words,denoting sporting goods
2.1 Thematic groups of words in the designation of sporting goods

To describe the names of sports goods, we took two catalogs of sports stores in the city of Togliatti: the first is the products of the Sportmaster store and the second is Sportlandia. In our work, we considered printed proposals of two time periods - autumn-winter (2006-2007) and spring-summer (2007).
Here is a brief description of these editions.
The catalog of the "Sportmaster" store amazes with its content of information in 59 headings, about sports goods and not only, which fit on 360 pages. There are also branded symbols for ease of selection of goods, and if a potential buyer has questions, then at the bottom of each page the phone numbers of a single reference service are spelled out. In the network of sports stores, there are gift cards from 1000 to 5000 rubles. In addition to the usual listing of goods, the technologies used in their creation are described for each individual item. For the first time, you can observe in the heading "Products for children" at the top of the page simple phrases similar to the first young experiences of writing poetry. Reading this is interesting and funny.
Having opened the catalog of the "Sportlandia" store, we can observe 10 headings, which are printed on 96 pages. Before the beginning of each of them, several proposals were written about manufacturing firms. There is information about the type of product, for example, tents - trekking, tourist, camping. We can see the Sportlandia chain of stores on the back of the catalog.
We needed to combine words on one basis, and we identified 10 groups from the total:
1st group includes words related to the topic knitted outerwear - jumper, sweater, scarf.
The 2nd group consists of words denoting upper clothes - blouse, breeches, trousers, bomber jacket, windbreaker, jeans, jacket, vest, pants, capri pants, jacket, socks, gloves, dress, polo, short coat, semi-overall, shirt, thermal underwear, top, tunic, skirt.
Group 3 - headwear - baseball cap, cap, hat, hat.
4th group - swimwear - bikini, swimsuit, bodice, swimming trunks, swimming shorts, hat.
The 5th group contains words related to to sports equipment - bat, boomerang, paddle, shuttlecock, board, dart, putter, mat, compass, skis, boat, bow, mask, mat, ball, hoop, glasses, parachute, tent, racket, roller skates, sleeping bag, washer, sword, chess, checker.
We attributed to the 6th group sports accessories - basketball rack, binoculars, needle, canto cutter, mount, fins, bag, pump, nipple, sticks, pedal, towel, solvent, roller, steering wheel, backpack, sled, net, weights, ball,
In the 7th group, we concluded sports accessories designed for the safety of the athlete - balloon, earplugs, bandage, clip, mouth guard, helmet, ointment, bib, knee pads, elbow pads, cable, shields.
8th group - shoes - wrestling shoes, boots, clogs, sneakers, clogs, sandals, boots, boots, slates, shoes, slippers.
9th group contains sports equipment - buggy, trampoline, treadmill, velomobile, bicycle, exercise bike, bicycle ergometer, dumbbell, canoe, skates, jump rope, spacesuit, plate, horizontal bar, expander.
The 10th group is sportswear - kimono, T-shirt, tracksuit, sports pants, T-shirt, shorts.
After distributing the names of sports goods by groups, we calculated the total number, we got 124 items, and highlighted the percentage of each group.
Rice. 1. Distribution of names of sporting goods.
2.2 Borrowings of words from different languages and a kind of usage

In the above words, masculine nouns are mainly used for about forty names, such as a parachute, a rope, a trampoline. There are also nouns of feminine, neuter and paired genders: needle, net (about 30); kimono, short coat (about 15); glasses (four words).
The words are dominated by inanimate nouns, i.e. common nouns, of which nouns male 42:
- buggy, balloon, trampoline, binoculars, bandage, bomber, boomerang, velomobile, bicycle, exercise bike, veloergometer, shuttlecock, jumper, jacket, vest, dart, clip, cantorez, rug, compass, swimsuit, bodice, bow, mat, bag , ball, bib, pump, nipple, hoop, parachute, semi-overalls, solvent, roller, steering wheel, backpack, sweater, spacesuit, sleeping bag, tracksuit, rope, top, horizontal bar, scarf, ball, expander.
In the shape of female found 30 examples:
- baseball cap, bat, blouse, windbreaker, dumbbell, track (running), board, needle, mouth guard, helmet, canoe, cap, putter, jacket, boat, ointment, T-shirt, mask, tent, pedal, polo, racket, shirt, net, jump rope, basketball stand, plate, tunic, t-shirt, puck, hat, cap, checker, hat, sword, skirt.
In the shape of neuter found 5 words:
- dress, short coat, thermal underwear, paddle, kimono.
In the shape of plural defined 25 nouns:
- earplugs, bikini, breeches, wrestling shoes, boots, jeans, underpants, capri pants, clogs, skates (roller), sneakers, fins, skis, knee pads, elbow pads, sticks, swimming trunks, clogs, sandals, sleds, boots, boots, slates, shoes, weights, chess, slippers, shorts, shin guards.
The words were found paired kind: glasses, trousers, socks, gloves.
According to dictionaries (borrowed words and etymological), we have distributed all nouns into the following groups of borrowings from languages:
1st group - English - jumper, breeches, boomerang, boots, jeans, nipple, polo, sweater, skateboard, shorts.
2nd group - Arabic - jacket.
3rd group - Old Russian language - needle, boat, bow, skis, paddle, dart, hockey stick, ball, glasses, hat, boot, ball, shield, jacket.
4th group - French - vest, bicycle, racket, spacesuit, balloon, rope, binoculars, velomobile, bicycle, helmet, mask, parachute.
5th group - Italian - compass, trampoline, sword.
6th group - German - plate, scarf, puck, board, bandage, dumbbell, backpack.
7th group - Persian - chess.
8th group - Dutch - trousers, steering wheel.
9th group - Spanish - canoes.
10th group - Latin language - expander.
Rice. 2. Borrowing words from different languages.
We could not find some words in dictionaries, such as:
B - buggy, basketball rack, treadmill, baseball cap, earplugs, bikini, binoculars, bat, blouse, bomber jacket, wrestling shoes.
V - exercise bike, bicycle ergometer, windbreaker, shuttlecock.
Z - clamp.
TO - underpants, canto cutter, mouth guard, capri pants, cap, kimono, clogs, rug, compass, skates, mount, sneakers, swimsuit, wing.
L - flippers, bodice.
M - ointment, T-shirt, mat, bag.
H - bib, knee pads, elbow pads, pump, socks.
O - hoop.
NS - poles, tent, parachute, pedal, gloves, swimming shorts, swimming trunks, dress, towel, short coat, semi-overalls.
R - solvent, roller, roller skates, shirt.
WITH - clogs, sleds, sandals, boots, mesh, skipping rope, slates, sleeping bag, tracksuit.
T - thermal underwear, top, tunic, horizontal bar, shoes.
Y - weighting agents.
F - T-shirt.
NS - cap, checker, slippers, hat.
NS - skirt.

Conclusion on the second chapter

Working on the chapter, we got the following result in the number of ten thematic groups ( knitted outerwear; upper clothes; hats; swimming clothes ;, sports equipment; sports accessories; sports accessories designed for the safety of the athlete; shoes; sports equipment; sportswear).

When distributing words, it turned out that in the form of the masculine gender - 42, the feminine gender was found 30, in the form of the neuter gender 5, in the plural form - 25 nouns. Unfortunately, we could not find about 50% of the words either in the dictionary of foreign words or in the etymological one.
Conclusion

Having studied the material presented in the first chapter, we can conclude that the origin of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language has passed a long way of formation. As we found out in the first chapter of our course work, borrowed vocabulary has replenished the Russian language for many centuries and centuries. It is in the time and place of borrowing that the etymological dictionary helps to understand. The hypothetical nature of the interpretations, and even more so - their plurality, require from the compiler of the dictionary, firstly, the indication of the authors of the interpretations and, secondly, at least a brief summary of the author's argumentation, especially if the compiler prefers one of several interpretations or proposes a new solution.
Having studied the material of the second chapter, we can conclude that we have solved the last two tasks of the course work: the selection of a thematic group of words in catalogs of sports stores and a description of thematic groups of words of borrowed vocabulary.
We have identified ten groups of borrowed vocabulary. They mainly include words, most of which relate to the English language, the Old Russian language, the French language and the German language. The smaller part is made up of words of the Arabic language, Persian language, Dutch language, Spanish language, Latin language.
Considering all of the above, we can conclude that in word-formation dictionaries the reader receives information about the place, time and nature of borrowing, the volume of which, composition, depth and form of presentation are more determined by the creative person of the author-compiler than in any other language dictionary ...
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Annex 1

The origin of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language
The oldest among the primordially Russian words are Indo-Europeanisms - words that have survived from the era of Indo-European linguistic unity
According to the assumptions of scientists, in the V-IV millennia BC. e, there was the most ancient Indo-European civilization, which united the tribes that lived in a rather vast territory. Tick, according to the research of some linguists, it stretched from the Volga to the Yenisei, others believe that it was the Balkan-Danube, or South Russian, localization. Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to European and some Asian languages (for example, Bengali, Sanskrit),
To the Indo-European proto-language - the basis goes back to the words denoting plants, animals, metals and minerals, tools of labor, forms of management, types of kinship, etc.: oak, salmon, goose, regiment, sheep, copper, bronze, honey, mother, son , daughter, night, magnifier, snow, water, new, sew, etc.
Another layer of primordial Russian vocabulary is made up of common Slavic words, inherited by our language from common Slavic (Proto-Slavic), which served as a source for all Slavic languages. This language - the basis existed in the prehistoric era on the territory of the interfluve of the Dnieper, Bug and Vistula, inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes. By the VI-V1I century, A.D. the common Slavic language disintegrated, opening the way for the development of Slavic languages, including Old Russian. Common Slavic words are easily distinguished in all Slavic languages, the common origin of which is obvious in our time.
There are a lot of nouns among the common Slavic words. These are, first of all, concrete nouns: head, heart, palm, finger, mountain, forest, birch, maple, ox, crown, pig; sickle, pitchfork, knife, seine, neighbor, guest, servant, friend; shepherd, spinner, potter. There are also abstract nouns, but there are fewer of them: faith, will, guilt, sin, happiness, glory, rage, thought.
Of the other parts of speech in the common Slavic vocabulary, verbs are presented: see, hear, grow, lie; adjectives: kind, young, old, wise, cunning; numerals: two, three; pronouns: I, we, you, you; pronominal adverbs: where, as well as some official purities of speech: above, a, and, yes, but etc.
You can also highlight several topics of common Slavic vocabulary:
1. Thematic paradigm "Parts of the Human Body": beard(original meaning "prickly, sharp"), side(possibly related to the original value "edge"), eye, finger, shoulder(cf .: white-skinned, background), heart(contains a diminutive suffix -NS-) and etc.
2. Thematic paradigm "Animals": Wolf(original meaning "tearing"), hedgehog(possibly the taboo name "snake eater"), horse, doe, weasel("love, affection" - as the name of the animal based on taboo), elk, bear("eater of honey"), etc.
3. The thematic paradigm "Birds": sparrow, crow, jackdaw("black"), pigeon(common from the name of the color), blackbird, woodpecker("hammering"), Swan(Wed lat. albus "White"), eagle, starling, nightingale("yellowish gray"), magpie and etc.
4. Thematic paradigm "Color": white, yellow, green, light brown, gray, blue, black and etc.
5. Thematic paradigm "Quantitative trait": high, deep, short, small(related to the Greek meaning "small livestock, sheep"), thin, narrow, wide and etc.
6. Thematic paradigm "Sensual sensations": bitter(associated with burn), sour, wet(common.< mokachi), sharp, warm(Wed lat. Tepula aqua - the name of the water supply in Rome), stale and etc.
7. Thematic paradigm "Physical property": stupid, deaf(associated with deaf), crooked, bald, fat, lame, thin, generous and etc.
8. Thematic paradigm "Physical state": healthy, angry, ardent[related to the Greek meaning "fiery, strong, unmixed (about wine)"], etc.
The general Slavic vocabulary numbers about two thousand words, however, this relatively small lexical stock forms the core of the Russian dictionary; it includes the most common, stylistically neutral words used both in oral and written speech.
The Slavic languages, which had as their source the ancient Proto-Slavic language, in terms of sound, grammatical and lexical features, were separated into three groups: southern, western and eastern.
The third layer of primordially Russian words consists of East Slavic (Old Russian) vocabulary, which differed on the basis of the language of the Eastern Slavs, one of the three groups of ancient Slavic languages. East Slavic linguistic community developed by the 7th-9th centuries. n. NS. in Eastern Europe. The tribal unions that lived here go back to the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples. Therefore, the words that remained in our language from this period are known, as a rule, in both the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, but are absent in the languages of the Occidental and South Slavs.
The East Slavic vocabulary includes: I) the names of animals, birds: dog, squirrel, geek, drake, bullfinch; 2) names of tools: ax, blade; 3) names of household items: boot, ladle, chest, ruble ", 4) names of people but profession: cook, shoemaker, miller; 5) names of settlements: villages, settlement and other lexico-semantic groups.
Fourth place, etc .................

The origin of Russian vocabulary.

The composition of the vocabulary (original / borrowed); the composition of the Russian vocabulary; borrowing, mastery of borrowed vocabulary.

All words in the Russian language can be divided into two large classes from the point of view of their origin: primordial, originally inherent in the Russian language, and foreign language, i.e. borrowed by Russian from other languages. The boundaries between these two classes of words cannot always be established precisely: some words came to our language so long ago that it is already difficult to distinguish them from the original words. Such is, for example, the word bread, borrowed from ancient Germanic, or the Greek words: cucumber, doll, bath.

Primordially Russian words

What words refer to primordially Russian (common Slavic)? General Slavic vocabulary makes up an extensive and varied layer of words. These are, for example: 1) the names of parts of the human body and the body of animals: head, lip, horn, heart, throat and etc.; 2) names of time intervals: day, evening, day, autumn, hour, century, month and etc.; 3) words denoting phenomena and objects of nature: storm, rain, whirlwind, frost, stone lake, river, forest and etc.; 4) plant names: beech, birch, willow, linden, carrot, walnut, pumpkin, plum and etc.; 5) domestic and wild animals: bull, ox, dog, crow, hare, snake, fish, and etc.; 6) the names of tools and objects of labor: paddle, bucket, knife, awl and etc.; 7) some abstract names: faith, will, guilt, mercy, death, labor, honor and some others; 8) action names: lie down, wash suck, want and others, 9) property names: wise, sly, warm and etc.; 10) designation of place and time: where, yesterday, past and etc.; 11) most non-derivative prepositions: in, to, behind, from, before, oh, at and etc.; 12) unions and, a, but, yes, or etc.

Borrowings in the Russian dictionary

1. Reasons for borrowing

External reasons for borrowing

1. The main external reason is the borrowing of a word together with the borrowing of a thing or concept. For example, with the emergence of such realities as car, conveyor belt, radio, cinema, TV, laser and many others, their names were also included in the Russian language. Most of the borrowings are associated with the development of science, technology, culture, economy, industrial relations. Many of these words firmly enter life, and then lose their novelty and pass into the active vocabulary. So, in the 50-70s. XX century a large number of terms have appeared associated with the development of astronautics: cosmonaut, cosmodrome, cosmovision, telemetry, spaceship and others. Today all these words have become common.

2. Another external reason for borrowing is the designation with the help of a foreign-language word of some special type of objects. For example, to denote a servant in a hotel in Russian, the French was strengthened. word porter, to denote a special type of jam (in the form of a thick homogeneous mass) - eng. jam... The need for specialization of subjects and concepts leads to the borrowing of scientific and technical terms, many of which have Russian equivalents: Eng. relevant - rus. essential; lat. local - Russian. local; lat. transformer - rus. converter; lat. compression - rus. compression; French to pilot - rus. manage, etc.

Internal reasons for borrowing

1. The tendency to replace descriptive names with one-word ones. For example: a sniper instead of a marksman, a tour instead of a circular route, a motel instead of a hotel for motorists, sprint instead of sprinting, etc.

2. Strengthening of borrowed words with a certain morphological structure in the language (in this case, borrowing a new foreign language is greatly facilitated). So, in the XIX century. Russian borrowed from English a gentleman and a policeman. At the end of the XIX - beginning of the XX century. they were supplemented by an athlete, a record holder, a yachtsman (significant persons and a common element - the man). Nowadays, such words make up a fairly significant group: businessman, congressman, crossman, etc.

3. Influence of foreign culture, fashion for foreign words. These are the words exclusive, price list, charisma, security, teenager and many others.

2. Layers of foreign language vocabulary in modern Russian

Borrowings from Slavic languages

Among the words borrowed by the Russian language, the stratum of Old Slavicisms is especially significant - words that entered the Old Russian language from a related Old Slavonic (or Church Slavonic) language. The Old Church Slavonic language, created in the 9th century, was the language of worship and church books; it became the first written language of the Slavs. Old Slavicisms can be recognized by the following features:

a) combinations of ra, la, re, le in the root or prefix with the primordially Russian combinations of oro, olo, ere, olo, for example: grad - rus. city, country - Russian. side, cold - rus. cold;

b) the combination of railway in accordance with the original Russian w: alien - Russian. stranger, clothes - now Russian. vernacular dialect clothing;

c) the consonant sound u in accordance with the original Russian h: lighting - rus. candle burning - rus. hot, power - Russian. be able;

d) the initial e with the native Russian o: single, unit, unique - Russian. one, esen - yc. autumn.

Words from closely related Slavic languages also came to the Russian language. For example, the names of household items were borrowed from Ukrainian: borsch, dumplings, dumplings, hopak. A lot of words came to us from the Polish language: shtetl, monogram, harness, zrazy, gentry.

Borrowings from non-Slavic languages

In different eras, starting from the VIII century. Russian borrowed foreign words, which was vividly reflected in its history. Scandinavian (Norwegian, Swedish): anchor, hook, hook etc. Finno-Ugric: salmon, herring, shark, herring; tundra, blizzard, dumplings etc. Germanic (Danish, Dutch, Icelandic, etc.): sword, shell, cauldron, prince, bor, camel and other Türkic (languages of the Polovtsy, Pechenegs, Khazars): iron, money, heel, treasury, guard, shackles and other Greek: cherry, lantern, mathematics, philosophy, icon, gospel, monk, monastery and many others. other Latin: student, audience, republic, revolution, constitution and many others. dr. German: sandwich, hat, package; accountant, bill, share, interest and others. The number of foreign language borrowings should include not only individual words, but also some derivational elements: the Greek prefixes a-, anti-, arch-, pan-: immoral, anti-perestroika, archinarian, pan-Germanic; Latin prefixes de-, counter-, trans-, ultra-, inter-: degradation, counterplay, trans-European, ultra-left, intervocal; Latin suffixes -ism, -ist, -or, -tor, etc.: tail, accordion, combinator. Such prefixes and suffixes are widely used internationally.

3. Types of borrowed vocabulary

All foreign language vocabulary used in Russian can be subdivided into two groups: I. Learned borrowings; II. Unassimilated borrowings: 1) exoticism; 2) foreign language blotches, 3) internationalism. Mastered- these are borrowings that came into the Russian language a very long time ago and are no longer perceived as strangers. Such words as notebook, student and many others have become "our own" for us. etc. There are also borrowings not mastered by the Russian language, which stand out sharply against the background of the Russian vocabulary. A special place among them is occupied by exoticism- words that characterize the specific features of the life of different peoples and are used to describe non-Russian reality. So, when depicting the life of the peoples of the Caucasus, the words aul, saklya, dzhigit, arba, etc. are used. in ours, but also in other languages.Some of them have a long tradition, for example, Alma Mater (lat. "nursing mother" - the name of the native university).

4. Linguistic signs of borrowed words

Among the phonetic features of borrowed words, the following can be distinguished.

1. Unlike native Russian words that never begin with the sound [a] (which would contradict the phonetic laws of the Russian language), borrowed words have an initial a: questionnaire, abbot, paragraph, aria, attack, lampshade, arba, angel, anathema ...

2. The initial e is mainly distinguished by Greekisms and Latinisms (Russian words never begin with this sound): era, era, ethics, exam, execution, effect, floor.

3. The letter f also indicates a non-Russian source of the word, since the Eastern Slavs did not have the sound [f] and the corresponding graphic sign was used only to designate it in borrowed words: forum, fact, lantern, sofa, film, scam, form, aphorism, ether, profile, etc.

4. The combination of two or more vowels in a word was unacceptable according to the laws of Russian phonetics, therefore borrowed words are easily distinguished by this feature: poet, halo, out, theater, veil, cocoa, radio, punctuation.

5. A special phonetic feature of words of Turkic origin is the harmony of the same vowels: ataman, caravan, pencil, shoe, chest, sarafan, drum, mosque.

Among the morphological signs of borrowed words, the most characteristic is their immutability. So, some foreign-language nouns do not change in cases, do not have correlative singular and plural forms: taxi, coffee, coat, beige, mini, maxi, etc.

Primordially Russian vocabulary by its origin it is heterogeneous: it consists of several layers, which differ in the time of their formation.

The most ancient among the primordially Russian words are Indo-Europeanism- words that have survived from the era of Indo-European linguistic unity. The Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to European and some Asian languages (for example, Bengali, Sanskrit).

The words denoting plants, animals, metals and minerals, tools of labor, forms of management, types of kinship, etc., go back to the Indo-European proto-language-base: oak, salmon, goose, wolf, sheep, copper, bronze, honey, mother, son, daughter, night, moon, snow, water, new, sew and etc.

Another layer of primordial Russian vocabulary is made up of words all-Slavic, inherited by our language from Common Slavic (Proto-Slavic), which served as a source for all Slavic languages. This language-base existed in the prehistoric era on the territory of the interfluve of the Dnieper, Bug and Vistula, inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes. By the VI-VII centuries. n. NS. the common Slavic language disintegrated, opening the way for the development of Slavic languages, including Old Russian. Common Slavic words are easily distinguished in all Slavic languages, the common origin of which is obvious in our time.

There are a lot of nouns among the common Slavic words. These are primarily specific nouns: head, throat, beard, heart, palm; field, mountain, forest, birch, maple, ox, cow, pig; sickle, pitchfork, knife, seine, neighbor, guest, servant, friend; shepherd, spinner, potter... There are also abstract nouns, but there are fewer of them: faith, will, guilt, sin, happiness, glory, rage.

The third layer of primordially Russian words consists of East Slavic(Old Russian) vocabulary, which developed on the basis of the language of the Eastern Slavs, one of the three groups of ancient Slavic languages. The East Slavic linguistic community developed by the 7th-9th centuries. n. NS. in Eastern Europe. The tribal unions that lived here go back to the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples. Therefore, the words that remained in our language from this period are known, as a rule, in both the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, but are absent in the languages of the Western and Southern Slavs.

As part of the East Slavic vocabulary, one can distinguish: 1) the names of animals, birds: dog, squirrel, jackdaw, drake, bullfinch; 2) names of tools: ax, blade; 3) the names of household items: boot, bucket, chest, ruble; 4) names of people by profession: carpenter, cook, shoemaker, miller; 5) names of settlements: village, settlement.

The fourth layer of native Russian words is proper Russian vocabulary, formed after the XIV century, that is, in the era of the independent development of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. These languages already have their equivalents for words belonging to the proper Russian vocabulary. Actually Russian words are distinguished, as a rule, by a derived stem: bricklayer, flyer, locker room, community, intervention and under.

Old Slavonic words, or Old Slavicisms(Church Slavicism). These are the words of the oldest Slavic language, well known in Russia since the spread of Christianity (988).

As the language of liturgical books, the Old Church Slavonic language was at first far from colloquial speech, but over time it experiences a noticeable influence of the East Slavic language and itself, in turn, leaves an imprint on the language of the people. Russian chronicles reflect numerous cases of mixing of these related languages.

Of the non-Slavic languages, the very first borrowings into the Russian language back in the VIII-XII centuries. From Scandinavian languages (Swedish, Norwegian), words related to marine fishing have come to us: skerries, anchor, hook, hook, proper names: Rurik, Oleg, Olga, Igor, Askold... In the official and business speech of Ancient Russia, now obsolete words were used vira, tiun, sneak, brand.

The most significant influence on the language of Ancient Rus was the influence Greek language. Kievan Rus conducted a lively trade with Byzantium, and the penetration of Greek elements into Russian vocabulary began even before the adoption of Christianity in Russia (6th century) and intensified under the influence of Christian culture in connection with the baptism of the Eastern Slavs (9th century), the spread of liturgical books translated from Greek into Old Church Slavonic.

Many names of household items, vegetables, fruits are Greek in origin: cherry, cucumber, doll, ribbon, tub, beet, lantern, bench, bath; words related to science, education: grammar, mathematics, history, philosophy, notebook, alphabet, dialect; borrowings from the field of religion: angel, altar, pulpit, anathema, archimandrite, antichrist, archbishop, demon, oil, gospel, icon, incense, cell, schema, icon lamp, monk, monastery, sexton, archpriest, requiem

Latin the language also played a significant role in the enrichment of Russian vocabulary (including terminology), associated mainly with the sphere of scientific, technical and socio-political life. The words go back to the Latin source: author, administrator, audience, student, exam, external student, minister, justice, operation, censorship, dictatorship, republic, deputy, delegate, rector, excursion, expedition, revolution, constitution etc.

Language as a system is in constant motion, development, and vocabulary is the most mobile level of language: it primarily reacts to all changes in society, replenishing with new words. At the same time, the names of objects, phenomena that are no longer used in the life of different peoples, are completely out of use.

In each period of language development, words that belong to active vocabulary, constantly used in speech, and words that have gone out of everyday use and therefore received an archaic connotation. At the same time, new words are allocated in the lexical system that only enter into it and therefore seem unusual, retain a shade of freshness and novelty. Obsolete and new words are two fundamentally different groups in the vocabulary. passive vocabulary.

The origin of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language

The replenishment of the Russian vocabulary went in two directions.

New words were created from the word-building elements available in the language (roots, suffixes, prefixes). This is how the primordial Russian vocabulary expanded and developed.
New words poured into the Russian language from other languages as a result of the economic, political and cultural ties of the Russian people with other peoples.

The composition of the Russian vocabulary from the point of view of its origin can be schematically presented in the table.

Vocabulary of the modern Russian language

Primordially Russian vocabulary

The primordially Russian vocabulary is heterogeneous in origin: it consists of several layers, which differ in the time of their formation.

The oldest among the primordially Russian words are Indo-Europeanisms - words that have survived from the era of Indo-European linguistic unity. According to the assumptions of scientists, in the V-IV millennia BC. NS. there was the most ancient Indo-European civilization, which united the tribes that lived on a fairly vast territory. So, according to the studies of some linguists, it stretched from the Volga to the Yenisei, others believe that it was the Balkan-Danube, or South Russian, localization1 Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to European and some Asian languages (for example, Bengali, Sanskrit).

The words denoting plants, animals, metals and minerals, tools of labor, forms of management, types of kinship, etc., go back to the Indo-European proto-language: oak, salmon, goose, wolf, sheep, copper, bronze, honey, mother, son, daughter, night, moon, snow, water, new, sew, etc.

Another layer of primordial Russian vocabulary is made up of common Slavic words, inherited by our language from common Slavic (Proto-Slavic), which served as a source for all Slavic languages. This language-base existed in the prehistoric era on the territory of the interfluve of the Dnieper, Bug and Vistula, inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes. By the 6th-7th centuries. n. NS. the common Slavic language disintegrated, opening the way for the development of Slavic languages, including Old Russian. Common Slavic words are easily distinguished in all Slavic languages, the common origin of which is obvious in our time.

There are a lot of nouns among the common Slavic words. These are, first of all, concrete nouns: head, throat, beard, heart, palm; field, mountain, forest, birch, maple, ox, cow, pig; sickle, pitchfork, knife, seine, neighbor, guest, servant, friend; shepherd, spinner, potter. There are also abstract nouns, but there are fewer of them: faith, will, guilt, sin, happiness, glory, rage, thought.

Of the other parts of speech in the common Slavic vocabulary, verbs are presented: see, hear, grow, lie; adjectives: kind, young, old, wise, cunning; numerals: one, two, three; pronouns: I, you, we, you; pronominal adverbs: where, as well as some service parts of speech: above, a, and, yes, but etc.

The general Slavic vocabulary numbers about two thousand words, nevertheless, this relatively small lexical stock forms the core of the Russian dictionary, it includes the most common, stylistically neutral words used both in oral and written speech.

The Slavic languages, which had as their source the ancient Proto-Slavic language, in terms of sound, grammatical and lexical features, were separated into three groups: southern, western and eastern.

The third layer of primordially Russian words consists of East Slavic (Old Russian) vocabulary, which developed on the basis of the language of the Eastern Slavs, one of the three groups of ancient Slavic languages. The East Slavic linguistic community developed by the 7th – 9th centuries. n. NS. in Eastern Europe. The tribal unions that lived here go back to the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples. Therefore, the words that remained in our language from this period are known, as a rule, in both the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, but are absent in the languages of the Western and Southern Slavs.

The East Slavic vocabulary includes: 1) the names of animals, birds: dog, squirrel, jackdaw, drake, bullfinch; 2) names of tools: ax, blade; 3) the names of household items: boots, ladle, chest, ruble; 4) names of people by profession: carpenter, cook, shoemaker, miller; 5) names of settlements: village, settlement and other lexico-semantic groups.

The fourth layer of primordially Russian words is the native Russian vocabulary, which was formed after the XIV century, that is, in the era of the independent development of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. These languages already have their equivalents for words belonging to the proper Russian vocabulary. Wed lexical units:

Actually Russian words are distinguished, as a rule, by a derivative stem: mason, leaflet, locker room, community, intervention, etc.

It should be emphasized that in the composition of the Russian vocabulary itself there may be words with foreign roots, which have passed the way of Russian word formation and are overgrown with Russian suffixes, prefixes: party spirit, non-party, aggressiveness; ruler, glass, kettle; words with a complex stem: a radio node, a steam locomotive, as well as a lot of compound abbreviated words that replenished our language in the 20th century: Moscow Art Theater, timber industry, wall newspaper, etc.

The originally Russian vocabulary continues to be replenished with words that are created on the basis of the word-formation resources of the language, as a result of a variety of processes characteristic of Russian word formation.

See also the new theory of the ancestral homeland of the Indo-Europeans T.V. Gamkrelidze, V.V. Ivanov. Indo-European language and Indo-Europeans. Reconstruction and historical-typological analysis of the proto-language and protoculture. Tbilisi, 1984.

Borrowings from Slavic languages

A special place in the Russian vocabulary among the Slavic borrowings is occupied by Old Slavonic words, or Old Slavicisms (Church Slavicisms). These are the words of the oldest Slavic language, well known in Russia since the spread of Christianity (988).

The influence of the Old Church Slavonic language was very fruitful, it enriched our language, made it more expressive and flexible. In particular, Old Slavicisms began to be used in Russian vocabulary, denoting abstract concepts for which there were no names yet.

Several groups can be distinguished in the Old Slavicisms that have replenished the Russian vocabulary: 1) words dating back to the common Slavic language, having East Slavic variants of a different sounding or affixed design: gold, night, fisherman, boat; 2) Old Slavicisms, which do not have consonant Russian words: finger, mouth, lanita, persi (compare Russians: finger, lips, cheeks, chest); 3) semantic Old Slavicisms, that is, common Slavic words that have received a new meaning in the Old Church Slavonic language associated with Christianity: God, sin, sacrifice, fornication.

Old Slavonic borrowings have characteristic phonetic, derivational and semantic signs.

The phonetic features of Old Slavicism include:

disagreement, i.e. combinations -ra-, -la-, -re-, -le- between consonants in place of full-voiced Russians -oro-, -olo-, -re-, -le, -lo- as part of one morpheme: brada - beard, youth - youth, succession - succession, helmet - shell, milk - milk,
combinations of ra-, la- at the beginning of the word in place of the Russian ro-, lorab, boat; Wed east slavic rob, boat,
a combination of railway in place of the Russian w, going back to a single common Slavic consonance: clothing, hope, between; Wed East Slavic: clothing, hope, between;
the consonant u in the place of the Russian h, also going back to the same common Slavic consonance: night, daughter; Wed East Slavic: night, daughter,
vowel e at the beginning of a word in place of the Russian o helen, single, cf. East Slavic: deer, one;
vowel e under stress before a hard consonant in place of Russian o (y): cross, sky; Wed godmother, palate.

Other Old Church Slavonicisms retain Old Church Slavonic prefixes, suffixes, a complex stem, characteristic of Old Church Slavonic word formation:

prefixes voz-, from-, down-, over-, pre-, pre-: to sing, exile, send down, extraordinary, transgress, predict;
suffixes -stvi (e), -ni (e), -ani (e), -zn, -tv (a), -ch (s), -usch-, -ych-, -asch-, -ych-: coming, prayer, torment, execution, prayer, helmsman, leader, knowing, shouting, striking;
complex foundations with elements typical of Old Slavicism: God-fearing, benevolence, malice, superstition, gluttony.

A classification of Old Slavicisms is also possible, based on their semantic and stylistic differences from Russian words.

Most of the Old Slavicisms stand out for their bookish coloring, solemn, upbeat sound, youth, brag, hand, sing, sacred, imperishable, omnipresent, and so on.
Those that do not stand out stylistically against the background of the rest of the vocabulary sharply differ from such Old Slavicisms (many of them supplanted the corresponding East Slavic variants, duplicating their meaning) helmet, sweet, work, moisture; Wed obsolete Old Russian: Shelom, Licorice, Vologa.
A special group is made up of Old Slavicisms, used along with the Russian variants that have received a different meaning in the language: dust is gunpowder, betray is to transfer, the head (of the government) is the head, the citizen is a city dweller, etc.

Old Slavonicisms of the second and third groups are not perceived by the speakers of the modern Russian language as alien - they have become so Russianized that they practically do not differ from the original Russian words. In contrast to such, genetic, Old Slavicisms, the words of the first group retain a connection with the Old Church Slavonic, bookish language; many of them in the last century were an integral part of poetic vocabulary: persi, lanita, mouth, sweet, voice, hair, golden, young and so on. Now they are perceived as poetry, and G.O. Vinokur called them stylistic Slavisms1

From other closely related Slavic languages, separate words came to the Russian language, which practically do not stand out among the primordial Russian vocabulary. The names of household items were borrowed from the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, for example, Ukrainianism: borsch, dumplings, dumplings, hopak. A lot of words came to us from the Polish language: shtetl, monogram, harness, zrazy, gentry. Czech and other Slavic words were borrowed through the Polish language: prapor, arrogant, angle, etc.

1 See. Vinokur G.O. On Slavisms in the modern Russian literary language // Selected works on the Russian language, Moscow, 1959, p. 443.

Borrowings from non-Slavic languages

The history of our people is reflected in the borrowing of foreign words by the Russian language in different eras. Economic, political, cultural contacts with other countries, military clashes left their mark on the development of the language.

The very first borrowings from non-Slavic languages penetrated into the Russian language as early as the VIII-XII centuries. From the Scandinavian languages (Swedish, Norwegian), words related to sea fishing came to us: skerries, anchor, hook, hook, proper names: Rurik, Oleg, Olga, Igor, Askold. In the official business speech of Ancient Rus, the now obsolete words vira, tiun, sneak, brand were used. We borrowed the names of fish from the Finno-Ugric languages: whitefish, navaga, salmon, herring, shark, smelt, herring, as well as some words associated with the life of northern peoples: sled, tundra, blizzard, sled, dumplings, etc.

Among the ancient borrowings are individual words from the Germanic languages: armor, sword, shell, cauldron, hill, beech, prince, boron, pig, camel and others. Scientists argue about the origin of some words, therefore, the number of borrowings from ancient Germanic languages is presented to different researchers ambiguously (from 20 to 200 words).

The close proximity of Turkic peoples (Polovtsy, Pechenegs, Khazars), military clashes with them, and then the Mongol-Tatar invasion left Turkic words in the Russian language. They relate mainly to the nomadic life of these peoples, clothing, utensils: quiver, lasso, pack, hut, beshmet, sash, heel, pouch, kumach, chest, brush, shackles, bondage, treasury, guard, etc.

The most significant influence on the language of Ancient Rus was the influence of the Greek language. Kievan Rus conducted a lively trade with Byzantium, and the penetration of Greek elements into Russian vocabulary began even before the adoption of Christianity in Russia (6th century) and intensified under the influence of Christian culture in connection with the baptism of the Eastern Slavs (9th century), the spread of liturgical books translated from Greek into Old Church Slavonic.

Many names of household items, vegetables, fruits are Greek in origin: cherry, cucumber, doll, ribbon, tub, beet, lantern, bench, bath; words related to science, education: grammar, mathematics, history, philosophy, notebook, alphabet, dialect; borrowings from the field of religion: angel, altar, pulpit, anathema, archimandrite, antichrist, archbishop, demon, oil, gospel, icon, incense, cell, schema, lamp, monk, monastery, sexton, archpriest, requiem, etc.

Later borrowings from the Greek language relate exclusively to the field of sciences and art. Many Greekisms came to us through other European languages and are widely used in scientific terminology that has received universal recognition: logic, psychology, department, idyll, idea, climate, criticism, metal, museum, magnet, syntax, lexicon, comedy, tragedy, chronograph, planet, stage, stage, theater, etc.

The Latin language also played a significant role in the enrichment of Russian vocabulary (including terminology), associated mainly with the sphere of scientific, technical and socio-political life. The words go back to the Latin source: author, administrator, audience, student, exam, external student, minister, justice, operation, censorship, dictatorship, republic, deputy, delegate, rector, excursion, expedition, revolution, constitution, etc. These Latinisms came to our language, as well as to other European languages, not only through direct contact of the Latin language with any other (which, of course, was not excluded, especially through various educational institutions), but also through other languages. Latin in many European states was the language of literature, science, official papers and religion (Catholicism). Scientific writings up to the 18th century. they were often written in Latin; medicine still uses Latin. All this contributed to the creation of an international fund of scientific terminology, which was mastered by many European languages, including Russian.

In our time, scientific terms are often created from Greek and Latin roots, denoting concepts unknown in the era of antiquity: astronaut [gr. kos-mos - Universe + gr. nautes - (sea) swimmer]; futurology (lat. futurum - future + gr. logos - word, teaching); scuba gear (Latin aqua - water + English lung - lung). This is due to the exceptional productivity of the Latin and Greek roots included in various scientific terms, as well as their international nature, which makes it easier to understand such bases in different languages.

The later lexical influence of European languages on Russian began to be felt in the 16th – 17th centuries. and especially intensified in the Petrine era, in the 18th century. The transformation of all aspects of Russian life under Peter I, his administrative and military reforms, the successes of education, the development of science - all this contributed to the enrichment of Russian vocabulary with foreign words. These were the numerous names of then new household items, military and naval terms, words from the field of science and art.

The following words were borrowed from the German language: sandwich, tie, decanter, hat, office, package, price list, interest, accountant, bill of exchange, action, agent, camp, headquarters, commander, cadet, corporal, gun carriage, bandolier, workbench, jointer, nickel, quartz, saltpeter, wolfral, potatoes, onions.

From the Dutch language came the nautical terms: shipyard, harbor, pennant, berth, drift, pilot, sailor, roadstead, yacht, rudder, navy, flag, fairway, skipper, navigator, boat, ballast.

Marine terms were also borrowed from English: boat, brig, barge, schooner, yacht, midshipman. The influence of the English language turned out to be relatively stable: words penetrated from it into the Russian language throughout the 19th century. and later. So, words from the sphere of public relations, technical and sports terms, the names of everyday objects ascend to this source: leader, department, rally, boycott, parliament, station, elevator, dock, budget, square, cottage, trolleybus, rail, mac, beefsteak , pudding, rum, whiskey, grog, cake, plaid, sweater, jacket, french, finish, sports, athlete, football, basketball, volleyball, boxing, croquet, poker, hockey, jockey, bridge, spinning, etc.

The French language left a significant mark on the Russian vocabulary. The first gallicisms penetrated it in the Peter's era, and then, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, borrowing from the French language became especially popular in connection with the Gallomania of the secular society. Among them are words for everyday use: a suit, a hood, a corset, a bodice, a jacket, a vest, a coat, a cloak, a blouse, a tailcoat, a bracelet, a veil, a frill, a floor, furniture, a chest of drawers, an office, a sideboard, a salon, a toilet, a dressing table, a chandelier , lampshade, curtain, service, footman, broth, cutlet, cream, stew, dessert, marmalade, ice cream, etc .; military terms: vanguard, captain, sergeant, artillery, march, arena, cavalry, redoubt, attack, breach, battalion, salute, garrison, courier, general, lieutenant, dugout, recruit, sapper, cornet corps, landing force, navy, squadron.

Many words from the field of art also go back to the French language: mezzanine, parterre, play, actor, prompter, director, intermission, foyer, plot, role, stage, repertoire, farce, ballet, genre, role, stage. All these words have become the property of our language, therefore, not only the names, but also the concepts necessary for the enrichment of Russian culture were borrowed. Some French borrowings, reflecting a narrow circle of interests of an exquisite noble society, did not take root on Russian soil and went out of use: rendezvous, plezir, polite, etc.

Some Italian words also came to us through the French language: baroque, carbonarius, dome, mezzanine, mosaic, cavalier, trousers, gasoline, arch, barricade, watercolor, credit, corridor, bastion, carnival, arsenal, bandit, balcony, charlatan, basta , balustrade, etc.

Musical terms came from the Italian language to all European languages, including Russian: adagio, arioso, aria, alto, bass, cello, bandura, cappella, tenor, cavatina, canzona, mandolin, libretto, forte, piano, moderato, etc. The words also go back to the Italian source: harpsichord, ballerina, harlequin, opera, impresario, bravo.

There are isolated borrowings from the Spanish language, which often penetrated into the Russian language through French means: alcove, guitar, castanets, mantilla, serenade, caramel, vanilla, tobacco, tomato, cigar, lemon, jasmine, banana.

Foreign language borrowings should include not only individual words, but also some derivational elements: the Greek prefixes a-, anti-, arki-, pan-: immoral, anti-perestroika, archinarian, pan-Germanic; Latin prefixes: de-, counter-, trans-, ultra-, inter-. degradation, counterplay, trans-European, ultra-left, intervocal; Latin suffixes: -ism, -ist, -or, -tor, etc. kostism, accordionist, combinator. Such prefixes and suffixes have become entrenched not only in the Russian language, they have gained international distribution.

It should be noted that Russian words are also borrowed by other languages. Moreover, in different periods of our history, not only Russian words such as samovar, borsch, cabbage soup, cranberry, etc., penetrated into other languages, but such as companion, advice, perestroika, glasnost. The successes of the Soviet Union in space exploration contributed to the fact that the terms of this sphere, born in our language, were perceived in other languages. cosmonaut, lunar rover.

Mastering loan words in Russian

Foreign words, getting into our language, are gradually assimilated by them: they adapt to the sound system of the Russian language, obey the rules of Russian word formation and inflection, thus losing, to one degree or another, the features of their non-Russian origin.

First of all, foreign language features of the sound design of a word are usually eliminated, for example, nasal sounds in borrowings from French or combinations of sounds characteristic of the English language, etc. Then non-Russian word endings and gender forms change. For example, in the words postman, prompter, pavement, sounds characteristic of the French language no longer sound (nasal vowels, traced [r]); in the words rally, pudding there is no English back-lingual n, pronounced with the back of the back of the tongue (in the transcription [* ng], in addition, the first of them has lost the diphthong; the initial consonants in the words jazz, gin are pronounced with characteristic Russian articulation, although their combination for us The Latin word seminarium turned into a seminary, and then into a seminar; the Greek word analogos - into an analogue, and analogikos - into a similar one. not neuter, but feminine: beet German marschiern gets the Russian suffix -at and is transformed into march.

Acquiring derivational affixes, borrowed words are included in the grammatical system of the Russian language and obey the corresponding norms of inflection: they form paradigms of declensions, conjugations.

Mastering borrowed words usually leads to their semantic changes. Most foreign words in Russian lose etymological ties with the related roots of the source language. So, we do not perceive the German words resort, sandwich, hairdresser as words of a complex basis (resort from kurie-rep - "to treat" + Ort - "place"; hairdresser - literally "making a wig"; sandwich - "butter" and "bread" )

As a result of de-etymologization, the meanings of foreign words become unmotivated.

However, not all borrowings are assimilated by the Russian language to the same extent: there are those that have become so Russified that they do not reveal their foreign origin (cherry, notebook, party, hut, soup, cutlet), while others retain certain features of the original language, thanks to which they stand out in Russian vocabulary as alien words.

Among the borrowings there are words that have not been mastered in the Russian language, which stand out sharply against the background of the Russian vocabulary. A special place among such borrowings is occupied by exoticisms - words that characterize the specific features of the life of different peoples and are used to describe non-Russian reality. So, when depicting the life of the peoples of the Caucasus, the words aul, saklya, dzhigit, arba, etc. are used. Exotisms do not have Russian synonyms, therefore, the appeal to them when describing national specifics is dictated by necessity.

The other group includes barbarisms, i.e. foreign words transferred to Russian soil, the use of which is individual. Unlike other lexical borrowings, barbarisms are not recorded in dictionaries of foreign words, and even more so in dictionaries of the Russian language. Barbarisms have not mastered the language, although over time they can gain a foothold in it. Thus, almost all borrowings, before entering the permanent composition of the vocabulary, were barbaric for some time. For example, V. Mayakovsky used the word camp as barbarism (I am lying, - tent in the camp), later the borrowing of camping became the property of the Russian language.

Foreign language inclusions in Russian vocabulary adjoin the barbarisms: oh "kei, merci, happy end, pater familias. Many of them retain the non-Russian spelling, they are popular not only in ours, but also in other languages. Besides, the use of some of them has a long tradition, for example alma mater.

Phonetic and morphological features of borrowed words

Among the phonetic signs of borrowed words, the following can be distinguished.

Unlike native Russian words that never began with the sound [a] (which would contradict the phonetic laws of the Russian language), borrowed words have an initial a: questionnaire, abbot, paragraph, aria, attack, lampshade, arba, angel, anathema.
The initial e is mainly distinguished by Greekisms and Latinisms (Russian words never begin with this, uniotated, sound): era, era, ethics, examination, execution, effect, floor.
The letter f indicates a non-Russian source of the word, since the Eastern Slavs did not have the sound [f] and the corresponding graphic sign was used only to designate it in borrowed words: forum, fact, lantern, sofa, film, scam, form, aphorism, ether, profile and under.
The combination of two or more vowels in a word was unacceptable according to the laws of Russian phonetics, therefore borrowed words are easily distinguished by this feature (the so-called gaping): poet, halo, out, theater, veil, cocoa, radio, punctuation.
The consonances ge, ke, he, which underwent phonetic changes in the original words, turned out to be possible in borrowed words: cedar, hero, scheme, agent, ascetic.
The sequence of vowels and consonants, which is not characteristic of the Russian language, highlights borrowings in which the harmonies of a parachute, mashed potatoes, a communique, a jeep, a jury, unusual for it, are transmitted by means of the Russian phonetic system.
A special phonetic feature of words of Turkic origin is vowel harmony (synharmonism) - the natural use of only one row of vowels in one word: back [a], [y] or front [e], [and]: ataman, caravan, pencil, shoe, lasso , chest, sundress, drum, heel, sash, ulus, mosque, beads.

Among the morphological signs of borrowed words, the most characteristic is their immutability, the absence of inflections. So, some foreign-language nouns do not change in cases, do not have correlative singular and plural forms: taxi, coffee, coat, beige, mini, maxi.

The word-formation signs of borrowings include foreign language prefixes: interval, deduction, individualism, regression, archimandrite, counter-admiral, antichrist and suffixes: dean's office, student, technical school, editor, literature, proletariat, populism, socialist, polemicize, etc.

Tracing

One of the methods of borrowing is tracing, that is, the construction of lexical units according to the model of the corresponding words of a foreign language by accurately translating their significant parts or borrowing individual meanings of words.Accordingly, lexical and semantic tracings are distinguished.

Lexical tracing-papers arise as a result of literal translation into Russian of a foreign-language word in parts: a prefix, a root, a suffix with an exact repetition of the method of its formation and meaning. For example, the Russian word look is formed according to the German model aussehen as a result of tracing the prefix you = German aus-; verb stem - to look = German sehen. The words hydrogen and oxygen are tracing copies of the Greek hudor - "water" + genos - "kind" and oxys - "sour" + genos - "kind"; likewise the German Halbinsel served as a model for the tracing of the peninsula; English sky-scraper in Russian has a tracing paper skyscraper (cf. Ukrainian chmaroches). By means of tracing, the following borrowings came to us: biography (gr. Bios + grapho), superman (German ьber + Mensch); welfare (fr. bien + ktre), spelling (gr. orthos + grapho) and many others. Such tracing-papers are also called derivational, or rather lexico-derivational.

Semantic calques are original words that, in addition to their inherent meanings in the Russian lexical system, acquire new meanings under the influence of another language. For example, under the influence of the English language, the Russian word picture, meaning "a work of painting", "a spectacle", also began to be used in the meaning of "film" under the influence of the English language. This is a tracing copy of the English polysemous word picture, which in the source language has the following meanings: "picture," drawing "," portrait "," movie "," shooting frame ".

Many semantic cripples from the French language were introduced by N. M. Karamzin: touching, touching, taste, refined, image, etc. Addressing them at the beginning of the 19th century. was a hallmark of the "new style" developed by the Karamzin school and approved by Pushkin and his associates.

Lexico-derivational tracing was used to replenish the Russian lexicon from Greek, Latin, German, and French sources.

Another type of borrowing is lexical half-words - words in which word-for-word translated foreign language and Russian word-formative elements are combined. For example, the word humanity has the Latin root human-us, but the Russian suffix -ost (cf. humanism) is added to it, or the Greek (tele) and Russian (vision) bases are combined in the complex word television.

Relationship to loan words

In relation to borrowed words, two extremes often collide: on the one hand, the oversaturation of speech with foreign words and phrases, on the other, their negation, the desire to use only the original word. At the same time, in polemics it is often forgotten that many borrowings have become completely Russified and have no equivalents, being the only names of the corresponding realities (remember Pushkin's: But pantaloons, tailcoat, vest - all these words are not in Russian ...). The lack of a scientific approach to the problem of mastering foreign language vocabulary is also manifested in the fact that its use is sometimes considered in isolation from the functional and stylistic consolidation of linguistic means: it is not taken into account that in some cases the appeal to foreign language book words is not stylistically justified, but in others it is obligatory, since these words constitute an integral part of the vocabulary assigned to a certain style that serves a particular sphere of communication.

In different periods of the development of the Russian literary language, the assessment of the penetration of foreign language elements into it was ambiguous. In addition, with the activation of the process of lexical borrowing, opposition to it usually increases. So, Peter I demanded from his contemporaries to write "as intelligibly as possible", without overusing non-Russian words. MV Lomonosov in his "theory of three calmness", highlighting the words of different groups in the Russian vocabulary, did not leave room for borrowings from non-Slavic languages. And while creating Russian scientific terminology, Lomonosov consistently sought to find equivalents in the language to replace foreign terms, sometimes artificially transferring such formations into the language of science. Both A.P. Sumarokov and N.I. Novikov opposed the clogging of the Russian language with fashionable French words at that time.

However, in the 19th century. the emphasis has shifted. Representatives of the Karamzin school, young poets headed by Pushkin were forced to fight for the use of lexical borrowings on Russian soil, since they reflected the advanced ideas of French enlightenment. It was no accident that the tsarist censorship erased such borrowed words as revolution and progress from the language.

In the first years of Soviet power, the most urgent cultural and educational task was to familiarize the broad masses with knowledge and eliminate illiteracy. Under these conditions, prominent writers and public figures put forward the demand for the simplicity of the literary language.

In our time, the question of the expediency of using borrowings is associated with the assignment of lexical means to certain functional styles of speech. The use of foreign words that have a limited scope of distribution can be justified by the reader's circle, the style of the work. Foreign terminological vocabulary is an irreplaceable means of concise and accurate transmission of information in texts intended for narrow specialists, but it can also turn out to be an insurmountable barrier to understanding a popular science text by an unprepared reader.

It is necessary to take into account the tendency that has emerged in our century of scientific and technological progress towards the creation of international terminology, uniform names for concepts, phenomena of modern science, production, which also contributes to the consolidation of borrowed words that have acquired an international character.

Self-test questions

What explains the replenishment of Russian vocabulary with foreign words?
What are the ways of penetration of lexical borrowings into the Russian language?
What lexical layers are distinguished in the Russian language, depending on the origin of words?
What place do Old Slavonic words occupy in Russian vocabulary?
How are foreign words mastered in Russian?
By what phonetic and morphological signs can borrowed words be distinguished from the Russian vocabulary?
What is tracing paper?
What types of cripples do you know in Russian?
What are the criteria for using foreign words in speech?

Exercises

24. Analyze the composition of the vocabulary in the text in terms of its origin. Highlight foreign words, noting the degree of their assimilation into the Russian language. Indicate Old Church Slavonicisms. For information, refer to etymological dictionaries and dictionaries of foreign words.

The southern facade of the Saltykovs' house faces the Field of Mars. Before the revolution, the present growing park was a huge area where parades of troops of the Guards Corps were held. Behind it could be seen the gloomy Engineering Castle with its gilded spire. The building is now covered with old trees. In Pushkin's times they were only ten three years old.

The facade of the embassy's mansion had not yet been damaged by the later superstructure of the fourth floor.

Eight windows of the former ambassador's apartment overlook the Field of Mars, one of which has been laid; the extreme windows on the right and left are triple. In the middle of the floor, a glass door leads to a balcony in the strict proportions of the Alexander Empire style. Its massive cast-iron grate is very beautiful. The balcony was erected, probably in 1819, simultaneously with the entire third floor from the side of the Champ de Mars. ... Arriving in Leningrad, I asked permission to inspect the southern part of the third floor of the Institute of Culture.

Now, this is where his library is mainly placed. Book wealth (currently more than three hundred thousand volumes) is already cramped in the suite of former rooms of Countess Dolly ...

Five apartments overlooking the Champ de Mars are bright and invariably warm rooms. And in the most severe frosts it is never fresh here. The countess's favorite camellias and her other flowers probably felt good in these rooms even in the cloudy Petersburg winters. It was also cozy there for Daria Fyodorovna, who, as we know, in some respects herself resembled a greenhouse flower.

In terms of a real countess, having lived for many years in Italy, at least in the first years after her arrival in St. Petersburg, she could hardly endure the domestic frosts. The very arrival of the northern winter oppressed her.

Having settled in the Saltykovs' house, she writes on October 1 of the same 1829: “Today the first snow fell - the winter, which will continue for seven months, made my heart squeeze: the influence of the north on a person’s mood should be very strong, because among such a happy existence, like mine, all the time I have to fight my sadness and melancholy. I reproach myself for this, but there is nothing I can do about it - beautiful Italy is to blame for this, joyful, sparkling, warm, which turned my first youth into a picture full of colors, comfort and harmony. She threw like a veil over the rest of my life, which will pass outside of her! Few people would understand me in this respect - but only a person brought up and developed in the south really feels what life is and knows all its charm. "

Needless to say, the young settlement, like few, knew how to feel and love life. I only felt it - we will repeat it once more - one-sidedly. This was the case before, in Italy, and in the red living room of the Saltykovsky house, where, probably, she filled out the pages of her diary ... But it is difficult to walk around her former private rooms without excitement. Probably, they were no less than the ceremonial apartments of the embassy; Vyazemsky, "both diplomats and Pushkin were at home."

(N. Raevsky.)

25. In the sentences from the works of A.S. Pushkin, single out Old Slavicisms. Indicate their stylistic functions, name, where possible, Russian correspondences.

1. Leaning on an alien plow, submitting to the scourges, here meager slavery drags along the reins of the inexorable owner. Here, a painful rampage to the grave, all attract, not daring to nourish hopes and inclinations in the soul, here young maidens bloom for the whim of an insensitive villain. 2. Fear, O host of aliens! The sons of Russia moved; rebelled both old and young; fly at the bold, their hearts are kindled with vengeance. 3. I love the frantic youth ... 4. ... There, under the canopy of the wings, my younger days rushed. 5. Heed my sad voice ... 6. I did not want to kiss the lips of the young Armids with such anguish, il fiery roses, il percy, full of languor ... 7. It's time to leave the boring shore ... 8. ... Fields ! I am devoted to you in my soul. 9. But thank God! You are alive, unharmed ... 10. Hello, young, unfamiliar tribe! 11. And I have always considered you a faithful, brave knight ... 12. I opened the granaries for them, I scattered gold for them, I found work for them ... 13. Neither power, nor life amuse me ... 14. Then - is not it? - in the desert, far from the vain rumor, you did not like me ... 15. I listened and listened - involuntary and sweet tears flowed.

The Russian language, like any other, has its own lexical system, which has been formed over not just centuries, but even millennia. The vocabulary has different origins. Allocate in it and grammatical vocabulary and the origin of words are studied at school, as well as at philological faculties.

Basic concepts

The Russian language has a rich lexical system, the formation of which began in the Neolithic era and continues today. Some words disappear from the active vocabulary of the language, become archaisms, others, on the contrary, penetrate our speech, become an integral part of it.

In terms of origin, the vocabulary is divided into borrowed and native Russian. The native Russian vocabulary makes up about 90% of the total lexical composition. The rest is borrowed. In addition, every year our dictionary is replenished with new words and concepts that arise as a result of scientific and technological progress.

Primordially Russian vocabulary

The main layer is made up of the primordial Russian vocabulary. In this group, the following subgroups are distinguished, correlated with the stages of development not only of the language, but also of the people themselves:

Indo-European vocabulary.
Common Slavic.
Old Russian.
Actually Russian.

The words that emerged during these periods form the basis, the backbone of our vocabulary. It is he who should be considered in the first place.

Indo-European period

The primordially Russian vocabulary in terms of origin dates back to the Neolithic period. The period is characterized by the presence of one common proto-language - Indo-European, which functioned around the 2nd millennium BC. The words of this group include the names of animals, concepts for denoting kinship, food. For example: mother, daughter, ox, bull, meat other. All of them have consonant correspondences in other languages. For example, the word mother has a similar sound in English ( mother), and in German ( mutter).

Common Slavic stage

Common Slavic vocabulary originated around the 6th century AD. It was inherited from various tribes living in the Balkans, Central and Eastern Europe.

The vocabulary of this period refers to lexico-semantic groups that are used to designate the names of body parts, animals, natural phenomena, time periods, plants and flowers, the names of parts of buildings, tools. The most striking examples of vocabulary preserved from this period: oak, linden, spruce boron, tree, leaf, millet, barley, bark, hoe, house, canopy, shelter, chicken, goose, kvass, jelly. The layer of this vocabulary is inherent mainly to the Slavic peoples.

Old Russian period

Old Russian (or East Slavic) vocabulary penetrated our lexicon during the period of the settlement of the Slavs across the territory of modern Europe, approximately in the 11th-9th centuries. This also includes the period of formation of the formation of the state of Kievan Rus, that is, the 9th-14th centuries. Applies words such as good, gray, uncle, lace, finch, squirrel, forty, ninety, today.

These words are also characterized by the presence of prefixes v-, you-, do-, vz-... For example: platoon, knock out, finish off, catch up.

You can find the vocabulary formed during this period only in Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.

The period of the formation of the Russian people

From the 14th century, a new grammatical vocabulary began to appear in the Russian language. These words appear after the collapse of the Old Slavic language into Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. Properly Russian words include such as grumble, wallpaper, cabbage rolls, experience.

This includes all nouns formed with suffixes -shealer, -investigator, -the government, -sh (a)... For example: fire extinguisher, partisanship, nationality, checkered... This also includes adverbs peasant-style, autumn-style, Verbs shiver, crash, worry.

Knowing these features, you can easily calculate the words formed at this stage of development.

This period is the last in the formation of the main layer of proper Russian lexemes.

Borrowed vocabulary

Since ancient times, the Russian people have developed not only trade and cultural ties, but also political and military ones. All this led to language borrowing. Once in Russian, a word in the lexical system of the language changed under its influence and became part of its vocabulary. The borrowed words have significantly enriched the Russian language, brought a lot of new things into it.

Some words were borrowed completely, while some were modified - they received native Russian suffixes or prefixes, which ultimately led to the formation of a new word, already of Russian origin. For example, the word “computer” entered our vocabulary without changes, but the word “atomic engineer” is already considered natively Russian, since it was formed from the borrowed word “atom” according to the native Russian derivational model.

Borrowing is distinguished from Slavic, as well as Turkic, Latin, Greek, German-Romance languages, which include English and German, Italian, Spanish, Dutch.

Old Slavicisms

After the adoption of Christianity by Russia at the end of the 10th century, many words came to the Russian language. This was due to the appearance of Church Slavonic books in Russia. Old Slavonic, or Old Bulgarian, was used by a number of Slavic states as a literary written language, which was used to translate Greek church books.

From it, ecclesiastical designating abstract concepts came to the Russian language. These include priest, cross, power, calamity, harmony and many others. Initially, these words were used only in written, bookish speech, but over time they penetrated into oral speech.

The vocabulary of the Church Slavonic language from the point of view of origin has the following distinctive features:

The so-called inconsistency at the root of the words. For example: gate or captivity... In this case, the options will be gate and full.
Combination railway in the roots of words. A prime example is the word walking.
The presence of a consonant in words SCH, for example in the word lighting.
Vowel e at the beginning of a word and before a hard consonant: unit.
Syllables la-, ra- at the beginning of a word. For example: rook, equal.
Availability of prefixes through, through... For example: repay, excessive.
Suffixes -st-, -usch-, -yush-, -asch-, -ych-: knowledgeable, burning, melting.

These words are still used in Russian today. At the same time, few people suspect that in fact the named lexemes are not natively Russian and have foreign roots. They can be found especially often in biblical texts, works of the classics of Russian literature.

Polish lexemes

Considering the question of what vocabulary is from the point of view of origin, one cannot but recall the borrowings from the Polish language, which began in the 17th-18th centuries. From the West Slavic language, words such as belongings, paint, rabbit, periwinkle, jam. It is worth noting that they have replenished the stock of not only Russian, but also Ukrainian and Belarusian.

Greek borrowings

A significant layer of borrowed vocabulary is Greek. She began to penetrate our language back in the period of common Slavic unity. The oldest lexical "gifts" include words such as ward, bed, cauldron.

In the period from the 9th to the 11th century, the following words were borrowed: anathema, angel, mathematics, lamp, history, philosophy, notebook, bath, lantern... In a later period, words related to words from the field of art and science were borrowed: comedy, anapest, logic, analogy and many other concepts that are firmly entrenched in the terminological apparatus of most modern sciences.

It is worth noting that thanks to the influence of Greece and Byzantium, the vocabulary and phraseology of the Russian language has significantly enriched. However, the influence of these countries on itself was felt not only by such a science as philology, but also mathematics, physics, chemistry, and art.

Latin language

In the period from the 16th to the 8th century, the Russian language includes Latin words that enriched the lexical fund in the field of scientific, technical, socio-political terminology. They come mainly through the Ukrainian and Polish languages. This was especially strongly promoted by the development of education and science, as well as the historical and cultural ties of these countries.

From the Latin language such familiar concepts as holidays, office, director, audience, school, process, audience, revolution and others.

Turkic language

For a long time our paths crossed with Tatars, Turks. From the Turkic language into Russian, words such as pearls, beads, caravan, money, bazaar, watermelon, robe, fog, wide trousers, the names of the colors of the horses: roan, bay, dun.

Most of the borrowing came from the Tatar language. It is associated with trade, cultural or military ties that have existed between our peoples for several centuries.

Scandinavian languages

There are very few borrowings from the Scandinavian languages - Swedish, Norwegian. They penetrated in the early period because of the trade ties that existed between our peoples even in the pre-Christian period.

The brightest words that have penetrated the Russian lexical system: names Igor and Oleg, product names - herring, pood, hook, mast, sneak.

Western European languages

The origin of the vocabulary and its development are also closely related to a number of European languages. After the reforms of Peter I, in the 17th-18th centuries, lexemes from Western European languages are included in the Russian language.

A number of words came into our language from German to denote military, trade and everyday vocabulary, science and art: bill of exchange, headquarters, corporal, tie, easel, resort, landscape.

Dutch "shared" with Russian nautical terms: shipyard, harbor, pilot, navy, sailor... Marine terms also came from English: midshipman, brig.

Entered from English into our lexical system and words such as boycott, tunnel, football, sports, finish, cupcake, pudding.

The 20th century also includes words from the technical and sports, financial, commercial spheres, and art. New words that added to our lexical system at that time: computer, file, byte, overtime, broker, leasing, talk show, thriller, briefing, impeachment.

In the 18th-19th centuries, words from the French language also penetrate into the Russian language - bracelet, wardrobe, vest, coat, broth, cutlet, toilet, battalion, garrison, actor, play, director.

Musical terms came from Italian and Spanish to Russian, terms from the sphere of art: aria, tenor, libretto, sonata, carnival, gondola, serenade, guitar.

All of them are still actively functioning in our lexical system, and where and how they came from, we can learn from dictionaries.

Neologisms

At the present stage, the lexical system of the Russian language is being replenished with new words. They enter the language through the emergence of fresh concepts and phenomena. When an object or thing appears, new words appear to denote them. They do not immediately enter active vocabulary.

For some time the word is considered a neologism, then it becomes common and is firmly included in the language. Previously, neologisms were pioneer, Komsomolets, cosmonaut, Khrushchev etc. Now no one will suspect neologisms in them.

Dictionaries

In order to check which vocabulary from the point of view of origin is used in a particular case, you can turn to etymological dictionaries. They describe in detail the origin of the word, its initial etymology. You can use the school and short one edited by N. Shansky, "Russian etymological dictionary" by A. E. Anikin or "Etymological dictionary" by P. A. Krylov and others.

You can find out the meaning of foreign words that have come to us from foreign languages using the wonderful "Dictionary of Foreign Words" edited by Ozhegov.

Studying at school

Vocabulary from the point of view of origin and use is usually studied in the school course of the Russian language in the section "Lexicology and phraseology". The most close attention to this topic is paid in grades 5-6, as well as in grade 10. Schoolchildren learn the origin of words and phraseological units, their meaning, learn to distinguish them, work with various dictionaries.

In some cases, teachers can conduct entire electives, extracurricular activities devoted to the study of the origin of words.

What materials can be used to study the topic "Vocabulary from the point of view of origin"? Table with classification and examples, texts in different languages containing words borrowed in Russian, dictionaries.

Studying at the university

The vocabulary from the point of view of origin is studied in particular in detail at the university, at the Faculty of Philology. This topic is given several lessons in the course "Lexicology and phraseology of the modern Russian language." In practical classes, students parse various texts, finding original Russian and borrowed words in them, classify them, and work with dictionaries. They also determine the stylistic possibilities of borrowed, outdated words.

At lectures and seminars, the classification of vocabulary by origin, use and functioning in the modern Russian language is examined in detail. This approach makes it possible to interest students, to master the proposed knowledge on the topic under study most deeply.

conclusions

Any word in the lexical system of the language has its own history and origin. Some words have long been functioning in our language, even from the period when a single, Indo-European language functioned, others came to us at different time intervals from Slavic or European languages, and others arose during the development of modern information technologies.

Understanding the history of the emergence of certain words will help us not only to understand their deep meaning, but also to trace the development of the culture of our country in a particular period.