Economic life is a kind of theater of events in which different groups of people act, participate, and clearly manifest themselves. The totality of socio-economic groups forms a socio-economic structure on the scale of society as a whole, region or settlement, branch of the economy, organization.

Identifying and distinguishing groups in a community is social stratification. Since labor and labor relations are the main components in economic life, the most important objective foundations of socio-economic stratification can be considered:

• employment, its measure and type;

· Position in the social division of labor, i.e. employment in managerial or executive, agricultural or industrial, physical or mental work;

· Features of work in terms of severity, complexity, communication, risk, physical and moral conditions;

· Profession or occupation, i.e. work for hire for wages and requiring professional qualifications or independent work with free income, including independent of education;

· Attitude to ownership of the means of production, its presence or absence, as well as its measure, form and type;

· Attitude to the organization and management of production and labor, its level, economic and legal grounds, formal or informal;

· Income, their measure and sources, legitimacy or morality, stable or unstable nature;

· Education and qualifications, their level, profile, prestige.

Taking into account the listed reasons, a large number of groups can be distinguished. The scientific, business and ordinary versions of their names are unstable over time, are often disputed, and sometimes simply do not coincide in many respects. This suggests that the phenomenon of socio-economic structure is very difficult to reflect in the public consciousness.

Along with the objective, there are also subjective foundations of socio-economic stratification. Here the groups differ in terms of some human qualities that are of great importance for labor and labor relations - categorical orientations towards one or another profession; style of behavior and activity in the same types of work; passivity or activity; leadership; obedience to the law; attitudes towards work and wages; morality in labor and property matters; predisposition to individual or joint work. When studying the socio-economic structure, we consider the subjective plan of objective groups and the objective plan of subjective groups. Groups identified on objective grounds develop their own consciousness and behavior, at the same time, groups identified on objective grounds affect the economy, take their objective position in the professional division of labor, achieve a better or worse objective property status precisely because of or due to their psychology ...

Socio-economic stratification has its own complexities and contradictions.

Which socio-economic groups can be identified as significant, worthy of attention, depends not only on the tasks of the analysis, but also on the interests and worldview of the analysts themselves.

Depending on the weight of socio-economic differences, the groups will also be more or less significant. The weight of the same differences is not the same in different cases, i.e. relative. There are specific forms of relativity of socio-economic differences.

1. Many fundamental differences in professions and occupations are erased under the influence of technological progress, as well as in conditions of an acute shortage of jobs; people also attach less importance to these differences if their orientation towards material incentives is strong.

2. Differences in incomes are not so significant if the latter are large for everyone (on average), if there are no opportunities for their realization, or if society, these individuals and groups are especially focused on spiritual values.

3. Employment or unemployment does not so clearly express the socio-economic status of people if unemployment is temporary, or if on average workers receive low wages, or if unemployment benefits are high enough.

4. Education can only mean the professional nature of work and be a small nuance of work and life, or it can play the role of a kind of capital that determines the socio-economic prospects of a person; education in some cases is also a factor that either guarantees employment, or contributes to unemployment, or is irrelevant in this regard.

5. Property has unequal socio-economic significance for people in the context of its democratic or caste distribution, political stability or instability of economic relations; property is also a different opportunity for an individual or group to develop and enlarge their own means of production, stability of income and existence, free labor, domination over people, etc., which indicates the optional attractiveness and profitability of owning and disposing of it.

6. Individual qualities of people are also subject to the principle of relativity. If in some socio-economic systems, situations, specific cases some behavioral and spiritual properties do not matter, in others it is they that determine the status, achievements and comfort of individuals and groups; if in some cases the organization, thanks to the principle of its structure, is able to foresee and neutralize some qualities and actions of people, in others, on the contrary, it can develop and realize them to the maximum.

Depending on what are in a certain community the differences between groups of people associated with labor and labor relations, we can identify and study some strategic models of socio-economic structures.

1. Interclass model. The most significant differences are differences between several very large group-classes, which are in the nature of open contradictions. People themselves are easily aware of and express them. At the same time, each of the group-classes in itself is quite homogeneous and is characterized by a high index of cohesion.

2. Intra-class model. There are no differences between the main groups-classes that could be considered significant and giving rise to contradictions in their relationships. These group-classes have sufficiently "integrated into the system", adapted to each other, divided and defined roles, working conditions and incomes without conflict. At the same time, it is precisely because of this that diversity has increased within them. Contradictory differences between class groups turned out to be transformed into internal problems, into increased differentiation and even conflict.

3. Superclass model. Differences and contradictions are evenly distributed in the external and internal relations of the main groups. At the same time, both the strengthening and the weakening of the differences between these group-classes can be uniform.

The analysis of the socio-economic structure, along with the foundations of stratification, is used and the principle of typology. Social and socioeconomic groups can differ in characteristics that are not associated with direct group-forming factors, but are also important.

Let's highlight the following main typologically different groups.

1. Traditional and new groups. Traditional groups are understood to be long-existing groups that are well integrated into the socio-economic system. Although, of course, some social-professional and social-labor categories of people can remain unfavorable for a relatively long time. New - these are newly emerging groups that do not yet have a certain status. They are promising or unpromising; they will be able to take their place in the socio-economic structure or not; the uncertainty of the status of a new group is simply uncertainty in the conditions of activity, rights and opportunities, maximum possible income, etc. Representatives of the traditional group have a better and more realistic idea of all the circumstances of their existence.

2. Dominant groups. The concept of dominance reflects the specific processes of intergroup leadership and the domination of some groups over others, which also occur in the socio-economic structure. Dominance can be long-term or temporary, and take many forms. Let us dwell on some of the most specific phenomena.

First, dominance can be based on role priority. Let's imagine that some groups are able to make the most significant contribution to economic development, overcoming problem situations in this development, are of particular importance in maintaining production and mastering its new areas and principles of organization. Such groups claim to be patronized by the bureaucracy and privileges, they can actually receive them. The dominant group may be the working class (in the context of industrialization); the peasantry (in conditions of hunger or the orientation of the economy towards agricultural production); engineering and technical intelligentsia (in conditions of mass automation and robotization); managers (in the context of a boom in management culture); economists (in the context of a global revision of the economic system and the search for a new economic philosophy), etc. The phenomenon of dominance can also be clearly manifested at the micro level (for example, in a situation when the importance of suppliers, trade union activists, highly qualified workers, workers of some kind of production that brings special profit to the enterprise, etc.) sharply increases.

From the point of view of economic sociology, such processes in economics as claims to dominance, propaganda of dominance, conflict over dominance, suppression of dominance, etc.are interesting.

Second, dominance is based on the principle of basic and non-basic functions. Groups that perform basic functions acquire superiority features, they are more prestigious, and often have the ability to impose their will and behavior on those groups that are engaged in performing various kinds of auxiliary, intermediary, temporary, non-specialized tasks. Non-basic functions sometimes make those who perform them socially dependent. Thus, the division of functions into basic and non-basic is a problem not only of the economic organization of production, but also of social relations.

In all cases, dominance is accompanied by such social indicators as a special objective weight of roles or functions, the presence of privileges, special prestige, the ability to determine the situation and conditions for everyone, direct dictate, relatively large compared to other labor costs.

3) Marginal groups. There are groups that occupy a borderline, intermediate position in the socio-economic structure, combining the features of several groups (more often the comparative plan is made up of "extremes", two significantly different groups). Intermediate, borderline is marginality. Let us give the following examples of the marginality of groups (marginal groups):

The so-called independent workers, i.e. persons who own property but do not employ hired labor. The limitation of this group manifests itself when it is compared with the owners and workers;

The so-called new poor. There are two meanings of this concept. The new poor are people who do not feel material needs, but lag behind in income from the average standard of living, or people who, for some reason, suddenly found themselves poor, but by inertia retain the self-awareness and consumer attitudes of the middle class;

Categories of workers employed in the city but living in the countryside, or vice versa. This social category combines the features of a peasant and a worker, a rural and urban dweller (in the village, its representatives perceive themselves as city dwellers, and in the city - as villagers, etc.). Sociological studies of this category are relevant and interesting from the point of view of the type of personality and the characteristics of relationships with others;

Some categories of highly skilled workers. Formally, they belong to the working class, but in fact they perform tasks and functions that allow them to perceive themselves as scientific and technical intelligentsia;

The bottom line of leaders. Formally, they relate to the leadership, are perceived as managers and representatives of the apparatus, but in fact they are busy with the problems of direct production, they are connected with grassroots jobs, they know well the tasks and functions of ordinary workers, often even perform them, sometimes communicate with workers more confidentially than with the administration;

Trade union activists. Comparative plan of their marginality - hired workers and employers. Initially, trade union activists are defenders of the interests of the first social category, but practice forces them to understand, respect and take into account the interests of another category, so in reality they have a dual consciousness and self-awareness.

In each of the specific socio-economic groups, you can find the features of borderline, transition. Therefore, the very category of marginality is of particular importance when it comes to significantly different and contradictory features. In the worst case, marginality can turn into a conflict of the subject, uncertainty and inconsistency of his behavior, and his lack of clear value orientations. From a socio-economic point of view, marginality can be both an advantageous and a disadvantageous position, allowing one to simultaneously claim the rights and opportunities of different groups, or even deprive these rights and opportunities as “outsiders”.

According to sociological definitions, the so-called declassed elements are also considered marginal, i.e. persons who do not belong to any of the socio-economic groups taken for the main classes. Being marginalized in this sense of the word, these individuals are also deprived of interests, self-awareness, behavior, which are considered socially normal in the existing system.

4) Problem groups. These include groups that occupy an unfavorable position against the general socio-economic background in terms of generally accepted and obvious socio-economic standards. Problematic can also include those groups whose interests, needs, expectations (assessed as legitimate, normal) have not been realized for a long time. The problem is assessed primarily from the point of view of objective indicators. Subjective indicators do not always adequately reflect the situation, since individuals are capable of both exaggerating and ignoring, not realizing the unfavorable aspects of their situation.

The simplest examples of problem groups are unemployed, interethnic and interregional migrants, working single mothers, working heads of large families, representatives of harmful and difficult work areas, low-paid workers who want to improve their skills, education, but do not have the opportunity to do so, etc.

5) Closed, open, transitional groups. The most common criterion for determining the openness or closedness of groups is the possibility of intergroup movement, leaving the group or entering it. Initially, in sociology, the phenomenon of openness or closedness of groups was considered in the socio-generational aspect. There is a so-called caste society, where each new generation inherits the profession of its parents and the transition from one social and professional group to another is practically impossible, and a free democratic society, where social origin is not dominant, where there is free professional choice and job status depends on personal merit. The first society corresponds to a closed, and the second - an open social and socio-economic structure.

6) Nominal and real groups. The nominal group is based on the similarity of the external characteristics of many people. For example, a nominal group can be made up of all those receiving the same wages, all with the same specialty, all highly qualified workers, all adhering to a given work style, all working in small (or large) enterprises, etc.

A real group is based on real relationships, i.e. actual contact and interaction, frequent face-to-face communication, sometimes coexistence at the same time in the same place. In this case, the magnitude of such commonality may not matter.

There are no absolutely insurmountable differences between real and nominal groups. Under certain conditions, a nominal group can become real if “purely external signs” are a reason for people to unite in a community to express solidarity, mutual support, and joint actions at least for a while. Likewise, a real group, if internal ties disintegrate in it, turns into a nominal group of people who are only formally considered to be something single, whole. A similar fate can befall both small production teams and large economic associations.

Organizational forms of enterprises

The forms of activity of the enterprise can be divided into organizational and legal and organizational and economic. Organizational and legal forms include business partnerships and cooperatives.

Economical society is an association of persons created to carry out entrepreneurial activities. Members of the society are divided into full and limited.

Companies are created with the consent of at least two citizens or legal entities by combining their contributions in order to carry out economic activities.

An enterprise created by a group of persons for joint production or other economic activity is called a cooperative.

The main organizational and economic forms of the enterprise include: concerns, associations, consortia, syndicates, cartels, financial and industrial groups.

Concern is a diversified joint stock company that controls enterprises through a participatory system. The concern acquires a controlling stake in various companies that are subsidiaries of it. In turn, subsidiaries may also own controlling stakes in other joint stock companies, often located in other countries.

Associations- This is a form of voluntary association of economically independent enterprises, organizations that can simultaneously be included in other entities. The structure of the association, as a rule, includes single-specialized enterprises and organizations located in a certain territory. The main goal of the association is to jointly solve scientific, technical, industrial, economic, social and other problems.

Consortium is an association of entrepreneurs with the aim of jointly conducting a large financial transaction. Such an association of entrepreneurs has the opportunity to invest in a large project, while the risk arising from large investments is significantly reduced, since the responsibility falls on many participants.

Syndicate- unification for the purpose of marketing products by entrepreneurs of the same industry to eliminate unnecessary competition between them.

Cartel is an agreement between enterprises of the same industry on prices for products, services, division of sales markets, shares in the total volume of production, etc.

Financial and industrial group is a union of industrial, banking, insurance and commercial capital, as well as the intellectual potential of enterprises and organizations.

Production, economic, economic and social activities of the enterprise

The sphere of production and economic activity of the enterprise includes the processes of production, reproduction and rotation. Production processes ensure the implementation of the tasks of preparing and mastering the release of new products, the manufacture of industrial products and the provision of services, maintenance of production. Work on the restoration of fixed assets, expansion and technical re-equipment of enterprises, training and retraining of personnel are processes of reproduction. Rotation processes include logistics and sales of finished products.

The enterprise independently plans its production and economic activities and determines development prospects based on the demand for manufactured products, works and services, the need to ensure the production and social development of the enterprise, and increase the personal income of its employees. The plans are based on contracts concluded with consumers of products and services and suppliers of material and technical resources. The company also performs work on the supply of government agencies. When preparing plans, the enterprise agrees with the administration of the city, district, measures that can cause environmental, social, demographic and other consequences and relate to the interests of the population of the territory.

Enterprises, based on the study of market conditions, potential partners, information on price movements, organize the material and technical supply of their own production by acquiring resources, carried out both directly from consumers and in wholesale trade organizations, in intermediary organizations, on commodity exchanges.

The relations of the enterprise with other enterprises, organizations and citizens in all spheres of economic activity are built on the basis of contracts. At the same time, enterprises in their activities must take into account the interests of consumers, their requirements for the quality of products, works and services.

Enterprises, regardless of the form of ownership of the means of production and other property, operate according to the principle of cost accounting - reimbursement of cash costs for the production of products from the proceeds from sales and ensuring profit. Under the conditions of cost accounting, the enterprise has complete economic independence. It recruits employees, purchases equipment, raw materials and supplies, organizes the production process, sells products, has a complete accounting and reporting system with the identification of the results of economic activities.

The company sells its products at prices set independently or on a contractual basis and, in cases determined by law, at state prices.

At all enterprises, the main generalizing indicator of financial performance is profit. The profit remaining with the enterprise after taxes and other payments to the budget goes to its full disposal. The company independently determines the areas of use of net profit. The profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise is used to solve the problems of technical and organizational development of production, to strengthen its material and technical base, to conduct scientific research, and to the social development of the team. Part of the net profit can be transferred to the ownership of the team members. Its volume and the order of distribution among the members of the collective is determined by the council of the enterprise.

The company independently organizes its financial activities. It has the right to open a bank account to preserve all funds and carry out all types of monetary transactions, to use a bank loan on a commercial contractual basis. The source of the formation of the financial resources of the enterprise is profit, depreciation charges, funds received from the sale of securities, shares and other contributions of members of the labor collective and other receipts.

Each enterprise has the right to independently carry out foreign economic activity in accordance with applicable law. For its implementation, enterprises can create joint ventures with foreign firms, foreign trade firms, conclude agreements on joint research, production and trade activities with foreign firms. Foreign exchange earnings are credited to the foreign currency balance sheet account of the enterprise and can be used by it independently. The enterprise allocates part of the funds received to the budgets of different levels.

Social development, improvement of working conditions, compulsory social, medical insurance and social security of employees of enterprises and members of their families are regulated by law. The company is obliged to provide its employees with safe working conditions and bears responsibility in the manner prescribed by law for damage caused to their health and working capacity.

The enterprise can independently establish additional holidays, reduced working hours and other benefits for its employees, as well as encourage employees of organizations serving the labor collective and are not part of the enterprise.

Chapter 4. Enterprise as a production and economic system

§ 1. Elements of the theory of complex systems

Production and economic system(PES) refers to complex systems. The main type of production and economic systems is the enterprise. Let us give, in relation to an industrial enterprise, some necessary information from the theory of complex systems.

Under a system in the broadest sense of the word, it is customary to understand a closed objective unity of elements connected with each other, ordered according to a certain law or principle (Fig. 4.1).

The basis for ordering the system is, as a rule, the purpose of its functioning. Systems theory deals with one of the branches of cybernetics - systemology, or systems engineering. The latter name is used in cases where the technical aspects associated with the design of systems come to the fore. The concept of a system is contrasted with haphazard, or chaos.

Rice. 4.1

From a mathematical point of view, a system is a set on which a predetermined relation is realized R with fixed properties R. As such a relationship is usually the requirements of a certain order, connections between the elements of the system: events occurring in one of the elements of the system, in a certain way affect the events in other elements.

Any system is located and functions in a certain well-defined external environment. The interaction of the system with the external environment is carried out through the input and output of the system. In this case, an entrance is understood as a point or area of influence on the system from the outside; under the exit - a point or area of influence of the system outside.

The system can be in various states. The state of any system at a certain moment t can be characterized with a certain accuracy by the set of values of the internal parameters of the state m:

m = m 1 , m 2 , ... , m* .

To describe system states the method of the state space or, in another terminology, the method of the phase space is very convenient. In this case, the state parameters are called the phase coordinates of the system.

The state of the system can be represented by a point in multidimensional space, where the values of the corresponding phase coordinates are plotted along the coordinate axes. If the state of the system changes in time, then the reflecting point moves in the multidimensional phase space along a certain curve, which is called the phase trajectory of the system. Thus, the description of the behavior of a system, which is often very complex, can be replaced by a description of the behavior of a point in the phase space.

In real systems, coordinates, as a rule, can take values that lie in certain intervals:

m imin ax , i = 1,2, ..., i * .

As a result, any system is characterized by a certain range of values of phase coordinates, within which one can speak of the system as a single whole. Such an area is called the area of existence of the system, or the area of possible trajectories. For a two-dimensional case, the situation is shown in Fig. 4.2.

Region of existence

Phase trajectory

m(t)

m(t 0 )

Rice. 4.2.

If the coordinates of the system can take any values within the region of existence, then the systems are called continuous. If the phase coordinates can take only a finite number of fixed values, then the systems are called discrete.

Thus, the system is characterized by three groups of variables:

Input, which are generated by systems external to the investigated one:

x= x 1 , x 2 , ..., x* ;

Output, integrated by the system under study, determining the impact of the system on the environment:

y= y 1 , y 2 , ..., y* ;

State coordinates characterizing the dynamic behavior of the system under study:

m= m 1 , m 2 , ..., m* .

All three groups of quantities are assumed to be functions of time:

x(t); y(t); m(t). (4.1)

Rice. 4.3

At any given time t the state of the system is a function of the initial state m(t 0) and changes in the input vector x(t) in the range from t 0 to t:

y( t) =< p [ m(t 0), x(t 0 , t)].

Equations (2) and (3) are called equations of state of the system.

For systems described by differential equations, the equations of state have the form

dm dt t --F d y dt t --,[ m ( t ) , x ( t )]

Derivation of equations of state of a system is an initial, but very important stage in the analysis and synthesis of systems in modern control theory. Acting on the inputs of the system, we transfer it from one state to another and thereby obtain changes at the outputs, which fixes the new state of the system.

The transfer of a system from one state to another is accompanied by the expenditure of matter, energy, and time. Management is usually called optimal if the transfer of the system from one state to another, corresponding to the achievement of the goal, will be accompanied by a minimum expenditure of matter, energy or time.

To control real processes, it is necessary to create control systems in which information circulates in a very complex way, within a set of circuits that determine the structure of a given system (Fig. 4.3).

All the variety of connections between circuits in the system can be reduced to two main types: a relationship that establishes the mutual subordination of circuits and the transfer of information between senior and minor circuits, and a relationship that determines the transfer of information between circuits that are at the same level. For the convenience of considering these connections on the diagrams, we will call them, respectively, the "vertical" connection (Fig. 4.4, a) and the "horizontal" connection (Fig. 4.4, b).

An example of a "vertical" relationship can be the relationship between the "manager - accountant" contour and the "manager - head of the shop" contour. An example of a “horizontal” relationship is the relationship between the contour “planning department of the enterprise - planning bureau of the shop” and the contour “department of the chief technologist of the enterprise - technological bureau of the shop”.

The path of information passage in the control system is mainly determined by the organization of the system and the task that the system is solving at the moment. Sometimes this path passes through several contours, covering each of them in whole or in part.

Therefore, in studying the solution of specific control problems, the sequence of information passing through the elements of the contours included in the system, and taking into account the corresponding transformations to which the information is subjected, becomes important.

Second level control object

Rice. 4.4

The path of passage of information in the control system when solving a certain problem, which includes elements of one or more circuits, is called a chain of passage (circulation) of information in the system.

Thus, under the control system you can also understand the interconnected set of control loops, organized for the purposeful control of a complex system.

The inputs of the system receive certain values of the input parameters, changing the values of which can change the current state of the system. It can be traced by observing the state of the output parameters at the outputs of the system. So, if we take an enterprise as an example of a system, then the inputs can be the staffing level and training of personnel, the composition and quality of equipment, raw materials, fuel, and the salary fund. The outputs of the system, characterizing the current state of the enterprise, will be the quantity and quality of products, expenditures of monetary and material values, etc.

Depending on the degree of mutual influence of the system and the external environment, systems are divided into open and closed(closed). In open systems, internal processes significantly depend on environmental conditions and themselves have a significant impact on its elements. In this regard, the functioning of such systems is determined by both external and internal information.

In closed (closed) systems, internal processes are weakly connected with the external environment. As a result, the functioning of closed systems is determined mainly by internal information, that is, that which is generated within the system itself. The closed nature of a system means a strict limitation of its composition and scope of activity to a certain framework, which makes it possible to take into account the change in states. If the system is not closed, its state cannot be strictly taken into account.

Depending on the nature of the connection between the elements of the system and the events occurring in it, distinguish deterministic and probabilistic(stochastic) systems. In a deterministic system, connections between elements and events are unambiguous, predetermined.

In a probabilistic (stochastic) system, in contrast to a deterministic one, the connections between elements and events are ambiguous: the same changes in the elements of the system in each individual case can lead to different events. However, there is no place for chaos here either - connections between elements and events exist in the form of probabilistic laws. For example, a change in production technology leads to a certain change in the total number of defective products, however, it is impossible to unambiguously determine in advance whether a given part will be defective or not.

In practice, strictly deterministic systems do not exist. Therefore, it is more correct to define deterministic systems as a special case of probabilistic systems in which the probability of the expected event is close to unity.

A modern manufacturing enterprise belongs to complex dynamic systems. A complex system, in contrast to a simple one, is understood as a system that cannot be considered as the sum of its constituent parts (the property of emergence). When analyzing a complex system, along with considering element-by-element, in a dismembered form, it is also necessary to study it as a whole, in the entire set of connections.

The dynamic nature of the system is determined by the fact that it is in a state of continuous change, in dynamics. This is how it differs from a static system.

Since, however, systems in statics practically do not exist, dynamic systems, in contrast to static ones, are usually called those, the transition of which to a new state cannot occur simultaneously, but takes some time and is carried out as a result of a certain process. Any control system can serve as an example of a dynamic system.

Complex systems characterized by the following most important signs:

the presence of a single purpose of functioning;

the presence of several levels of management, hierarchically linked;

the presence of subsystems, each of which has a purpose of functioning, subordinate to the general purpose of functioning of the entire system;

- the presence of a large number of connections between subsystems, within each subsystem and the need for an extensive control communication network;

the complex composition of the system - the presence of people, machines and the natural environment;

resistance to external and internal disturbing factors and the presence of elements of self-organization.

A complex system always consists of subsystems. Subsystems can be allocated if each of them has:

the goal of functioning, subordinate to the general goal of the functioning of the entire system;

a set of elements that make up the system;

its control system, which is part of the general control system.

In this sense, the terms "system", "subsystem", "element" are relative. A particular system can represent a subsystem in a higher level system. Conversely, the same system may include lower-level systems. The division of the system into subsystems can be different depending on the principle adopted as a basis.

The vast majority of complex systems operate under the influence of a large number of random factors. Therefore, it is possible to predict the behavior of a complex system only probabilistically, that is, to determine the probability of the expected state of the system, to obtain distribution laws or some numerical characteristics of random variables that reflect the behavior of a complex system.

When building control systems of any degree of complexity, it is necessary to take into account the following basic principles - the laws of cybernetics.

The Law of Necessary Diversity. The essence of this law lies in the fact that the diversity of a complex system requires management, which itself has sufficient diversity. The law of the necessary diversity justifies the need for multivariate planning and the development of optimal solutions. Management, which is based on the consideration of a single version of the plan, cannot be recognized as scientific.

Optimal control, based on the consideration of various options, is, on the contrary, scientific control that corresponds to the law of necessary diversity. And the more complex and, therefore, the more diverse the system itself, the more importance becomes optimality in control.

The law of the difference between the whole and the private (the law of emergence).

This law consists in the presence of integral properties of the system, that is, such properties of the system that are not inherent in its constituent elements. The larger the system and the greater the difference in scale between the part and the whole, the higher the likelihood that the properties of the whole can be very different from those of the parts. Emergency is one of the forms of manifestation of the dialectical principle of the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones.

Numerous manifestations of the law of emergence are known - the efficiency of large-scale production, the social consequences of urbanization, the possibility of implementing large-scale events in the field of fundamental research (space, nuclear energy), industry, and defense.

The law of the difference between the whole and the particular shows the difference between the local optima of individual subsystems and the global optimum of the entire system. This law shows the need for an integral consideration of the system, to achieve a general optimum.

When synthesizing control systems, it is generally accepted that general (emergent) interests are concentrated in the center of the system, in the central body, at the upper level of the hierarchy, while private, inherent (immanent) interests are localized in the corresponding elements.

External complement law. In complex systems, the forecast of the state of the environment and the development of control actions by formal methods can be carried out only approximately.

As a result, there is always a need for meaningful control of the work of a formalized control scheme and its correction with the help of additional (external) informally made decisions. Such adjustments can be considered as a result of the functioning of a "black box" built between the output of the formalized control subsystem and the input of the controlled subsystem.

The more complex the system, the more natural the deviations "not taken into account" in the planning and creation of systems. Therefore, the control system must have adequate reserves, compensators and regulators to correct such “unaccounted for” deviations.

The set of informal procedures for correcting the algorithmically (formalized) control actions obtained and setting various parameters is called an external complement, and the theoretical need for such informal compensation is called a principle, or law, of an external complement.

Feedback law requires building a system using closed loops. For the economy, this means the need to concentrate the plan and accounting in the same hands.

Anti-entropy law boils down to the fact that system management is always aimed at reducing uncertainty in knowledge about the structure and behavior of a controlled system by increasing information awareness when making a decision. Control is always associated (for a given degree of systemic complexity) with limiting the degrees of freedom of the system, which is necessary to determine the purposeful behavior of the system.

§ 2. Production and economic system

A modern enterprise is a complex production and economic system. It is characterized by the following systemic features:

variety of structure, which is expressed in a large number of various structural elements, such as workshops, farms, laboratories;

difference in the nature of the elements, which is known to be one of the essential features of complex systems, is very pronounced in production and economic systems.

Labor power, means of labor, objects of labor are considered as the main elements of production.

This basic differentiation can naturally be deepened and broadened.

Multiple connectivity of the elements of the production and economic system, which is expressed in the presence of many different connections between the elements of the PES. The transfer of various parts in the course of the technological process, the transfer of various types of energy, the provision of the production process with repairs and tools, information communications, transport communications, social ties between members of the PES team - this is not a complete list of various types of communication between elements.

The connections and relationships of the PES elements are distinguished by their stability, constant proportionality.

Dynamism, which consists in a constant change of states of a productive-economic system, is its characteristic feature. This dynamism is expressed in the cyclical nature of the production process, its change in time, in fluctuations in the structure and connections of its elements, in a variety of external and internal influences.

Multi-criteria, which is one of the most characteristic properties of the production and economic system. On the one hand, there are many criteria, such as the range of products, the total volume of products sold, the amount of profit, profitability, the fulfillment of tasks for new technology, and labor productivity. Only a multiple assessment of such indicators will characterize the system. On the other hand, all subsystems at different levels of the PES hierarchy can be characterized by by their particular criteria that together form a sequence of goals and criteria.

The probabilistic nature of production processes... The nature of the functioning of any production is probabilistic. Manufacturing is constantly influenced by numerous random factors. At any time, certain elements of equipment may fail as a result of breakdowns, and thus production will lose a certain part of active fixed assets. A defect accidentally occurs both in its production (technological defect) and at the expense of supplies (purchase defect), which leads to labor losses. Losses in the workforce due to staff turnover, illness and other factors, disruptions in the supply of components and materials are unexpected. The duration of all production operations that affect the production cycle are random in nature.

This list could be continued. Such phenomena lead to a delay in production plans, to an increase in work in progress. For a quantitative assessment of accidents, it is necessary to organize the collection of statistical data and their mathematical processing.

Probabilistic modeling of production processes will make it possible to establish the levels of safety stocks that ensure the performance of production of its tasks with a given probability. An experienced manager without mathematical background knows that it is necessary to protect the production process from accidental disruptions by creating a certain level of safety stocks. However, what the level of these safety stocks should be can only be determined mathematically. Continuous collection and processing of statistical materials and probabilistic modeling of production make it possible to determine the current characteristics and current levels of safety stocks. Depending on the nature of the elements in the enterprise, the following can be distinguished subsystems.

Technical subsystem is an interconnected, interdependent, in an agreed proportional state, a set of equipment (machines, mechanisms, machine tools and groups of machines, production lines), designed to solve a specific problem.

The coordination consists in leveling the throughput of the main production process, in accordance with the technology serving the main and auxiliary production processes, to modern requirements.

Technological subsystem is a set of rules that determine the sequence of operations and production processes, during which products are created with certain parameters and quality. The technological subsystem requires strict adherence to these rules at all stages of the production process. Management in the technological subsystem consists in the careful development of technology, its further improvement as necessary and careful control over the quality of work throughout its entire duration.

Subsystem of joint labor represents its necessary organization to achieve a specific goal, quantitative and qualitative proportions of individual types of labor, their division and interconnections in the production process.

Economic subsystem represents the unity of economic processes and economic ties of all sides of production. The mechanism of action of economic laws is manifested at the enterprise in the process of movement of its funds in their monetary, production and commodity form. The movement of enterprise funds is the material basis of the technical, technological and socio-economic process at the enterprise.

Social subsystem represents the connection of people in the process of social production. Its main feature in market conditions is private ownership of the means of production. The connection of people is the basis for the existence of production and economic systems. The general economic interests of the PES collective are to increase the wealth of society as a result of the collective's activities. Since the PES acts in the production process as a relatively independent collective, then this collective has its own specific economic interests, which do not contradict the interests of the whole society or an individual. But individual groups and members of this team within the enterprise, based on the characteristics of the technology and organization of production, solve different problems and have a certain differentiation of goals and interests.

Since the collective of the enterprise is its basis and active force, it must solve not only technical and economic tasks, but also the tasks of educating people, raising the cultural and technical level, education, knowledge, etc.

Organization subsystem production allows the rational use of people, equipment, objects of labor, factory premises, creates conditions for increasing the efficiency of production within the specified resources.

All the listed subsystems are interconnected and only in their unity constitute an enterprise as a system.

The structure of the enterprise as an object of management. For production, as is known, the following elements are necessary: the object of labor, the means of production and human labor, his purposeful activity.

The preparatory phase of production includes the following processes:

financing;

creation of a product model and a program for its manufacture;

selection and training of personnel;

providing the enterprise with the means of production;

material and technical supply.

To implement the processes of direct manufacturing of products, along with preparation, production support is necessary. It primarily includes the provision of equipment and tools, repair support, power supply, etc. The same group should include processes aimed at ensuring high and stable product quality. Finally, this group will also include processes related to ensuring occupational health and safety.

The processes of transport and economic services constitute an independent group of production services.

The processes of selling finished products also represent an independent group. By analogy with the preparatory processes, the implementation processes are at the junction of the sphere of production and the sphere of circulation. For the first, they are the final act, for the second, the initial.

The enterprise as a complex dynamic system is constantly evolving. Many enterprises have their own scientific bases (research laboratories, design bureaus, etc.), which, along with external research and development and design organizations, carry out scientific developments for the further development of production. At the enterprises, as a rule, work is carried out on the technical re-equipment of production.

The enterprises also carry out a lot of work on the social development of the team.

The foregoing allows us to conclude that the elements of a controlled system should include the processes of enterprise development: scientific, technical and social.

From the point of view of a systems approach, the controlled (production) system of an enterprise can be divided according to the processes into subsystems: production development, production preparation, main production, production support and maintenance, product sales (Figure 4.5). At the same time, each of the subsystems can be considered as a system.

The interrelation of the enterprise subsystem as a control object is shown in Fig. 4.6.

§ 3. Management of the production and economic system

Control in a broad sense, there is a function of some system, aimed either at maintaining the basic quality of the system (the loss of which leads to its destruction), or at executing a program that ensures the stability of the system's functioning and achieving a given goal by it, or at developing the system.

Management is a prerequisite for the normal functioning of any system. Any process, regardless of its nature, can be carried out in the desired direction only in the presence of control actions from the control bodies.

The emergence of management as a special type of social activity is primarily due to the emergence and development of the division of social labor. The social division of labor manifests itself in two main forms: in the formation of large specialized industries and in the differentiation of technological processes within their boundaries. As a result of the fragmentation of specific labor into specialized parts, a wide network of peripheral production cells is formed, each of which represents an economic cell. The division and isolation of specialized parts of labor determines the quantitative dependence between all parts of production, and as a result, a network of economic ties is formed, which is wider, the deeper the division of labor is.

Control in the production sphere can, therefore, be defined as a purposeful impact on collectives of people to organize and coordinate their activities in the production process. Three main areas of management can be distinguished:

control of machine systems and technological processes;

management of processes occurring in living organisms;

management of the activities of human collectives solving a particular problem.

A careful examination of management processes in all areas revealed their general patterns, which allows us to establish a single theoretical basis for management. This problem is dealt with by cybernetics - the science of general laws of control in nature, living organisms and machines. From the standpoint of cybernetics, control systems of various nature - biological, technical, social - are inherent in general laws. All these control systems are united in principle by the same structure; the mathematical description of the processes taking place in control systems of different nature turns out to be similar.

Cybernetics regards control as a cyclical information process carried out in a closed loop to achieve a set goal of action. Management always takes place in a certain material environment. The control body, the control object and the communication channels connecting them are involved in the control process. From the control body to the control object there is a direct communication channel for transmission of control actions. A feedback channel passes from the control object to the control body to transmit information about the state of the control object, the environment and other environmental factors.

The purpose of the actions is achieved by the functioning of the control object. To achieve the goal of actions, the control object must be brought into the required state with the help of a control information action.

Information about the state of the control object of the subject of influence and the environment is usually called state information. Control actions are information about what, how and when the object of control should be done, and they are usually called command information.

A control loop is a closed circuit consisting of a control body and a control object, connected by direct and feedback channels, through which command information and state information circulate, respectively (Fig. 4.7).

Government

Collection of information

* u

Information processing

t )

u(t+ t)

x(t )

u(t + T) = Ф ( x(t ))

Control object

Rice. 4.7

Command information generally depends on status information. This dependence can be expressed by the formula:

U( t+ t) = F ( x ( t) U

where t - the moment to which the status information relates; x( t) - point-in-time state information t; T- working hours of the governing body;

Ф - function of converting state information into command information; U(t + t)- command information related to the point in time (t + t), generated from the status information x^).

Control function consists in converting state information into command information in accordance with the set action goal.

Control object function consists in the implementation of command information, which consists in determining the action to achieve the set goal, as well as in the collection of status information. The function of the direct and feedback channels is to transfer state information from the control object to the control body and command information in the opposite direction.

Since the basis of control is information processes, then the determination of the amount of information necessary for the development of control actions, the list of quantities, their dimensions, moments of arrival, discreteness, means of transmission, speed and reliability of transmission of information signals becomes of paramount importance.

The essence of the information processing process in the control system is what we usually call the development and adoption of a decision. Proceeding from the task set - the goal of management and data - information about the object of management and the state of the external environment, the manager, according to certain rules, takes the only, chosen from many possible, impact on the object.

The immediate goal of management is the achievement of indicators by the system that characterize the state and functioning of the system. As such indicators - target functions, or performance criteria, can be: the planned target for production, profitability, profit, labor productivity.

Achievement of the specified values of the efficiency criteria is carried out by choosing the control body of control actions on the control object. This choice is the main content of information processing in the control system. On its basis, a decision is made in the governing body. The solution is worked out according to certain rules - algorithms. Formalization is reduced to the creation, on the basis of a meaningful, semantic description of this process, of its model, which connects the target control function with the parameters - the initial data of the system.

For normal operation, the production control system must have the following data:

the purpose of management;

an ideal model of the future functioning of the object, calculated so that the goal is achieved in an optimal way;

a model of the actual state of the object to compare it with the ideal model and find deviations;

- information aimed at eliminating deviations of the actual state of the model from the ideal.

The availability of these data is ensured by the implementation of the following three main phases of management: planning, accounting and analysis, regulation.

Planning is divided into technical and economic and operational and production. The first combines long-term and current planning and is built in relation to individual elements of the control object (production capacity, labor resources, material resources, etc.). It justifies the end results and the resources required. The second sets its main task to plan the implementation of production processes (the development of calendar standards, the issuance of tasks for jobs, etc.) with the aim of linking the individual elements of production in time and space.

The planning phase is the leading one in management, because with its help the enterprises are given the purpose, meaning and methods of management. Through it, the enterprise is connected with the external environment, linkage with the economic policy in the country, financing systems, incentives, etc.

Accounting and regulation depend on planning: accounting is carried out according to the indicators of the plan, and the task of regulation is to constantly maintain the actual indicators of the object at the level of planned targets.

The implementation of the plan is guaranteed by the regulation phase. The meaning of this phase is reduced to the elimination of current mismatches (disturbances) in production. The regulation phase is associated with the planning through accounting.

Analysis of the planning and regulation phases shows that the organization of production processes is multivariate. One and the same planning can be carried out in many different ways, which are far from equal in terms of results. The same can be said about the regulation phase: the elimination of disturbances can go in different, more or less effective ways. And among the many options for planning and regulating production, as a rule, there is the best, optimal one. Finding it is one of the main tasks of management. Choosing the best solution requires processing a huge amount of diverse information.

An important factor from the point of view of a systematic approach to the enterprise is the organization of a controlled system, which is considered as a certain ordering of the elements of the system and their interaction. In this case, material and personal objects act as elements of a controlled system: means of production and people.

The concept of organization, therefore, includes the formation of a system and the management of its functioning. Consequently, the concept of organization is in a sense broader than the concept of management. However, from the moment the enterprise was created, all its elements must function interconnected so that the selected criteria reach extreme values and the goals of the enterprise's functioning are realized in the best possible way. Ensuring the best work in relation to the selected criteria of the enterprise is the goal of the functioning of its management system. The structure of the management system reflects, as a rule, the structure of the object of management in the sense that the main division of the enterprise corresponds to similar divisions of the management system.

The PES control system should be understood as an organized team of specialists performing all management functions that ensure the achievement of the goals of the enterprise, using the necessary information, methods and management techniques. The system of control functions will be called a full complex of interconnected in time and space of works on control.

As the main systemic functions of enterprise management, it is advisable to take:

planning of production and economic activities of the enterprise;

operational management of production;

management of enterprise development and technical preparation of production;

management of material and technical supply of production;

sales management of finished products;

product quality control;

accounting of production and implementation of financial activities of the enterprise;

management of technical support and organizational and economic services for production;

selection, placement, education and improvement of the cultural and technical level of personnel;

management of social development of the enterprise;

improving the organization of production, labor and management.

To perform each of the listed management functions, it is necessary to ensure the implementation of a set of works or the solution of a set of particular management tasks.

Naturally, the processes of production and management proceed in parallel and interconnected, making up a single system together. Production cannot function without management, and management without production is meaningless.

Hierarchy of management functions. The PES control system is multi-level. The hierarchy of levels is shown in Fig. 4.8. Material production is depicted as a resource transformation flow subject to the stochastic influence of the external environment. The control function, directly related to the material flow, is the function of providing the production process with the necessary resources: objects of labor, tools of labor and people who transform the object of labor with the help of the tool into finished products. For the cyclical implementation of this function, the product must be realized. Thus, this function includes hiring and firing workers, maintaining stocks and selling finished products, providing energy, tools and repairs, maintaining fixed assets at the level of fixed assets.

To maintain the level of resources at any given moment in the proper condition, it is necessary to manage the process of their provision in time. This is performed by the following two levels of the management hierarchy: operational and production planning and operational regulation. They play a major role in the process of stabilizing the activities of an industrial enterprise. The operational control function receives information about the required and actual state of the process, develops control actions and implements them. Information about the required state of the process is supplied to it from the function of operational and production planning, which essentially gives the current settings of the controlled parameters of the control object (for a month, a day, a shift).

Rice. 4.8

These settings can be set based on regulatory data and the annual production program.

The annual production program is a function of the next level of the hierarchy - the function of technical and economic planning. It is compiled on the basis of tasks coming from a higher authority, information about the state of production and the external environment, as well as on the basis of the results of the functioning of the forecasting and development subsystem of the enterprise, which occupies the highest position in the hierarchy of enterprise management.

The function of the forecasting system is to analyze and evaluate the effectiveness of the entire economic activity of an enterprise and predict the prospects for its development, depending on the requirements of the entire economic system of society and the state of the environment.

The result of the actions of this subsystem affects the state of annual plans and the special and technical development of the enterprise.

Let us consider one of the rational options for the relationship between the main tasks of controlling the operation of the PES, shown in Fig. 4.9. Each block in this figure is not a purely formalized, but a man-machine procedure, in which the final word remains with the person.

Information base

Formation of a plan for the nomenclature

Formation of the main technical and economic indicators

Calculation of material and technical supply

i Calculation of the optimal batch size

Calculation of insurance stocks

Build a launch-release schedule

Recording and analysis of the actual production progress

Regulation of the production process

Collection and processing of statistical data

Rice. 4.9

The results of considering production and economic systems as objects of management allow us to conclude that these are typical complex systems. The main tool for their research is system analysis, and they can only be managed from the standpoint of a systems approach. Considering any element of the production and economic system and making any decision, one should always foresee possible changes in all links of the system, no matter how far they are from each other.

Scientific, technical and social progress leads to the complication of production, the range and labor intensity of products increases, and the connections between the elements of production multiply. All this leads to a progressive complication of management processes: more information is required, less time is left for decision-making, and management errors are more expensive. A relatively large part of the plant personnel is involved in the management process. Finally, there appear processes that need to be robotized or whose speed cannot be controlled.

§ 4. Modeling of production and economic systems

Modeling is the main method for studying production and economic systems. Modeling is understood as such a way of displaying objective reality, in which a specially constructed model is used to study the original, reproducing certain (as a rule, only essential) properties of the real phenomenon (process) under study.

Model- is an object of any nature, which is able to replace the investigated object so that its study gives new information about the investigated object.

In accordance with these definitions, the concept of modeling includes the construction of a model (quasi-object) and operations on it to obtain new information about the object under study. From the point of view of use, a model can be understood as a display of the system convenient for analysis and synthesis. There is a correspondence relation between the system and its model, which allows the system to be investigated through the study of the model.

The type of model is determined primarily by the questions to which it is desirable to get an answer using the model. Various degrees of correspondence between the model and the simulated system are possible.

Often the model reflects only the functions of the system, and the structure of the model (and its adequacy to the system) does not matter, it is considered as a "black box".

The simulation model already includes a single display of both the functions of the system and the essence of the processes taking place in it.

Modeling as a method of cognition is based on the fact that all models reflect reality in one way or another. Depending on how and by what means, under what conditions, in relation to which objects of cognition this property is realized, a wide variety of models arises. There are a number of principles for classifying models of different nature, of which the following seem to be the most significant:

by the way of displaying reality, and, consequently, by the apparatus of construction (form);

by the nature of the objects being modeled (content).

By the way of displaying or the apparatus of construction, two types of models are distinguished (Fig. 4.10): material and mental (or ideal).

Material Models

Mental (ideal) models

Space-like

Descriptive

Physically similar

Visual-shaped

Mathematically similar

Iconic

Rice. 4.10

Material Models- these are models that are built or selected by man and exist objectively, being embodied in metal, wood, glass, electrical elements, biological organizations and other material structures.

Material models are divided into three subtypes:

Spatially-like models are structures designed to display the spatial properties or relationships of an object (models of houses, factories, city districts, transport networks, the location of equipment in a workshop, etc.). A prerequisite for such models is geometric similarity;

physically similar models are material models designed to reproduce various kinds of physical connections and dependencies of the object under study (models of dams of power plants, ships and aircraft). The basis for the construction of such models is physical similarity - the same physical nature and the identity of the laws of motion;

mathematically similar models - models that have, to one degree or another, the same mathematical formalism describing the behavior of an object and a model (analog computers, cybernetic functional models); mathematically similar material models are material or physical shells of some mathematical relations, but not the relations themselves.

Mental(or ideal) models are divided into three subspecies:

descriptive (conceptual) models in which relationships are expressed in images of language;

visual-figurative models - models, the images of which in consciousness are built from sensually visual elements;

sign (including mathematical) models - mental models in which the elements of an object and their relationships are expressed using signs (including automatic symbols and formulas).

The classification of models by the nature of the simulated objects due to their extreme diversity is not possible here.

The ultimate goal of modeling is to study not the model as such, but some genuine object of study that is different from it, but reproduced by it.

Obviously, no models can and should not fully reproduce all aspects and details of the studied phenomena: an enterprise can be characterized from various points of view - a director or chief engineer, an accountant, a supplier or a power engineer. Accordingly, the character and construction of the model will be different.

Modeling as a method of scientific knowledge is based on a person's ability to abstract the initial signs or properties of various phenomena (processes) and establish a certain relationship between them. Thanks to this, it becomes possible to study phenomena or processes in an indirect way, namely, by studying models that are analogous to them in some strictly defined respect.

In the general case, the following sequence of systems modeling is advisable: conceptual description (study) of the system, its formalization and, finally, if necessary, the algorithmicization and quantification of the system.

When modeling production and economic systems, along with formalized, mathematical methods of analysis used for individual subsystems or private processes, it is necessary to use also heuristic methods for analyzing production in those of its elements and connections that do not lend themselves to formalization. And when using mathematical methods, due to the many variables, one often has to resort to simplifications, use methods of decomposition and aggregation of variables, due to which the solutions acquire an approximate, qualitative nature.

Due to the presence in large complex systems of organizational and production management of links and links that are difficult or not formalized at all, for their study it is necessary to use mainly descriptive models. When decomposing the system into separate functional subsystems, it is then necessary to look for those subsystems that lend themselves to mathematical formalization, thus simulating individual elements of the general production process.

The ultimate goal of modeling the production and economic system is the preparation and adoption of managerial decisions by the head of the enterprise.

Since there is no generally accepted classification of mathematical models and methods for modeling production and economic systems, we will consider this issue in relation to the purpose and objectives of this textbook.

From the standpoint of automation of management of production and economic systems, the models used can be distinguished by the following features:

by modeling goals;

by tasks (functions) of management;

by stages (procedures) of management;

on mathematical modeling methods.

Depending on the goals of modeling, there are models designed for:

- design of control systems;

performance evaluations;

analysis of the capabilities of the enterprise in various conditions of its activity;

developing optimal solutions in various production situations;

calculation of the organizational structures of the management system;

calculation of information support, etc.

The specificity of the models of this classification subdivision is expressed primarily in the selection of the appropriate performance criteria, as well as in the procedure for implementing the simulation results.

Depending on the tasks (functions) of management, they distinguish models of scheduling, enterprise development management, product quality control, etc. The models of this department are focused on specific production and economic tasks and, as a rule, should provide numerical results.

Depending on the stage (procedure) of control automation, the models can be informational, mathematical, programmatic. The models of this unit are aimed at the appropriate stages of the movement and processing of information.

Depending on the applied mathematical apparatus, the models can be divided into the following five large groups: extreme, mathematical programming (planning), probabilistic, statistical and game-theoretic.

TO extreme models include models that make it possible to find the extremum of a function or functional. These include models built using graphical methods, Newton's method and its modifications, calculus of variations, Pontryagin's maximum principle, etc. Based on the capabilities of these methods, they are used primarily to solve operational control problems.

Models mathematical programming(planning) include models of linear programming, nonlinear programming, dynamic programming. This also usually includes network planning models.

Mathematical programming combines a number of mathematical methods designed to best allocate available limited resources: raw materials, fuel, labor, time, and also to draw up the corresponding best (optimal) plans of action.

Linear programming it is used in cases where production conditions are described by a system of linear equations or inequalities. If these equations are nonlinear, nonlinear (convex, quadratic) programming methods are used.

Dynamic programming serves to select the best plan for performing multi-stage actions, in which the result of each subsequent step depends on the previous steps, for example, when solving problems of planning the production activities of an enterprise.

Network planning is designed to plan, prepare and carry out various types of production activities, as well as to manage these activities in the course of their implementation.

TO probabilistic models include models built using the apparatus of probability theory, models of random processes of Markov type (Markov chains), models of the theory of queuing, and others.

Probabilistic models describe phenomena and processes of a random nature, for example, associated with all kinds of non-systematic deviations and errors (production defects, etc.), the influence of natural phenomena, possible equipment malfunctions, etc.

The theory of Markov random processes was developed to describe operations that develop randomly in time, such as, for example, the transmission of information over communication channels.

Queuing theory deals with massive repetitive phenomena such as equipment failure and repair.

Statistical models include sequential analysis models, statistical test methods (Monte Carlo), etc. This also includes random search methods.

Sequential analysis makes it possible to make decisions based on hypotheses, each of which is immediately sequentially tested, for example, when assessing the quality of a batch of products, when setting up all kinds of experiments, etc.

The method of statistical testing consists in the fact that the course of a particular operation is played back, as if copied by a computer, with all the accidents inherent in this operation, for example, when modeling organizational tasks, complex forms of cooperation of various enterprises, etc. The use of this method is called imitation. modeling.

Random search methods are used to find the extreme values of complex functions that depend on a large number of arguments. These methods are based on the use of a mechanism for random selection of arguments for which minimization is carried out. Random search methods are used, for example, in modeling organizational management structures.

Game-theoretic the models are designed to justify decisions in conditions of uncertainty, ambiguity (incompleteness of information) of the situation and the associated risk.

Game theory methods include game theory and statistical decision theory. Game theory is a theory of conflict situations. It is used in cases where the uncertainty of the situation is caused by the possible actions of the conflicting parties. Game-theoretic models can be used to justify management decisions in industrial and labor conflicts, when choosing the right line of behavior in relation to customers, suppliers, contractors, etc.

The theory of statistical decisions is applied when the uncertainty of the situation is caused by objective circumstances that are either unknown (for example, some characteristics of new materials, the quality of new technology, etc.), or are random in nature (weather conditions, the possible time of failure of individual components of the product etc.).

It is advisable to use game-theoretic models in the preparation, conduct and evaluation of the results of business games.

All mathematical models can also be subdivided into performance assessment models and optimization models... Performance assessment models are designed to generate production and management characteristics. All probabilistic models belong to this group. Performance assessment models are “input” in relation to optimization models.

Optimization models are designed to select the best course of action or course of behavior under given conditions. This group includes extreme and statistical models, mathematical programming models, and game-theoretic models.

Below we will consider some of the most common models used in solving production problems.

A special place in a number of methods used to manage production and economic systems is game simulation... A distinctive feature of this method is the involvement of people involved in the development and implementation of a business game to model the management process. In this case, a business game is understood as an imitation by a group of persons of solving individual problems of economic or organizational activities of an enterprise, carried out on a model of an object, in an environment that is as close to real as possible.

Introduction into the model of a person as an element of management organization makes it possible to take into account his behavior in cases when it cannot be adequately described using the mathematical models known today. This allows you to solve such management tasks that do not fit into the framework of existing formalized methods.

The business game introduces psychological and emotional moments into the process of preparing and making managerial decisions, encouraging the use of the past experience of managers, their intuition in this process, and developing the ability to make heuristic decisions. The business game is carried out in relation to a specific management task according to a scenario carefully developed in advance. The general game model is formed as a set of private models created by the participants - the persons preparing and making managerial decisions.

The business game model includes both formalized and non-formalized parts. The participants in the game act according to certain rules. They are guided by specially developed instructions for playing the game, as well as provided by the data of the situation.

In accordance with the scenario of the game, participants periodically receive introductory notes about changes in the situation. Preparing their decisions, the participants in the business game assess the situation and make the necessary calculations manually or with the help of a computer. At the same time, formalized, pre-prepared elements of the game model are used that correspond to modern methods of operations research.

Managing the course of a business game, its leader evaluates the decisions of the participants, establishes the results of their actions and communicates the latter to the players. If necessary, the head of the game can change the situation, bringing these changes to the participants in the form of introductory notes. The assessment of the actions of the participants in the game is made by calculations, expert methods, as well as based on the experience of the leader, his intuition and common sense.

The main type of game modeling carried out in enterprises is a production business game. Its goal is to improve existing and develop new forms of organization of production management, development of guidelines, restructuring of production, etc.

Methods of network planning and management (NMS), built on the basis of network diagrams, are widely used as models for conducting business games. When solving planning problems, methods of dynamic programming are used, and when solving problems of resource allocation - linear programming.

For the training of management personnel, the production business game can be carried out in an educational version, that is, as a training business game. Its main task is to train employees, improve their management skills. If necessary, the educational business game is also used to certify the executives of enterprises in the performance of their official duties, as well as when they are promoted to a higher position.

Control questions

What is a production and economic system?

How is a complex system described?

What is optimal system control?

What is the difference between deterministic and probabilistic systems?

What are the main features of complex systems?

Describe the basic principles of cybernetics in relation to production and economic systems.

What are the main subsystems of the enterprise?

Describe the structure of the enterprise as an object of management.

Give a definition of management in the production area.

Describe the functions of the body and object of management and their hierarchy.

What is the essence of modeling a production and economic system?

Describe the main types of models of production and economic systems.

The combination of a three-vector system of simple economic features and corresponding simple economic groups forms a complex economic feature - industrial relations system(SPO) and groups with the formation of new most important subjects of social activity:
lumpen proletariat- a complex economic group of people who do not own the property of the means of production, do not work and do not receive a guaranteed income from the employer. This is the lowest quality complex socio-economic group that forms the so-called “social bottom” of society;

on the basis of combining two simple primary economic characteristics - ownership of the means of production and the method of generating income - in the context of their most important specific positions (owners - non-owners and hired labor - employers), two class:proletariat- wage labor who does not own the property of the means of production, sells his labor power to a personal employer and capitalists- employers owning personal property, or in other words - owners of personal capital - means of production and labor.

You can graphically depict the process of forming classes:
nevlad. Vlad. own
for the means of production. SPO
Prol. cap.
method of obtaining
hiring.tr. works. income
at a certain stage of evolutionary capitalist progress, an oligarchy is formed - the highest level of the capitalist class and, in fact, a new qualitative complex economic group of owners of strategic, united banking and industrial property, capable of influencing the formation of political power. The factor in the formation of an oligarchy is economic competition based on the objective most important properties of capital itself - its objective expansion and subject concentration.

It is obvious that economic status, as an indicator that determines the location of a social subject in the economic hierarchy, is strategically formed by its position in the system of complex economic groups, and then it can be supplemented with a specific indicator of income.
A characteristic feature of the modern development of capitalism is the formation and activation of the world oligarchy in the context of the globalization process.
Ideology and politics as a social sphere.
Social sphere- the system of social groups and corresponding social institutions, as well as social ties between them, arising in a certain area of human activity.
Politics- the system of political groups and political institutions, as well as political relations between them, arising in the process general social construction, management of society and the struggle for power(based on these political needs) .
person political political political political
needs interaction group signs
politics as political
social sphere institutions
The first political feature is governance, which forms two groups.
The most important political feature that forms the political hierarchy is ideology, which determines the corresponding groups, which organize the most important political institutions.
Ideology- a system of social political principles expressing the interests of a particular social group. The ideology is based on the economic ideas of the form of ownership of the means of production and distribution of income, as well as the political idea of the subject and the goals of management. According to these economic and political criteria, several major ideologies are typologized - liberal, communist, national (National Socialism and Fascism), as well as Social Democracy (as a certain mixture of liberal and communist).
Accordingly, ideological groups are determined, on the basis of which political institutions are formed - the state (the function of building and managing society) and political parties (the function of the struggle for power). Ideological groups and political institutions shape politics as a social sphere.
The most important component of politics is propaganda - a method of social management - the introduction of a certain ideology into public consciousness, carried out by certain social groups with the help of certain social institutions - propaganda tools. The most important institutions of propaganda are the institutions of the media, art, and pedagogy.

A modern enterprise is a complex production and economic system. It is characterized by the following systemic features:
the diversity of the structure, which is expressed in a large number of various structural elements, such as workshops, farms, laboratories;
the difference in the nature of the elements, which, as you know, is one of the essential features of complex systems, is very pronounced in production and economic systems.
Labor power, means of labor, objects of labor are considered as the main elements of production.
This basic differentiation can naturally be deepened and broadened.
The multi-connectivity of the elements of the production and economic system, which is expressed in the presence of a variety of very diverse connections between the elements of the PES. The transfer of various parts in the course of the technological process, the transfer of various types of energy, the provision of the production process with repairs and tools, information communications, transport communications, social ties between members of the PES team - this is not a complete list of various types of communication between elements.
The connections and relationships of the PES elements are distinguished by their stability, constant proportionality.
Dynamism, consisting in a constant change in the states of the production and economic system, is its characteristic feature. This dynamism is expressed in the cyclical nature of the production process, its change in time, in fluctuations in the structure and connections of its elements, in a variety of external and internal influences.
Multi-criteria, which is one of the most characteristic properties of the production and economic system. On the one hand, there are many criteria, such as the range of products, the total volume of products sold, the amount of profit, profitability, the fulfillment of tasks for new technology, and labor productivity. Only a multiple assessment of such indicators will give the characteristics of the system. On the other hand, all subsystems at different levels of the PES hierarchy can be characterized by their particular criteria, which together form a sequence of goals and criteria.
The probabilistic nature of production processes. The nature of the functioning of any production is probabilistic. is constantly influenced by numerous random factors. At any time, certain elements of equipment may fail as a result of breakdowns, and thereby lose a certain part of active fixed assets. A defect accidentally occurs both in its production (technological defect) and at the expense of supplies (purchase defect), which leads to labor losses. Losses in the workforce due to staff turnover, illness and other factors, disruptions in the supply of components and materials are unexpected. The duration of all production operations that affect the production cycle are random in nature.
This list could be continued. Such phenomena lead to a delay in production plans, to an increase in unfinished production. For a quantitative assessment of accidents, it is necessary to organize the collection of statistical data and their mathematical processing.
Probabilistic modeling of production processes will make it possible to establish the levels of safety stocks that ensure the performance of production of its tasks with a given probability. An experienced manager without mathematical background knows that it is necessary to protect the production process from accidental disruptions by creating a certain level of safety stocks. However, what the level of these safety stocks should be can only be determined mathematically. Continuous collection and processing of statistical materials and probabilistic modeling of production make it possible to determine the current characteristics and current levels of safety stocks. Depending on the nature of the elements in the enterprise, the following subsystems can be distinguished.
The technical subsystem is an interconnected, interdependent, in an agreed proportional state, a set of equipment (machines, mechanisms, machine tools and groups of machine tools, production lines), designed to solve a specific problem.
The coordination consists in leveling the throughput of the main production process, in accordance with the technology serving the main and auxiliary production processes, to modern requirements.
A technological subsystem is a set of rules that determine the sequence of operations and production processes, during which products are created with certain parameters and quality. The technological subsystem requires strict adherence to these rules at all stages of the production process. Management in the technological subsystem consists in the careful development of technology, its further improvement as necessary and careful control over the quality of work throughout its entire duration.
The subsystem of joint labor is its necessary organization to achieve a specific goal, quantitative and qualitative proportions of individual types of labor, their division and interconnections in the production process.
The economic subsystem is the unity of economic processes and economic ties of all aspects of production. The mechanism of action of economic laws is manifested at the enterprise in the process of movement of its funds in their monetary, production and commodity form. The movement of enterprise funds is the material basis of the technical, technological and socio-economic process at the enterprise.
The social subsystem is the connection between people in the process of social production. Its main feature in market conditions is private ownership of the means of production. The connection of people is the basis for the existence of production and economic systems. The general economic interests of the PES collective are to increase the wealth of society as a result of the collective's activities. Since the PES acts in the production process as a relatively independent collective, then this collective has its own specific economic interests, which do not contradict the interests of the whole society or an individual. But individual groups and members of this team within the enterprise, based on the characteristics of the technology and organization of production, solve different problems and have a certain differentiation of goals and interests.
Since the collective of the enterprise is its basis and active force, it must solve not only technical and economic tasks, but also the tasks of educating people, raising the cultural and technical level, education, knowledge, etc.
The production organization subsystem allows the rational use of people, objects of labor, factory premises, creates conditions for increasing production efficiency within the specified resources.
All the listed subsystems are interconnected and only in their unity constitute an enterprise as a system.
The structure of the enterprise as an object of management. For production, as is known, the following elements are necessary: the object of labor, the means of production and human labor, his purposeful activity.
The preparatory phase of production includes the following processes:
- financing;
- creation of a product model and a program for its manufacture;
- selection and training of personnel;
- providing the enterprise with the means of production;
- material and technical supply.
To implement the processes of direct manufacturing of products, along with preparation, it is necessary to ensure production. It primarily includes the provision of equipment and tools, repair support, power supply, etc. The same group should include processes aimed at ensuring high and stable product quality. Finally, this group will also include processes related to ensuring occupational health and safety.
The processes of transport and economic services constitute an independent production service group.
The processes of selling finished products also represent an independent group. By analogy with the preparatory processes, the implementation processes are at the junction of the sphere of production and the sphere of circulation. For the first, they are the final act, for the second, the initial.
The enterprise as a complex dynamic system is constantly evolving. Many enterprises have their own scientific bases (research laboratories, design bureaus, etc.), which, along with external research and development organizations, carry out scientific developments for the further development of production. At the enterprises, as a rule, work is carried out on the technical re-equipment of production.
The enterprises also carry out a lot of work on the social development of the team.
The foregoing allows us to conclude that the elements of a controlled system should include the processes of enterprise development: scientific, technical and social.
From the point of view of a systems approach, the controlled (production) system of an enterprise can be divided according to the processes into subsystems: production development, production preparation, main production, production support and maintenance, product sales (Figure 4.5). At the same time, each of the subsystems can be considered as a system.
The interrelation of the enterprise subsystem as a control object is shown in Fig. 4.6.
Further.



Material Models			Mental (ideal) models

Space-like			Descriptive

Physically similar			Visual-shaped

Mathematically similar			Iconic