The development of Russian culture from the 15th to the 16th century. Russian culture of the late 15th - 16th centuries. Russian literature of the 16th century

The unity of the Russian lands could not but affect the culture of liberated Russia in the 16th century. Construction was carried out on a grand scale, architecture, painting and literature developed.

Architecture

In the 15-16th centuries. construction was predominantly made of wood, but its principles were applied in stone architecture... Fortifications, fortresses were restored, and kremlin were built in the cities of Russia.

Architecture of Russia of the 16th century was rich in outstanding buildings of church architecture.

One of these structures is the Church of the Ascension in the village. Kolomenskoye (1532) and St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow (1555-1560). Many of the erected churches and temples belong to the hip-roof style, which was widespread at that time (typical for wooden temples of Ancient Russia).

Under the leadership of Fyodor Kon, the most powerful fortress (in Smolensk) was erected and the White City in Moscow was surrounded by walls and towers.

Painting

To painting of the 16th century. in Russia it is mainly icon painting. The Stoglavy Cathedral accepted the works of A. Rublev as a canon in church painting.

The most striking monument of icon painting was the "Militant Church". The icon was created in honor of the capture of Kazan; it interprets the described event as a victory of Orthodoxy. In the painting of the Golden Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin, one could feel the influence of the West. At the same time, the church was opposed to the penetration of genre and portrait painting into the church.

Printing house

In the 16th century. the first printing house appeared in Russia, printing began. Now numerous documents, orders, laws, books could be printed, even though their cost exceeded handwritten work.

The first books were printed in 1553-1556. By the "anonymous" Moscow printing house. First accurately dated edition refers to 1564, it was printed by Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets and is called "Apostle".

Literature

Changes in politics, consisting in the formation of autocracy, stimulated the ideological struggle, which contributed to the flourishing of journalism. Literature of Russia of the 16th century includes "Stories of the Kazan Kingdom", "The Legend of the Princes of Vladimir", 12-volume book "Great Cheti-Menaei", containing all revered in Russia works for home reading (works that were not included in the popular collection, faded into the background) ...

In the 16th century. in Russia, boyars' clothes, simple in cut and shape, acquired extraordinary showiness and luxury thanks to decorative ornaments. Such costumes lent pomp and majesty to the image.

Different peoples lived on the vast territory of Russia, so the clothes differed depending on local traditions. So, in the northern regions of the state, a woman's costume consisted of a shirt, a sundress and a kokoshnik, and in the southern regions, a shirt, a kitsch and a poneva skirt.

A general outfit (averaged) can be considered a shirt length up to the hem of a sundress, a swing sundress, a kokoshnik and wicker shoes. Men's suit: long shirt made of homespun linen (up to mid-thigh or knee-length), ports (narrow and tight-fitting legs). At the same time, there were no special differences in the style of clothing of the nobility and peasants.

Question 16.Russia of Troubles at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries
The beginning of the Time of Troubles (Troubles)

1598-1613 - a period in the history of Russia called the Time of Troubles.

At the turn of the 16-17th centuries. Russia was going through a political and socio-economic crisis. Livonian war and Tatar invasion, and oprichnina Ivan the Terrible contributed to the intensification of the crisis and the growth of discontent in society. This was the reason for the beginning of the Time of Troubles in Russia.

The first period of Troubles

The first stage of the Troubles is characterized by the struggle for the throne. After death Ivan the Terrible his son Fyodor came to power, but he was unable to rule. In fact, the country was ruled by the brother of the king's wife - Boris Godunov... Ultimately, his policies provoked the discontent of the popular masses.

Trouble began with the appearance in Poland of False Dmitry I (in reality - Grigory Otrepiev), supposedly miraculously surviving son of Ivan the Terrible. He won over to his side a significant part of the Russian population. In 1605, False Dmitry 1 was supported by the governors, and then by Moscow. And already in June he became the legitimate king. However, he acted too independently, which caused the discontent of the boyars, and he also supported serfdom, which caused a protest from the peasants. On May 17, 1606, False Dmitry I was killed, V.I. Shuisky on the condition of limiting power. Thus, the first stage of the Troubles was marked by the reign False Dmitry 1st (1605-1606).

Second period of Troubles

In 1606 an uprising broke out, whose leader was I.I. Bolotnikov. The ranks of the militants included people from different strata of society: peasants, serfs, small and medium feudal lords, servicemen, Cossacks and townspeople. In the battle of Moscow, they were defeated. As a result, Bolotnikov was executed.

Discontent with the authorities continued. And soon appears False Dmitry 2nd... In January 1608, his army went to Moscow. By June, False Dmitry 2 entered the village of Tushino near Moscow, where he settled. Two capitals were formed in Russia: boyars, merchants, officials worked on two fronts, sometimes they even received salaries from both tsars. Shuisky concluded an agreement with Sweden, and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth began aggressive military actions. False Dmitry 2 fled to Kaluga.

Shuisky was tonsured a monk and sent to the Chudov Monastery. An interregnum began in Russia - the Seven Boyars (a council of seven boyars). Boyar Duma made a deal with the Polish invaders, and on August 17, 1610, Moscow swore allegiance to the Polish king Vladislav. At the end of 1610, False Dmitry II was killed, but the struggle for the throne did not end there.

So, the second stage of the Troubles was marked by the uprising of I.I. Bolotnikov (1606-1607), the reign of Vasily Shuisky (1606-1610), the appearance of False Dmitry II, as well as the Seven Boyars (1610).

Third period of Troubles

The third stage of the Troubles is characterized by the struggle against foreign invaders. After the death of False Dmitry II, the Russians united against the Poles. The war acquired a national character. In August 1612 militia of K. Minin and D. Pozharsky reached Moscow. And on October 26, the Polish garrison surrendered. Moscow was liberated. The Time of Troubles is over.

Results of the Troubles

The results of the Time of Troubles were depressing: the country was in a terrible situation, the treasury was ruined, trade and crafts were in decline. The consequences of the Troubles for Russia were expressed in its backwardness in comparison with European countries. It took decades to restore the economy.

Question 17.Russia after the Troubles, the first novels on the throne. Board of Mikhail Fedorovich and Alexei Mikhailovich.
Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov
Mikhail Romanov became the first ruler of the Romanov family and the founder of a new dynasty. He was elected in 1613 at the Zemsky Sobor. It was Mikhail Romanov who turned out to be the closest relative of the former Russian rulers. At that time, the Polish prince Vladislav and the Prince of Sweden Karl-Philip also claimed the throne of Russia. Mother Mikhail and the future ruler himself were after the liberation of Minin and Pozharsky of Moscow and stayed in the Ipatiev Monastery. After the accession of his son, his father, under the name Filaret, became patriarch. In fact, it was he who ruled the country until 1633.
The Poles tried to prevent the election of a new tsar. They tried to kill Mikhail who was in the monastery, sending a whole detachment for this. But, all Poles died on the way, thanks to the feat accomplished by Ivan Susanin.
With the beginning of the reign of Mikhail Romanov, the economic life of the country gradually began to improve. In 1617, it was possible to conclude a peace treaty with Sweden, according to which the territory of the Novgorod region was returned to Russia. In the next 618, after the signing of the treaty with Poland, Polish troops were also withdrawn from Russia. Russia is losing the Chernigov, Smolensk and Seversk lands. However, the prince Vladislav calls himself the Russian tsar, not recognizing the rights to the throne of Michael.
Around the same period, to protect against the Tatars provoked by Turkey, a number of notch features appeared in the South of Russia. The Cossacks took an active part in the fight against raids on the border lands. On the other hand, quite friendly relations were established with Persia. Due to the lands of Siberia, the territory of the country has noticeably increased.
During the reign of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, the taxation of the townspeople was noticeably increased. This time was also marked by an attempt to create a regular army. Moreover, foreigners became officers in the newly formed regiments. Towards the end of Michael's reign, the first regiments of dragoons appeared, used to guard the border. The biography of Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, the founder of the great dynasty, ended in 1645. The burden of power passed to his son Alexei.

The history of the Russian state spans several stages or cycles. Each of them is represented by characteristic cultural characteristics. The decline of Kievan Rus ends the first stage in the development of Russian culture. XIV - XVII centuries - the birth of the Moscow kingdom and the formation of Moscow culture, which will be different from the previous one. The time of fragmentation ended, the annexation of the Russian principalities formed a powerful centralized power: Russia. With the fall of Constantinople, Russia becomes the defender of Orthodox Christianity, in connection with which the role of the church increases, which has a great influence on the life of the state and people.
With the elimination of dependence on the Golden Horde, Russian culture began to develop, its centers were cities that received the status of self-government in the 15th century. Moscow is being rebuilt. The invited Italian craftsmen are constructing the walls and towers of the Kremlin from bricks. Cathedrals of the Assumption, Annunciation and Arkhangelsk, where the traditions of Russian architecture and the advanced technical achievements of Western European architecture are organically combined, are becoming remarkable works of art. The famous Palace of Facets, built in 1487-1491, being the throne room of the royal palace, is considered one of the best structures on the territory of the Kremlin. Its walls are painted with pictures of scenes from Holy Scripture and Russian history.
In addition to Moscow, Pskov, Novgorod, Vladimir are under construction. First of all, churches are erected. The best example of new churches is Novgorod: the Church of Fyodor Stratilat and the Savior on Ilyinka. In Pskov, the grandiose construction of the Pskov Kremlin-fortress begins, which will be fully completed by the 16th century. Stone worldly houses, boyar mansions were also built, cathedral squares were formed. In the 15th century, glass began to be used in the construction of stone houses. It was brought from Constantinople, it was very expensive, and windows were glazed only in rich boyar buildings. The original Russian historian AV Tereshchenko described the courtyards in Moscow as follows: “... almost every Moscow boyar house had a garden where hazel, raspberry, and cherry trees were found in abundance. Pears, plums, melons and watermelons had just begun to be bred, but the finest decoration was the fish ponds. "
Painting received a new development. The names of Theophanes the Greek and Andrei Rublev become known. Brilliantly mastering the skill of tonal painting, they filled the created images with expressiveness and soulfulness. They were the ones who were invited to paint the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral in Moscow. Rublev's brush belongs to the famous "Trinity" - the pinnacle of world icon painting. In it, the master showed a harmonious combination of pure colors that revealed the inner dignity and power of images, their philosophical depth. His frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir and the Trinity Cathedral in Sergiev Posad show the world masterpieces of fresco painting.
Interesting cultural changes are taking place in Russian literature. The chronicle of Moscow begins to come to the fore. In the famous Trinity Chronicle of 1408, Metropolitan Photius for the first time expresses the idea of ​​a single Russian state with centralized power. In the genre of hagiographic literature, the biographies of the great church fathers of Russia were compiled: Metropolitan Peter, the patron saint of Moscow, St. Sergius of Radonezh. And the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin wrote "Walking the Three Seas", where he first spoke about India, which Vasco da Gamma would open for Europeans 30 years later. This work still impresses readers with a colorful description of the life, customs, religion of a distant country.
Gradually, parchment is replaced by paper, and the bulky “charter” with square letters turns into a semi-ustav, representing fluent and free writing, which paved the way for the emergence of Russian typography in the next century.
The travels of Russian merchants, the annexation of the conquered lands, interest in world history led to the emergence of cartography and chronographs (events in world history of that time).
The material culture of Russia in the 15th century made up for the opportunities to create missed during the Golden Horde yoke. Knowledge is needed to build churches, fortresses and new cities. Textbooks were written on the applied sciences of mathematics and geometry.
Smart kids were selected from villages and towns. At the monasteries they were taught to read and write. The state needed technical workers. It is necessary to connect lakes with canals, build bridges and mills. We mastered the casting of copper cannons. At the same time, state institutions appeared. They were called orders. There were land, military, judicial, lay, ambassadorial, town planning and other orders. Boyars were in charge of them, assistants were recruited from among the monasticism or the service nobility.
Christian morality influenced everyday life: marriage, family life, raising children. Church holidays and Sunday were established, when it was forbidden to work, you need to devote time to prayers and pious deeds. On Easter, Christmas, Epiphany, street performances and festivities were held. All sorts of games and amusements were allowed: merry-go-rounds, swings, buffoonery theaters, performances of acrobats, puppeteers. My favorite games were small towns, blind man's buffs, leapfrog, grandmothers. Gambling at cards was frowned upon. There was a state monopoly on entertainment taverns. On holidays, public feasts were held in the squares, where all those present were treated at the same table. The food was simple - porridge, pies with peas, cabbage, eggs, oatmeal jelly.
Russian culture of the 15th century reflected the ideas of spiritual unity of the people in the formation of a centralized state.

"Russian culture at the end of the 15th-16th centuries"

At the end of the 15th-16th centuries, Russian culture sums up the results of the outgoing Middle Ages, traditionally looks back at the past century, forms the foundations of such innovations that will transform Russian culture in the 17th century and radically change at the end of the 17th-18th centuries.

The roots of many changes in culture by the XV-XVI centuries can be found in the decisions of the Stoglava Cathedral, convened at the beginning of 1551. The tome of his decisions contains 100 chapters. Hence the name of the cathedral, as well as the book "Stoglav" itself. The cathedral legalized many innovations that had appeared by that time in medieval traditional Russian culture, declared a tendency towards the unification of culture. The council discussed issues of monastic land tenure, disorder in worship, violation of ethics of conduct by priests and monks in monasteries. The Council raised the problem that "the divine books are written by the scribes from wrong translations", i.e. imperfections of the handwritten method of reproducing books, which led to distortions of the canonical text. There was a special chapter in it "On book schools in all cities." By the decision of the council, the "Orthodox peasants" were to send "their children to the teaching of literacy and the teaching of book writing," and in the houses of the "good priests and clerks" "to organize a school." School education had to take on a broader character. In the chapter "On the Divine Books", the Hundred-Glavian Cathedral emphasized two issues: the malfunction of existing books and the need to revise their content. He considered the cathedral and questions of icon painting, the peculiarities of church decoration ("About icon painters and honest icons"). Much attention was paid to the unification of church rituals, the decisively advocated the eradication of pagan "demonic", "Hellenic" customs: mermaids, carols, buffoonery and humming of "guselniks", which in those days accompanied Christian holidays with their music.

So, on the one hand, the cathedral legalized all the innovations of artistic culture, and on the other hand, it announced the obligatory adherence of artists and architects to the canons of the previous era: "to paint icons from ancient translations to icon painters ... but to transform nothing from your own intentions."

On the crest of new requirements for liturgical books, the need to "learn to read and write" there is a need for special printing of books.

The emergence of book printing in Russia

In the 50s of the 16th century, the first Russian printing house appeared in Moscow, founded in the house of the priest Sylvester, a minister of the Kremlin's Annunciation Cathedral and one of the leaders of the "Chosen Rada" - a council under the then young then 20-year-old Ivan IV the Terrible. The books of this printing house have no imprint, which states the time and place of publication, the name of the owner and the printer. Known unnamed books of seven titles: narrow-type "Four Gospels", "Lenten Triode", medium-type "Psalter", "Color Triode", wide-type "Four Gospels" and wide-type "Psalter".

The Moscow origin of these books has been proven and is beyond doubt. The text of the "Four Gospels" corresponds to the so-called fourth Slavic edition of the New Testament, and their "Months" include holidays of Russian origin - the Protection of the Virgin, in memory of the princes Vladimir, Boris and Gleb. Spelling and language norms correspond to the Great Russian tradition. The fonts of the editions represent the peculiarities of the Moscow semi-ustav of the late 15th - first half of the 16th century. The prints of the headpieces and initials of this printing house are found in Moscow manuscript books.

All known tomes were printed between 1553 and 1565. By indirect documents, the names of the "masters of printed books" were established; Marushi Nefediev, Vasyuk Nikiforov from Novgorod, Andronik Timofeev Nevezhi. The activities of Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets can also be associated with the first Moscow printing house. Symon Budny writes about this in the preface to the Polish New Testament, published in Losk in 1574.

In 1560 - 1561, the question of organizing a state printing house was raised. At this time, intensive church construction was underway, and there were not enough books for the newly erected churches. Among the manuscripts, many of the manuscripts turned out to be dilapidated or faulty due to repeated errors of scribes. The state of affairs was reported to the tsar, and he began "to think about how to present a printed book, as in the Greeks, and in Venice, and in Phrygia, and in other languages ​​(nations)." The tsar reported his decision to Metropolitan Macarius, who was "overjoyed" and blessed the tsar for the founding of the printing house. This decree fully corresponded to the policy of centralization of the Moscow state, which was strenuously pursued by Ivan IV.

Ivan Fyodorov was put at the head of the state printing house, who started organizing the "drukarni" together with his assistant Peter Mstislavets. On April 19, 1563, Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets "began to print the book of the Acts of the Apostles, the Epistles of the Council and the Epistles of St. Paul." This edition went down in history as "The Apostle" by Ivan Fedorov. The publication of the first accurately dated Moscow printed book on March 11 (March 1, old style), 1564, was of great importance for Russian culture. Humanitarian knowledge is beginning to spread through qualitatively different channels of information. The continuous typographic tradition in Russia dates back to this very time.

The firstborn of the "sovereign drukarni" appears to be a monument of art, scientific thought, literary and editorial work of the 16th century. The decoration of the "Apostle" in 1564 includes a frontispiece, 48 headpieces printed from 20 boards, 22 drop caps from 5 boards, 54 frames of the same pattern, 24 lines of ligature, one ending. Engraving technique - woodcut - carving on wooden boards. The format of the book is kept in a correct and clear multiples of 3: 2 (maximum set height 21 cm, width 14 cm). The secret of the impression of amazing harmony and harmony lies not only in the perfection of the printing technique, but also in the strict thoughtfulness of the proportions of its construction. The ornamental compositions of the headpieces are based on samples taken from the handwritten books of the school of Theodosius Isograf. The style of ornamentation of Fedorov's editions, which was widespread in printed and handwritten products of the 16th century, was called old-printed (Fedorov's). Ivan Fedorov differs in the work on this book by the versatility of his capabilities and interests, his truly renaissance character is manifested - he is an editor, typographer, engraver all rolled into one.

"The Clock" became the second book that Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets printed in the Moscow state printing house. Two editions of "Chasovnik" were published almost simultaneously. The imprint indicates: from September 2 to October 29, 1565, and a different date: August 7 - September 29, 1565. Artistic decoration of both editions includes 8 headpieces, 46 figured initials. The stylistics of the motives have foreign origins, and a number of drawings go back to the arabesques of the Moscow art school.

Ivan Fyodorov's activities in Moscow ended with the publication of "Apostle" and "Chasovnik", after which he was forced to leave the "first throne" - the capital city. Ivan Fedorov writes about the reasons for his departure in the afterword to The Apostle in 1574: in Moscow there were people who wanted to "turn good into evil and destroy God's work completely," for the printers "envy for the sake of many heresies".

The first Russian printers moved to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, where they were received by the great "zealot of Orthodoxy" Hetman G.A. Chodkevich in Zabludovo (territory of Belarus). In this small town with the patron s family castle, two books were published: "The Teaching Gospel" and "The Psalter with the Chasoslavian". The work was carried out for 2 years. Date of publication of the first book: July 8, 1568 - March 17, 1569, the second: from September 26 to March 23, 1570. Books have titles - pages with imprint and title of the publication. The first printer follows the Western tradition - this element was not in Russian manuscripts. I. Fedorov decorates the title turn with a heraldic composition: the arch, beloved by the engraver, is filled with lush acanthus foliage with a knightly plume helmet, in the center is a shield with the signs and monogram of G.A. Khodkevich. The artistic decoration of the book, in addition to the above-mentioned engraving, includes a woodcut depicting the legendary author of the Psalms - King David on the throne. The drawing was mirrored from a German Bible in 1560 or 1564. On March 23, 1570, the printing house in Zabludovo ceased to exist. G.A. Khodkevich suggested I. Fedorov to "lead this world through" by farming. The first printer to this answered him that he wanted to sow spiritual seeds instead of "living seeds."

The first printer went to Lvov. In the acts of Lviv archives, the name of Ivan Fedorov is mentioned for the first time on January 26, 1573, in the same city 11 years later he died, in 1584 he died. 3 early 1575 Ivan Fedorov entered the service of the Volyn prince Konstantin Ostrozhsky, a man of broad educational views , moves to Ostrog for four years. Before the creation of the fourth and last printing house in Ostrog, Ivan Fedorov managed to print in Lvov from February 25, 1573 to February 15, 1574 the circulation of the book "Apostle". The composition of the "Apostle" in 1574 is close to the Moscow edition of this book. The typographer was also the compiler of the "ABC", which was published a few months later.

In the patrimony of the princes of Ostrog from 1578 to 1581, five editions were published, and the most famous of them is the "Ostrog Bible". The rest of the titles: "Alphabet" of 1578, "Psalter and New Testament" of 1580, "Book of collection of the most necessary things" of 1580, "Chronology" of Andrei Rymsha in 1581. The set of these books confirms the educational tendencies of Ivan Fedorov. "Azbuka" is one of the first textbooks that represents the unity of Eastern European culture (for example, among the texts for reading, the Bulgarian "Legend" by Chernorizets Brave about the invention of the Slavic alphabet by Kirill the Philosopher). Ivan Fedorov published the first alphabetical-subject index in the history of documentary science in the "Book, a collection of things of the greatest need", which was also the first collection of aphorisms. The first East Slavic calendar is presented in the "Chronology" of Andrey Rymsha. This is a leaflet listing 12 months, the names of which are given in Latin, Hebrew, Ukrainian and accompanied by two-line "verses" - verses about the most important events of the month. In the "Ostroh Bible" a grandiose plan for those times was realized for the release of the first complete Slavic Bible. The role of this book in the development of natural science and technical knowledge is great - it contained information on astronomy and mathematics, chemistry and geography, biology and medicine. The design of the Bible is simple and strict, there are no figurative engravings in it. The arch frame familiar from the Moscow and Lviv editions is used for the title page. On the back of the title there is the coat of arms of Prince K. Ostrog. The book ends with the typographic mark of Ivan Fedorov.

Almost twenty years of creative life of Ivan Fedorov turned out to be surprisingly fruitful, his followers continued the "Drukar law" in Russia, Ukraine, Belarus.

Education. Scientific and technical knowledge

At the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, the literacy of the population of Russia grew rapidly. The statistics of counting inscriptions on documents from the beginning of the 16th century determines the number of literate nobles and boyars - over 65%, townspeople - 25 - 40%. The priesthood was held by the priests, the clerks were all literate. The merchants needed education. The Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin took books with him on the difficult journey to the East and kept notes on the way, which after his return were included in the chronicle.

At the same time, there is an interest in foreign languages. There are translations from Greek, Latin, Polish, German, Slavic languages. For foreigners coming to Muscovy from various European and Eastern countries, there were appropriate "tlumachi" - translators.

The level of Russian culture is marked by the emergence of a large number of educated and inquisitive people: statesmen, engineers, specialists in "mining", "adding machines", cartographers, etc. This is the voivode V.M. Tuchkov, Prince I.V. Tokmakov, I. D. Saburov, Prince P.I. Shuisky, boyar F.I. Karpov, "adorned with many minds", boyar Bersen-Beklemishev, V. Patrikeev, Iosif Volotsky, Misyur-Munekhin, D. Gerasimov and many others.

But in the old Russian schools of the late 15th - 16th centuries, only elementary education was carried out: they taught reading, writing, read the Psalter “and other divine books”. Great importance was attached to singing, which is mentioned along with reading and writing. The rest of the education was received not in schools, but in communication with knowledgeable people and "versatile" reading of books. The scribes of the late 15th - 16th centuries are not solitary hermits, but active, active people. An example can be Anika Stroganov and his sons - Semyon, Maxim and Nikita - the founders of the largest trading house, experienced organizers of various crafts, metalworking, icon painting, manuscript correspondence, who, according to indirect information, ordered printed books to Ivan Fedorov. They were active organizers of the development of Siberia and the organization of a complex and extremely necessary business for Russia - salt production. The experience of salt production was first documented in the technical instruction for drilling for brine extraction, construction of oil rigs and excavation techniques. The book was titled like this: "Painting how a new pipe is conceived in a new place ..."

Mathematical knowledge deepened. The creation of the first arithmetic and geometry textbooks dates back to the second half of the 16th century. The use of Russian terminology in them seems to be interesting. In practical terms, tens of thousands were called "darkness", in theoretical terms - a million, followed by a million "legion", followed by a legion of legions - "leodr", leodr leodr - "raven". Mathematical terminology extended to units of the 49th category. The arithmetic operations were as follows: the sum is the "bottom large list", the terms are the "lists", the difference is the "balances", the reduced is the "loan list", the deducted is the "pay list", the dividend is the "big list", the divisor is " business list ", private -" foal list ", remainder -" residual shares ". In the textbook on geometry to scribes, "with the attachment of surveying drawings", contained information on the calculation of the areas of geometric figures. Calculations of the measurement of areas are included in the works of Ermolai-Erasmus "A ruler and agriculture with a benevolent king."

The practical use of mathematical knowledge can be seen in the experience of cannon business, in church, fortification construction. Artillery was used in the military campaigns of the Russian army. Cannons with the bright names "Flying Serpent" and "Convolutional Serpent", "Falcon", "Lion's Head" have been known since the time of the siege of Kazan. Andrey Chokhov stands out among the foundry masters of the late 16th century. His works are noted for their large size, beauty of form and technical excellence.

His most famous work is "The Tsar Cannon" in the Moscow Kremlin. Its weight is 40 tons, the diameter of the barrel is a caliber of 89 centimeters. There were no more such guns. The weapon is richly decorated, and in the muzzle, where the image was usually placed, according to which the individual name was given (leopard, bear, etc.), there is a relief of Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich galloping on a horse, therefore the work was named "Tsar Cannon".

Technical skill allowed the craftsmen to cast guns without seams, to make them with a muzzle flare, which increased the charge of gunpowder. Cannons (as well as bells) were cast on wax models in full size. Rifled guns were made, which were loaded not from the front, but from the rear, "breech".

Complex engineering problems were also solved by Russian architects. Ivan Grigorievich Vyrodkov in an unusually short time, in just four weeks, built a fortress in the city of Sviyazhsk, strategically important for the capture of Kazan. He also supervised the construction of the tours that encircled the Kazan fortress. Complex theoretical calculations required the construction of stone churches. For example, the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye in 1532 surprises with the balance of the building, in which the architects were able to calculate the load-bearing structures, the thickness of the walls and the enormous height of the temple.

Rice. 1. "Tsar Bell".

No less complex calculations were demonstrated by the gigantic hydraulic structures of the Solovetsky Monastery. A system of canals connected several dozen lakes. Mills and a forge were built, the bellows and hammers of which were driven by water. A stone dam with bridges was laid across the sea strait between the two islands. Stone dams lined the fish cages.

The ethnographic and geographical representations of the Russian people were changing more and more decisively. The first Russian encyclopedias, the so-called "Azbukovniki", contain information about the western and some eastern regions. Cartography developed: schemes of many lands of the Russian kingdom were drawn up - "Drawing of Smolensk and the border of Smolensk volosts", "Drawing of the Great Luke and Pskov suburbs with the Lithuanian city of Polotsk", "Drawing of Livonian cities".

At the end of the 15th-16th centuries, agriculture acquired a rational and scientific character. This is evidenced by "Naziatel" - a kind of translated practical encyclopedia on agricultural labor and everyday life. In the 16th century, a classification of soils based on rye yields was established. Domostroy testifies to the use of a number of agronomic techniques.

The books "herbalists" and "medical books" give an idea of ​​the development of biological and medical knowledge. Herbalists included a detailed description of the plants, indicated their medicinal qualities, and reported the methods of their use. In the 16th century, several Russian translations of Polish medical books were made.

Rice. 2. "Tsar is a cannon"

The state supported some applied sciences, the results of which were immediately visible in trade, military campaigns, construction, but in general, education and scientific knowledge developed within the boundaries of the theological and theocratic ideas about the world and society.

Literature

Old Russian medieval literature of the late - 16th century shows traditional subordination to a kind of etiquette: in the choice of themes, plots, means of representation, images and characteristics. Goodness and ceremoniality form the basis of the idealizing literary genre. The 16th century was marked by the desire to systematize and develop literary samples. The edifying, didactic nature of the word is increasing, measures are being taken to encyclopedic ordering of the literary heritage. ("The Great Cheti-Minei", "Domostroy", "Obverse Vault", "Book of Degrees", etc.). Generalizing encyclopedic systems strive to close the circle of topics and thoughts of literary works read.

The narrative nature of literature, interest in factography, rhetoric, and etiquette of official splendor are increasing. In the general artistic process, the centripetal forces of the gradual shaping of a single literary space begin to predominate. State "discipline" and the unification of the "book business" enhance the identification and emergence of national features of Russian literature.

The growth of national self-awareness caused a heightened interest in the historical past, as well as the desire to understand the history of the Russian state within the framework of world history. From the end of the 15th century, a number of new chronicles appeared in Moscow, socially Russian in nature, the compilers of which sought to historically prove the continuity of the power of the Moscow princes from the princes of Kievan Rus. A new rise in Russian annals began in the 30s of the 16th century, when grandiose multivolume vaults were gradually created one after another. Chronicle is becoming more and more a literary work, losing the significance of a historical document. She comprehends the events of Russian and world history, gives edifying patriotic reading, educating citizens in the appropriate spirit.

Rice. 3. Wooden mansions in Moscow. Miniature from the Obverse Chronicle Code. XVI century

The extensive "Nikon Chronicle" (16th century), "Resurrection Chronicle", "Kazan Chronicler", "Royal Chronicler", "Degree Book", "Obverse Arch", "History of the Kazan Kingdom", etc. show examples of the work of the chronicler-historian on request, on a specific state theme. True, the image of the chronicler of earlier times also does not correspond to the standard idea of ​​a solitary monk who, moving away from the bustle of the world, scrupulously records the events of history. This, as a rule, is a one-time task, often with a specific customer, a patron of the arts.

One of the largest chronicles was the "Facial vault". It received this name because it was illustrated with "history in faces": it was decorated with 16 thousand excellent compositional miniatures. Reinforcement of the word with visual material is a traditional technique of medieval culture, but in this case, in ancient Russian art, a precedent is created for deviating from the canon and creating compositions independent of the image by the authors. The manner of work with light transparent watercolors once again emphasizes the possibility of unconventional solutions in the new genre of fine art. This work, preserved to our time in 6 extensive volumes, covers world history from the "creation of the world" and Russian history from 1114 to 1567. The "obverse vault" has become a kind of historical encyclopedia of the 16th century.

An equally significant historical and literary work was the Book of Degrees. It was written in 1560-1563 on the instructions of Metropolitan Macarius by the tsar's confessor Athanasius (Andrey, later Metropolitan). The composition presented the history of Russia in the form of a sequential series of biographies of rulers, starting with the princes of Kiev. The story was covered not by the years, but in the form of ascending the degrees (that is, the great princes). The top (17th step) was the reign of Ivan IV the Terrible to the contemporary chronicler. In the construction of the book, the idea of ​​progress is interpreted in a peculiar way, when all previous development is declared a preparation (step, degree) of the greatness of the state contemporary to the author. "Book of Degrees" told about the life of the tsar, his "state exploits", about the role of the church and the highest church hierarchs in building a new kingdom, about the deeds of metropolitans, asserted the idea of ​​the unity of autocratic and spiritual power, their union in strengthening the state.

In 1564-1565 the History of the Kazan Kingdom was written. The last period of the Khanate's existence and the capture of Kazan by Russian troops are described in detail. The unknown author of the story spent about 20 years in captivity and was released in 1552. Sharp observation and literary talent allowed him to realistically tell about the battles and sufferings of Russian soldiers. The disagreements among the voivods in connection with the difficulties of the campaign were mentioned. Life and customs of that time of distant lands are described through the eyes of an eyewitness. But basically, this essay is built as a panegyric in honor of the military exploits and victories of Ivan IV.

Chronographs are peculiar historical narratives of the late 15th - 16th centuries. In these works, the task was set to consistently illuminate world history and emphasize the role of the Russian state in it. In the "Chronograph" that has come down to us in 1512, the presentation of world history starts from the "creation of the world." Then it speaks about the Assyrian and Persian kingdoms, etc. the author follows traditional biblical historiography. New is the dedication of the chapter to "the beginning of the kingdom of the Christian tsars", which, of course, is supplemented by the events of Russian history. The "Chronograph" of 1512 ends with a story about the capture of Constantinople by the Turks; description of the end of the "second Rome", after which the history of Russia begins as the only Christian state, as the heir to Byzantine rule and the salvation center of the Orthodox world.

Local chronicle narratives are also connected to the nationwide patriotic idea. An example is "The Tale of the Coming of Stefan Batory to the city of Pskov". It was written by the author of Pskov in hot pursuit of the heroic defense of Pskov in 1581-1582.

The literature of the late 15th - 16th centuries has a pronounced journalistic character. This is a time of contemplation, reflection and debate about the future of the country. Tsar Ivan the Terrible himself shows himself as a passionate publicist. He reveals different sides of literary talent - sarcasm in letters to the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery and to Vasily Gryazny, who was languishing in captivity, eloquence and intemperance - in letters to Kurbsky, Ostrozhsky.

Public political thought found expression in the "Tale of the princes of Vladimir". This work, concluding the political theory of the state, was used by Russian diplomacy to defend the prestige of the country. The Legends themes were depicted on the bas-reliefs of the royal throne in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. Official state acts and royal weddings were based on it. According to this myth, the Moscow sovereigns were direct descendants of the Roman emperor Augustus through Prince Vladimir.

The desire to see themselves as the heirs of the "eternal Roman kingdom" and Moscow as the heiress of Byzantium led to a special deification of the tsarist power and the proclamation of the "throne city" of Moscow as the "third Rome". The importance of Moscow is emphasized: "there will be no fourth Rome". "The Legend of the Princes of Vladimir" begins with a story about the division of land between the descendants of Noah, continues with information about the great rulers, the central place among which is occupied by the emperor Augustus. Vladimir receives signs of royal dignity from Augustus through the emperor Constantine after a victorious campaign in Thrace. Constantine sent him gifts - a cross "from the life-giving tree itself, the Lord Christ will be crucified on it," "the royal crown," a necklace "I splash my load," etc. The stories about the Babylonian kingdom told the wonderful story of the royal regalia. The story of the Novgorod white klobuk (headdress) spoke of the special role of Russia in the universal church life and, in particular, emphasized the significance of the Novgorod church shrine - the white klobuk, which the Novgorod archbishops allegedly received from Byzantium, where it was transferred from the first Rome.

The desire to substantiate the special ecclesiastical significance of the Russian land was reflected in the numerous compositions of the lives (biographies) of the saints and in the establishment of their cult. These collections are a kind of Russian encyclopedia that unites disparate phenomena of Russian culture.

A large number of writers, artists, scribes worked on the creation of an all-Russian cult of saints under the leadership of Metropolitan Macarius. This colossal 20-year work resulted in 12 large volumes (27 thousand pages).

The books included all the "something", i.e. the church literature read in Russia, dedicated to the lives of saints, etc., and received the name "Great Cheti-Menaion" (monthly readings).

Fig. 4. Construction of the Intercession Cathedral. Miniature from the Obverse Chronicle Code. XVI century

The encyclopedia of Russian life can be called "Domostroy", representing the moral foundations of the Old Russian family with the emphasized supremacy of the husband, the head of the family. This collection formulated the rules of housekeeping, was a kind of "cookbook" explaining the recipes for cooking lean meals (pancakes, pies with mushrooms, milk mushrooms, poppy seeds, porridge and cabbage, fish in various forms), meatless (from meat, ham, lard) , various drinks and sweet foods (lingonberry water, March beer, raspberry juice, apples and pears in kvass and molasses, pastilles, etc.). The house in the interpretation of "Domostroy" became an important part of human life, the everyday, earthly life of a Christian of the 16th century declared its right to exist.

Rice. 5. Execution of I.I. Kuvensky. Miniature from the Obverse Chronicle Code. XVI century

In fiction there is an interest in everyday life, history, personal relationships of people. Translated literature continues to spread, necessarily interpreted in Russian. The story "About Peter and Fevronia" told gracefully and unhurriedly about the people of the end of the 15th - 16th centuries: the love story of the Murom prince Peter and the peasant girl Fevronia. Researchers compare it with the Western European medieval "love poem" - a novel about Tristan and Isolde. The story "About Peter and Fevronia" is an ideal story about the twists and turns of two loving hearts, Fevronia does not seek love, but lives in loving harmony with herself and nature. When the prince's messenger first finds her in a peasant hut behind the cross, a hare gallops in front of her. Fevronia astonishes the stranger with wise answers and promises to cure Prince Peter, poisoned by the poisonous blood of the snake he killed. A simple girl saves the prince, and he marries her. The arrogant and unkind wives of the boyars slander before the prince Fevronia: they report her outrageous behavior at the table, as if the princess, like a beggar, collects bread crumbs. But the boyars' words turn out to be a lie: when Peter opens Fevronia's palm, there she smells of incense and incense. Again the boyars are dissatisfied with the princess. At the feast, "possessed by fury," they ask Fevronia to leave Moore. The wise virgin does not object, but asks to fulfill her last request - to let Peter go with her. Leaving the princely power, he and his wife float down the Oka. On the ship, Fevronia works miracles - with her blessing, sticks stuck in the ground grow into trees, etc. Desperate in the struggle for power, the Murom boyars return the exiles. Prince Peter and the wise princess rule until old age in Murom as "a child-loving father and mother." Feeling the approach of death, they ask God to let them die at the same hour, they are tonsured in different monasteries. Nun Fevronia is embroidering

spirit "(covering the church) when she is informed about the last minutes of Peter. She asks the dying man to wait and let her finish the work. The second time Peter sends to her, telling her to say:" I will wait a little for you. "Finally, for the third time, Peter asks : “I already want to die (die) and do not wait for thee.” Then Fevronia goes to this call, sticking a stick in the “air”, sends to tell Peter that she is ready. So two loving hearts could not separate neither death nor evil people.

Folk culture

Alongside the official regulated culture at the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, there was a powerful stream of independent folk culture. The festive and playful, carnival and theatrical nature of this culture presupposed its manifestation in the forms of oral improvisation, transmission "from mouth to mouth", from generation to generation. But in the 16th century, people saw "pagan devilry" in traditional folk "games" and rituals. Significant efforts were made to eradicate "trash customs" - mermaids on Midsummer's Day, buffoonery games at "zhalniks" (cemeteries), etc. A detailed list of traditional folk customs is given by "Stoglav" and recommends the priesthood to resist them decisively. This document, despite exaggerating some of the details, provides unique first-hand information about the culture of the 16th century. "Rusalia on Ivanov's days (Kupalye) and on the eve of the Nativity of Christ and on the eve of the Epiphany of the Lord, men and women and girls converge on the night splashing and countless talk, on demonic songs and dancing, and when the night passes by, then they go to the river .. . and with a great shouting, oki demons are washed by water ... ". "And on Maundy Thursday they burn the straw and call out to the dead ... the priests on Maundy Thursday put salt under the throne and until the next four days they keep tacos, and they give that salt for healing to people and cattle." "On Trinity Saturday, in the villages and in the churchyards, men and wives converge on zalniks and weep over the grave of the dead with a great cry, and when the buffoons learn to play all kinds of demonic games and they have died from crying, they begin to ride and dance, and in the valley of the bat, and songs of sotoninsky petit ".

Figure 6. V.N. Kazarin. Festive festivities in Little Russia.

At the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, attempts were made to unify the norms of culture, to authorize many forms of its manifestation. Only the cult of the holy fools "for Christ's sake" remained from the diversity of the Russian carnival carnival culture. The habit of buffoons to accompany performances with sharp jokes and remarks about "those in power" have remained in the right of the holy fools to speak out "without looking at their faces." Tradition ascribes to the Pskov holy fool Nicholas the merit of saving Pskov. He sent the tsar a piece of raw meat, to which the Terrible replied: "I am a Christian and I do not eat meat during fasting." Nicola remarked: "Is it really a sin to eat a piece of meat from some animal by fasting, but is it not a sin to eat so much human meat?" The holy fool stopped the executions with the words: “Ivashka, Ivashka, how long will you shed Christian blood without guilt? Frightened by Nikola's words, Grozny quickly left Pskov.

The 16th century canonizes the great lover of truth, Basil the Blessed. The life of this holy fool was overgrown with legends in which the people made him an accuser of the unrighteous deeds of the king. According to legend, during the Novgorod campaign, Ivan the Terrible visited the saint's cave somewhere above Volkhov. The holy fool treats the tsar with raw blood and meat. In response to Grozny's objections, he shows him the souls of innocent martyrs ascending to heaven. The king, in horror, orders to stop the executions.

Historical legends, epics, songs were very widespread in Ancient Rus. Echoes of this are heard in the chronicles of the 15th - 16th centuries and collections of historical songs recorded by ethnographers of the 19th and 20th centuries. The Nikon Chronicle presents interesting information "About Alyoshka Popovich", his name is also found in other chronicles. The presentation of epic stories goes parallel to the development and growth of national self-awareness. The Russian epic gathers around Kiev and Vladimir, the heroes crush the enemies of the Kiev and Vladimir princes. A real historical person stands behind each epic image. For example, Tugarin Zmeevich, with whom Alyosha fights in the famous epic, is a historical figure of the time of Vladimir Monomakh - the Polovtsian prince Tugorkhan.

Fig 7. Fight with a bear.

In contrast to the epic, epics, the main characters of which change in a fantastic idealized retelling from source to source, by word of mouth, in folk songs historical stories act. The oral folk art of the 16th century raised this genre quite high. The songs are dedicated to specific historical events. They sing to Chare Ivan the Terrible, about the conquest of Siberia and Kazan. The songs about the capture of Kazan emphasize the courage, resourcefulness, and skill of Russian gunners. The chants about Yermak portray the image of a brave chieftain, a freedom-loving patriot, close to the people, who did not like the arrogant boyars. The song Ermak accomplishes a great feat - he "takes" Siberia, joins this distant land to the Russian state. The folk hero is also sung in the song about the Pan. A simple Russian man "zaselytsina-redneck" enters into single combat with a boastful foreign prince Kastryuk and defeats him. The people's memory gratefully preserved the idea of ​​the unparalleled feat of liberation of prisoners in Kazan in the song "The good fellow calls the girl to Kazan":

Kazan stands proudly on the bones, Kazanchka-river flows bloody, Small keys - burning tears, Through meadows, all hair, All heads along steep mountains, Well done, all shooters.

The song about Babel the buffoon depicts the King Dog, who ruled in the "inishyp" (other) kingdom. The peasant Vavila, who joined the buffoons, managed to overthrow the cruel tyrant who surrounded his courtyard with a tyn, whose stakes are decorated with human heads.

The songs about Ivan the Terrible are composed of stories about really past and fictional events of his life. The popular consciousness puts forward many poetic reasons explaining the failure and cruelty of the tsar. Songs have been composed about the unjust trial of Grozny in "The Capture of Kazan", "The wrath of Ivan Vasilyevich the Terrible against his son", the sudden departure from the "city from Vologda", in which the sovereign launched a large stone construction. The culprit of disasters, changes in the state, folklore sees the "thief and murderer", the tsar's satrap Malyuta Skuratov, or the hated Maria Temryukovna, the wife of the Terrible. In the song about the abandonment of Vologda, poetry focuses on the legend of the "red plinth," which "fell on the king's mudra" in the newly rebuilt St. Sophia Cathedral. Fearing this, seeing a bad sign in the fall of a splinter of bricks, the tsar seemed to have urgently left the city.

Rice. 8. Clothes of the hawthorn. XVII century

Oral folk art is the deepest historical source of information about the culture of the late 15th - 16th centuries. Household items remain the richest storehouse of folk traditions: "beautifully ornamented" carved details of wooden houses, benches, dishes, boxes (boxes), chests, spinning wheels, embroidered towels, woven patterns, etc. Due to the dilapidation of the material, they have survived in an insignificant amount. Due to the traditional nature of their manufacture, products similar in shape and ornamentation could be repeated by craftswomen and wood, clay craftsmen without any significant changes over the next centuries.

Music

For a very long time, the culture of Ancient Rus was called "the culture of deep silence". Gradually, numerous monuments of literature, icon painting, decorative and applied arts became known, and last of all - records of Russian cult (church) music. Of course, at the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, musical practice knew a folk song, the origins of which go back to the depths of centuries. But due to the fact that this heritage was recorded in a relatively recent time by ear recordings or by means of a phonograph, it is impossible to say with complete certainty what a song could have been four hundred years ago, one can only make more or less correct assumptions based on what has come down to us material. Therefore, monuments of cult music, as the only type of recorded Old Russian music, are so valuable to us. In Old Russian singing manuscripts, the melody is expressed through various types of musical notations (notations). Among the nonlinear notations, the dominant type is znamennaya (from the Old Russian "znamena" - sign). In the 16th century, other notations became widespread - demestvennaya and travel - they are also represented by a number of independent manuscripts and individual chants in znamenny manuscripts.

Znamenka notation required some kind of theoretical guidelines for reading hook (musical) notation. Such manuals were called "alphabet". The first alphabets date back to the 15th-16th centuries.

Znamenny liturgical tunes are extremely varied in melodic terms. They are built from separate, more or less prolonged, independent turns of melodies. The songs have their own names. These names reflect the subtle understanding of the znamenny singing by the Russian singers and the poetic ability to give figurative and colorful characteristics to the melodic turns that make it up.

Particularly complex designations were "fita" - conditional combinations of musical signs, among which was the letter "fita". The presence of this letter in the recording indicated a special musical meaning or chant of this combination. This was the "secrecy" of the musical recording - it was necessary to know the essence of the fit chant, since it boiled down to the sequential reading of individual banners - the symbols that make up the fit combination. Therefore, the internal structure of fitniks required special keys for reading them, since it was not easy to keep these tunes in memory, despite the experience of church singers. The keys of the chants were in special phytics books. "Secrecy" is also characteristic of "persons" and "kokizniks" - a different kind of combinations of banners that do not contain the fita sign, and many outlines of tunes. These records had their own "decryption" keys.

The appearance of the travel banner and demestvo dates back to the 16th century. These two notations may seem close to the znamenny notation: there is a lot in common between them, because both the "path" and the "demestvo" are subordinate to it - their note signs consist of separate graphic elements of the znamenny notation. Quite a lot of monuments of the "travel and demestvenny banner" have survived.

Interesting is a very rare type of notation of the 16th century "Kazan banner", created to commemorate the conquest of Kazan by Ivan the Terrible. In church cult singing, the tradition did not allow polyphony. In Russian folk songs of the most varied forms - dance, wedding, etc. - it has been found since time immemorial. But in the 16th century, polyphony also penetrated into church singing. There are a number of singing manuscripts that are presented in nonlinear notation with polyphony. These are samples of "line" singing of znamenny and demestny scores.

The singing hook manuscripts testify to the high artistic and technical level of Old Russian music of the late 15th - 16th centuries.

Among the ancient Russian singers and chanters in the 16th century, the name of the Moscow priest Fyodor, nicknamed the Peasant (Christian), was very famous. He is "glorious and petite" and "many will learn from him" - say ancient documents about the composer and performer. His name was a kind of legend in the musical world of Russia: "his banner (composition) is glorious to this day." Fyodor Krestyanin's "Gospel stichera" were found in the manuscripts of the 17th century. The Gospel stichera have highly artistic texts and tunes, striking in their development and beauty, they are the pinnacle of the znamenny chant.

Old Russian hook recordings competed with European musical notation until they were finally replaced and forgotten in the 18th century.

Architecture

The main building materials for the architects of the late 15th - 16th centuries were wood and stone. The forms and structures of buildings were diverse, as well as their functions and purposes.

Wooden architecture has preserved the least of the monuments of the late 15th - 16th centuries. Most of them are located in distant regions of Russia, for example, on the coast of the White Sea, the shores of Lake Onega and the Northern Dvina. A number of monuments are being restored by historians from descriptions of contemporaries and travelers, paintings and engravings depicting them. The Stroganov temples in Solvychegodsk were very famous. They were built in 1565 and existed until 1798. It was a three-story palace, the majestic appearance and size of which amazed those who saw it. The mansions consisted of a row of log cabins with two quadrangular towers. The largest of the towers is six-story, crowned with a barrel-shaped roof, the smaller one with an open top and had a hipped roof. In the vestibule (to the second floor) a two-flight staircase led, the upper platform of which was covered with a barrel, and the lower one - with a low hipped roof. The height of the building is 14 yards. This vertical was complemented by huge towers with barreled and hipped roofs. A picturesque asymmetrical porch completed the ensemble of mansion splendor.

But the clearest idea of ​​wooden architecture is given by the surviving temples. Two buildings - the Church of the Deposition of the Robe in the village of Borodavy (Vologda Oblast) in 1486 and Georgievsky in the village of Yuksovichi (Leningrad Oblast) in 1493 - characterize the main trend of this type of architecture: the transformation of the original church-hut into a more complex church building. The monumentality of the building is achieved by increasing the height of the roof, changing its silhouette and proportions, including the side cuttings that are comparable to the main volume: western and altar (eastern).

Both churches are proportionally harmonious and cut "as measure and beauty say." They belong to the type of dumpling buildings.

Another type is hipped-roof temples. They end with pyramidal tents. At the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, the Nikolskaya Church in the village of Lyavle (1589) and the Ilyinsky Church in the Vyisky Pogost (consecrated in 1600) were built. Both temples were distinguished by the perfection of their proportions and silhouette, by the expressiveness of their tent-roofs.

The third type of wooden temples is "kreshatnye", i.e. building a cross in their plan and volumes. An example of this type of construction is the Mother of God Church in the village of Verkhovye (Vologda Oblast). The cross-shaped frame of the church stands on the basement. It ends with an octagon open to the very top with a tent. Low three-pitched roofs on the sides of the cross have small tetrahedral tents. From the west, a porch adjoined the main volume, a symmetrical porch with two exits led to the second floor.

More complex spatial solutions are noted for the christened hipped roof temples of the mid-16th century, for example, the Assumption Church of the Kushta Monastery (Vologda Oblast). The lateral branches of the cross are covered with barrel-shaped roofs.

The hipped roofs of wooden churches had a great influence on stone architecture, determining the appearance of stone hipped churches, bell towers, fortress towers. An indirect confirmation of this is the text of the "Chronicler ..." of the 16th century that the stone tent-roofed Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye was built "upside down with a tent on a wooden case."

In addition to high tent-roofed temples, another type of tower-churches is known, where log cabins, gradually decreasing in size, were placed one on top of the other in several tiers. At the end of the 16th century, a similar church was built in the Nilovaya Stolbenskaya desert (island of Lake Seliger, Tver region).

The brilliant skills of 16th century wood-breeders were used to solve a complex engineering problem. In a short time, it was necessary to build the Sviyazhsk wooden fortress, which created the most important bridgehead for the defeat

Kazan Khanate. The strategic plan of Tsar Ivan the Terrible assumed the unexpectedness of her appearance in front of the enemy. Therefore, in one winter of 1550-1551, far from Kazan, in the estate of the Ushatykh in the Uglich district, a city was built with eighteen towers, with double "taras" and all the necessary buildings. In size, it was larger than the Novgorod and Moscow Kremlin. Separate elements of the buildings were collected and numbered, and then, disassembled, were floated on barges to the mouth of the Sviyaga River. On May 24, 1551, the delivery of the material was completed, and at the end of June of the same year the fortress was ready. A high hill above the Sviyaga River was cleared of forest, and the Sviyazhsk fortress enveloped it with its mighty walls. It united the government and military buildings located inside. Conceived as a military-strategic point on the way to Kazan, the fortress turned out to be a remarkable piece of architectural art.

Stone architecture by the XV-XVI centuries is entering a new period of its development. By the end of the 15th century, the trend of technical and technological complication of construction was supported by new cadres of architects and samples of temples, secular buildings that correspond to new norms and tasks. The turning point in the history of architecture of that time was the restructuring of the Moscow Kremlin. The difficulties that arose during the construction of the Kremlin's main temple, the Assumption Cathedral, show how the new Moscow school of architecture is gaining experience. The temple was conceived as a solemn, large building, which demonstrates the succession of the throne of the Moscow grand dukes from the power of the Vladimir princes. The architects had to rely on the traditions of the white-stone, elegant Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. The construction lasted for two years, but in the spring of 1474 the temple, which was close to completion, collapsed. The Pskov craftsmen, invited as experts, pointed to the low technical quality of the building: the weakness of the structure and the grout. They themselves refused to continue construction. Tsar Ivan III, apparently at the suggestion of his wife Sophia Palaeologus, invited the experienced foreign architect A. Fioravanti to work. This marked the beginning of the tradition of inviting foreign architects to Moscow. During the years 1475-1479, the Assumption Church was rebuilt. A. Fioravanti "start to do according to your own cunning", i.e. as in Russia they did not do it before, he did the job brilliantly. The measure was observed in the use of the Russian architectural tradition (he also got acquainted with the Assumption Cathedral of Vladimir) and complex engineering and technical problems of the European level. He made no secret of his work. Construction has become a kind of school of architectural and technical skill.

The Kremlin's Assumption Cathedral is built of white stone. It is a large, six-pillar rectangular building with five powerful domes at the top. The architect needed to identify the traditional roundness of Russian architecture in the form of the pozakomarny completion of the roof and a semicircle of apses from the east of the building. To facilitate the laying of walls and vaults, domes A. Fioravanti uses a new material for that time - brick. The semicircle motif is consistently carried out throughout the temple - in the portals, wall frieze, zakomaras, chapters, windows. The precisely calculated radius of the zakomar and the "step" (the size of the gap) between the pylons allows the ceilings to carry the stop of five closely standing drums and temple heads. The five-domed from this time will become a distinctive feature of Moscow architecture.

Rice. 9. Fragment of the "Kremlin City" plan: 14 - treasury; 16 - the royal court; 19 - the patriarchal court. Late 16th - early 17th century

A. Fioravanti shows the semicircles of the apses from only one frontal point of view; the architect hides their profile silhouette with the protrusions of the corner pilasters-buttresses. Thanks to this unique solution, the compactness of the volume of the cathedral is increased. The architect very successfully finds the ratio of the width of each division of the walls to their height, the ratio of the height of the temple and the crowning five-domed. The cathedral gives the impression of calm grandeur and monumentality. Contemporaries called the creation of the "master Aristotle" "the earthly sky, shining like a great sun in the middle of the Russian land."

Following Fioravanti, a whole group of Italian craftsmen came to Moscow. These were talented specialists in defensive and fortifications: Pietro Antonio Solari, Marco Ruffo, two architects known as Aleviza and others. Their work in the Kremlin is mainly known: fortress towers and walls, the Faceted Chamber. Cathedral of the Archangel.

By the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, the Moscow Kremlin acquired the character of not only a military fortress, but also a symbol of the "reigning city", the center of the capital and Russian lands. Architects solved not only complex engineering, but also artistic and imaginative tasks.

Straight clear lines of the fortress walls, the number and height of the towers, the red brick from which they were built - all this, through the efforts of the architects, created the image of an impregnable stronghold and "heavenly, holy city".

Marco Ruffo built the southeastern round Beklemishevskaya tower, Fryazin - Taininskaya and Sviblova, Pietro Solari - Borovitskaya and Konstantino-Yeleninskaya. Solari and Ruffo erected the Spasskaya (Frolovskaya) tower, Nikolskaya and the corner Arsenalnaya (Sobakina) in 1491. Thanks to the towers, the necessary high-rise "accents" for the development arose, in addition, the pitch of their location met the requirements of the Kremlin's defense.

During the construction of the fortress, the composition of the city center was finally formed and worked out in detail. The central, Cathedral Square of the Kremlin was surrounded by cathedrals and chambers of the tsar and boyars: the Annunciation (1484 - 1489), the Arkhangelsk (1505-1508) temples, the Faceted Chamber (1487 - 1491). The pillar (bell tower) of Ivan the Great grew up as a vertical dominant.

The layout, volumetric and silhouette composition of the Moscow Kremlin united all the most valuable, which was created by the works of many generations of Russian architects, the architectural talent of foreign masters. New architectural forms and materials indicate the emergence of a special Moscow tradition of architecture by the beginning of the 16th century. At this time, buildings that were completely new in their architectural appearance were created. The architects received the famous name of "sovereign masters", they are now mentioned not only in the chronicles, but also in inset boards on the walls of the buildings they built. The creativity of architects has acquired significant independence. A drawing appeared in construction practice. The greatness of the forms, the grandeur of the scale, the decorative scope - that is what determined the character of the monuments of the 16th century.

Rice. 10. A.M. Vasnetsov. Red Square under Ivan N.

The intensity of construction work has made it possible, over the course of a century, to acquire stone centers and estates for both the capital itself and other Russian cities: Kolomna, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Vologda, etc., numerous monasteries: Vladimir, Suzdal, Vologda, Kirillov, Ferapontov, etc. All of them interpreted in the forms of temples the system of five-domed, three-domed, single-domed, support on one, four, six pillars. A special type of posad temple was developing. The role of the posad increased in the architectural appearance of cities; they also began to be surrounded by a fortress wall.

In 1534-1538, the architect Petrok Maly was surrounded by stone walls and towers Kitay-Gorod, a posad adjacent directly to the Kremlin. The Kremlin acquired the significance of a kind of acropolis, and the center of public life moved to Red Square. There in 1555 - 1560 the St. Basil's Cathedral was erected by architects Barma and Postnik. The temple of a complex nine-part structure was made by the builders "as reason was bestowed upon them in the dimension of the foundation" with significant deviations from the usual eight-altar plan. By its location, by the originality of its architecture, by its picturesque silhouette, so reminiscent of the cages and roofs in chorus, this cathedral is unmatched and fully represents the achievements of architecture of the 16th century.

In 1586-1593, work was completed on the construction of the White City, another system of defensive fortifications in Moscow, including the Kremlin and Kitai-Gorod. In 1591, "Tsar Fyodor ordered a wooden hail to be erected around Moscow near all the townships." This is how a new defensive row arose - Skorodom.

The monasteries located in a circle around Moscow: Simonov, Novodevichy, as the most important in the defense system of Moscow, received stone walls and towers in the 16th century.

Town planning plans of the 16th century were completed in 1596 - 1600 with the construction of walls around the city of Smolensk. The "Smolensk affair" was an event of great importance for the country: while it was in progress, all stone buildings in the country were banned.

Rice. 11. Arm of the Suzdal bishop in Kitai-Gorod. Engraving from the book by A. Olearius "Description of the trip to Muscovy". 30s XVII century

Tsar Boris Godunov called this city "the necklace of Muscovite Rus". The technical and architectural perfection of the Smolensk walls and towers, decorated with platbands, decorative bands, spoke not only of the skill of their architect, Fyodor Kon, but also of the high level of stone construction in the 16th century.

In the planning solution of Russian cities and monasteries, picturesque asymmetry prevailed. From different points of view, the buildings always presented a new aspect to the eye, striking with unexpected combinations, the dynamism of architectural lines, the sudden appearance of previously unnoticeable buildings and details. To the asymmetry of town planning plans, one should add the impression of the polychromy of the buildings of the 16th century. One of his contemporaries described the multicoloredness of the Cathedral of the Alexandrovskaya Sloboda: "... the stones (churches) are painted with different colors, so that one is black, the other is white, the third is yellow and gilded; a cross is drawn on each; all this presents a beautiful view for road people passing by ".

One of the highest points in the development of ancient Russian architecture is marked by hipped-roof temples of the 16th century. This is a unique phenomenon not only of Russian, but also of world architecture. The origin of the forms of the tent itself has many explanations, sometimes of a hypothetical (hypothetical) property. A tent is a repetition of a similar form of a wooden temple. A tent is a feature of Western European Romanesque or Gothic architecture, modified on Russian soil. The tent structure is a kind of symbol of the military power of Russia, the result of the widespread development of urban planning at the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, closely associated with the construction of numerous fortress towers. The tent structure was used in the most important architectural structures, most of which were erected in connection with military victories.

The first most famous tent-roofed, pillar-like monument is the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye (1530-1532). The chronicler accompanied the news of its construction with inspired words: "... there is a church that velmi chyudna in height and beauty and lordship, this has never happened before in Russia." The construction of the temple was celebrated as a great event by the Moscow Grand Duke Vasily III and Metropolitan Daniel with three-day celebrations and feasts. The Church of the Ascension is like an obelisk built over the steep bank of the Moskva River. Despite its extraordinary monumentality, it easily and swiftly rushes upward with its gigantic tent.

The temple is surrounded by galleries with staircases-entrances curved in various directions. Above the gallery terrace, a clear, crystalline mass of the building rises, rich in a variety of forms, at the same time surprisingly simple in its general construction and in sparse details. The unity of the whole and the mutual subordination of all parts (elongated pilasters, the shape of the windows, the treatment of the tent) achieved rare harmony in this building. The picturesque plasticity of the Kolomna temple is great. All possible richness of impressions opens up to the viewer from different angles of viewing the white-stone masterpiece.

The building is completely centric: on the fourfold of the base there is an octagon, as if representing a giant drum of the head of the temple. The facades are built in the same way, the altar apse is absent. The tier of "kokoshniks" (decorative ornaments), which serves as a transition from one form to another, is repeated at the top, when the octagon passes into the tent and successively into the chapter.

The solemn recognition of the consecration of the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye legalized the new architectural form of the building. Russian architects used it extensively in the future, until it was banned by Patriarch Nikon in the second half of the 17th century.

An outstanding pillar-like structure is the Church of John the Baptist in the village of Dyakovo (1553-1554). He became an example of new original compositional and decorative techniques of Russian architecture of the 16th century.

The temple consists of five closely spaced tiered octahedrons. The central pillar stands out for its solidity, which is adjoined by tiered side-altars. Heavy, low chapters give the Dyakov's church a static character that gives the impression of solemn, proud dignity.

Both churches - the Ascension in Kolomenskoye and John the Baptist in Dyakov - paved the way for the appearance of an amazing structure of the 16th century - the Cathedral of the Intercession "in the moat", known as St. Basil the Blessed (1554 - 1560). Its construction established the victory over the Kazan Khanate. Simultaneously with the memorial temple on Red Square, other tent-roofed temples were erected in Russia. The Church of Metropolitan Peter in Pereyaslavl-Zalessky in 1584, churches in the Buttercup Monastery (1559), in the village of Gorodnya near Kolomna (1578 - 1579), the village of Elizarievo near Pereslavl, the Church of Kozma and Dominian in Murom (1565), etc.

Rice. 12. Plan of the Novodevichy Convent.

Hip-roofed stone churches had a significant impact on the architecture of the 17th century. They marked the greatest upsurge in ancient Russian architecture.

The architecture of the end of the 16th century is guided by the samples of the capital's five-domed temples, but enhances their monumentality to severe massive laconicism. Examples are St. Sophia Cathedral in Vologda (1568 - 1570) and the Assumption Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (1554-1585).

At the same time, a new type of temple is being created - two-sided in plan. Such are the Annunciation Cathedral in Solvychegodsk, built by the Stroganovs in 1560-1579, the gate church of the Prilutsk Monastery, etc.

Painting

In the center of the pictorial visual culture of the late 15th - 16th centuries, there is the work of the greatest icon painter of that time, Dionysius. "Deep maturity and artistic perfection" of this master represents the centuries-old tradition of Russian icon painting. Together with Andrei Rublev, Dionisy makes up the legendary glory of the culture of Ancient Rus.

Relatively much is known about Dionysius against the background of the namelessness of medieval icon painting. He was born, probably in the 1440s, and was a secular man, a layman, and not a monk like Andrei Rublev. The apogee of the work of Dionysius reaches the 60s of the 15th century, at that time he became already a famous master. His work in 1467 - 1477 in the Church of the Nativity of the Mother of God of the Pafnutevo-Borovsky Monastery, which he performed together with his disciple Mitrofan, is said with great respect. The performers of the painting of the temple are called "notorious (most famous) more than anyone else."

In the years 1481-1482, Dionysius supervised the creation of the iconostasis and painting in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. In the middle of 1480, he was the head of a new icon-painting artel. On behalf of the Rostov Archbishop Rossian, he worked at the Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery. The artel painted the Assumption Church and made many icons for the monastery. Dionysius' assistants were two sons - Theodosius and Vladimir, the elder Paisius. Reporting on this work, the author of the life of Joseph Volotsky calls Dionysius and his companions "graceful and cunning icon painters in the Russian land, why should they be painters." In the inventory of the monastery church, sacristy and library, compiled in 1545 by the elder Zosima and the book-keeper Paisius, 87 icons of Dionysius, 20 icons of Paisius, 17 icons of Vladimir, 20 icons of Theodosius are mentioned.

There is no documentary information about the activities of Dionysius and his sons during the 90s of the 15th century. But, apparently, it was concentrated mainly in Moscow, where a large construction of churches was carried out, which needed to be decorated with murals and icons.

The last work known from the signature of Dionysius falls on the beginning of the 16th century. The isographer with his sons Theodosia and Vladimir, with the participation of artists from his workshop, created an ensemble of murals for the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin of the Ferapontov Monastery. At the end of the 15th century, the northern monasteries of Ferapont and Kirillov, located on the outskirts of the state, reached their greatest power. It is not excluded that the masters of the Dionysius' artel took part in the creation of the iconostasis (1497) of the Assumption Cathedral of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery. Dionysius died at the beginning of the 16th century, before 1508, as it is known that the artist's son Feodosia "with the brethren" was put in charge of the painting of the Cathedral of the Annunciation in the Moscow Kremlin.

Dionysius was one of the foremost people of his time; the most educated people of Muscovite Rus were among his circle of friends. About Dionysius, Joseph Volotsky writes that the artist philosophized with a brush. A deeply philosophical perception of the world allowed the master to most fully express the national characteristics of the Russian artistic culture of that time. The work of Dionysius was the leading one in contemporary Moscow painting trends. Despite his pronounced innovation, Dionysius is closely associated with the best traditions of his brilliant predecessor, Andrei Rublev, but is not his follower. The works of Dionysius were valued as highly by contemporaries and descendants as the works of Andrei Rublev. Of the huge number of icons created by the master, only a few monuments have survived. Of the 87 works indicated in the inventories of the Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery, not a single one has come down to us.

The list of authentic creations of the master is as follows: "Our Lady of Odigitria" in 1482 from the Resurrection Monastery of the Moscow Kremlin; "Savior in Strength" and "Crucifixion" from the Trinity Cathedral of the Pavlo-Obnorsk Monastery, dating back to 1500 according to the inscription on the back of the "Savior". The style of Dionysius is found in the icons "Metropolitan Peter", "Alexei Metropolitan" from the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin and "Trinity" from the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Theotokos at Ferapontov Monastery. The name of Dionysius is associated with the icons "Dmitry of Prilutskii in the Life" from the Vologda Spaso-Prilutsky Monastery, "Assumption" from the Assumption Cathedral in Dmitrov, "John the Baptist Angel of the Desert" from the Church of John the Baptist in the village of Gorodnya near Kolomna.

The earliest icon is the Mother of God Hodegetria. The iconographic type of Our Lady of Hodegetria, i.e. guidebooks, very revered in Russia. When, during a fire, the icon of the Mother of God in Greek writing lost its image, Dionysius was instructed to write an icon "in the same image" on the same board. The master was associated with a sample that was ordered to be repeated. But the manner of Dionysius is visible in this work. The Dick of Our Lady is written very softly, without abrupt transitions from light to shadow. There is no relief in the image. Half-figures of angels in turquoise-blue, green and yellow robes are painted in fine miniature technique.

The hagiographic icons of Metropolitans Peter and Alexei were created in the 80s of the 15th century, when Moscow society showed interest in the personalities of these peacekeepers. The hagiographic icons, i.e. works, in the hallmarks of which the life (life) of this or that saint is told, acquired distribution and final artistic polishing only in the time of Dionysius. In the middle field of the icon, the image of the saint is given, and along the perimeter of the stamp - his life. Dionysius possesses impeccable skill in solving complex compositional problems: he feels the architectonics of the icon board - the exact proportional ratios of the average field and stamps, the height and width of each rectangle, figures, background. Architectural backgrounds are becoming more complex in the hallmarks, but the image still obeys the plane. The metropolitans are presented on the middle ones in full height, frontally, as ideal high priests and statesmen who took part in the building of the state. The hallmarks are the main events of their lives and miracles.

The coloring of both icons is kept in the same color scheme, light and festive in character. Snow-white colors prevail, which is a great innovation in Russian icon painting. White is a luminous color, it influences other colors, as if transferring its hue to them. It lightens the color of the icon, gives it additional transparency. That is why there is no local red, green, yellow, but there are their shades - pink, pale crimson, pistachio, golden brown, straw yellow, turquoise. The luminosity of the Dionysian color deprives the form of weight and density.

In the hallmarks, Dionysius prefers the slow development of events, turning them into an endlessly lasting action. The common motive of a calmly seated figure, either immersed in thought, or leading a quiet conversation. Color, posture, gestures, details of decoration in the iconic narrative are always symbolic.

Dionysius and his artel painted many icons for iconostases. One of these iconostases, which stood in the cathedral of the Pavlo-Obnorsk monastery, is associated with the icons "The Savior in Strength" and "The Crucifixion". In the composition "The Crucifixion" the master deliberately relies on the canons of the Rublev era. But it significantly changes the proportions of the figures, reduces the size of the heads, arms and legs. The stylistically changed tradition of the previous era is marked by the stamp of special sophistication. Elongated, fragile figures, lightened color - these are the most characteristic features of the artistic language of Dionysius.

Iconostasis from the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin of the Ferapont Monastery also testify to the rich palette of Dionysian figurative means. Movable, light pattern, restrained smooth lines of silhouettes, luminous coloring of golden, turquoise, blue, violet, pink tones.

The main and indisputable creation of Dionysius is the painting of the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in the Ferapontov Monastery. An ancient inscription above the northern door of the temple informs that "the scribes Dionysius the icon painter with his children" completed the work in "2 years" from August 6, 1502 to September 8, 1503. The decoration of the Ferapontovsky temple amazes with lightness, joy of the color system. In the manufacture of paints, the artists used chalk stones of various shades that they found nearby, on the shores of a local lake. Delicate blue tones are combined with pale green, golden yellow with pink, light purple with turquoise, white with cherry, silver-gray with lilac.

The main theme of the paintings is the glorification of the Mother of God, to whom the temple is dedicated. The main texts of the Theotokos are illustrated: "Akathist of the Mother of God", "Praise of the Mother of God", "Rejoices in You", "Protection of the Virgin", multiple "Annunciation".

The proportions of the figures of Ferapont's frescoes are graceful and slender, the movements are restrained and slowed down, the motive of anticipation prevails, as in hagiographic icons. The authors of the temple painting actively use architectural and landscape backgrounds, but do not emphasize their perspective extent. Flatness is still the basis of their artistic thinking. Buildings and figures in Dionysian compositions seem to be floating in the air, devoid of volume and weight.

Researchers identify several stylistic groups, handwritings of the masters who performed the murals of the temple.

The most subtle and powerful author was the creator of the frescoes of the western portal. His compositions are the most rhythmic, slender figures are distinguished by grace, the palette is soft and harmonious. The head of the Ferapontov artel himself worked on painting the portal. The iconography of the main entrance to the temple determines the system of murals of the temple itself. This is a carpet, tiered arrangement of plots according to a given program of the Mother of God cycle, the theme of the akathist is the glorification of the Mother of God, the cult of martyrs, saints, and Christ. The western portal itself includes the image of "Deesis", in the scene of which the Mother of God is praying for the whole world before the throne of her son. Below are the "Nativity of the Virgin", "Scenes from Mary's childhood", on the sides of the portal are the figures of the archangels: Michael on the left and Gabriel on the right. In the painting of the portal, the distance of its foreshortening is taken into account, since the temple opens to travelers from the road.

Dionysius is a virtuoso master of fresco murals. His work is a whole era in Russian artistic culture. The art of Dionysius had a strong impact on painting, sewing and even sculpture in Moscow and other centers of Ancient Rus.

In the 16th century, two new aspirations began to appear in icon painting: on the one hand, the realistic direction was strengthened, on the other, the theological problems became much more complicated, which made it possible to introduce completely new themes into painting.

Artists happily dwell on numerous everyday details, genre scenes, but at the same time saturate their compositions with didactic edification, symbols and allegories.

The most significant monument of monumental painting of the first half of the 16th century is the painting of the Annunciation Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin. In 1508 it was decorated with murals by the son of Dionysius - Theodosius "with the brethren". The content of the Annunciation murals reflects the theme of the continuity of the power of the Moscow princes from the princes of Kiev, and through them from Byzantium.

The murals of the cathedral, compositionally close to the frescoes of the Ferapont Monastery, are more decorative in nature. It notes the features of the Feodosia ornament of herbs, branches, curls, known from a manuscript book of the first half of the 16th century. The author of the murals himself, the son of Dionysius Theodosius, completed the design of the "Gospel" (1507) for the treasurer of the Moscow Kremlin, Ivan Ivanovich Tretyakov.

The most interesting in terms of content were the paintings of the Golden Chamber of the Kremlin Palace (1547 - 1552), lost in the 18th century. All the "encyclopedic" compediums of Russia of that time were involved in drawing up the ideological problem of decorating the chamber. The main idea about Russia - "The Third Rome" was determined by the appeal to "The Legend of the Princes of Vladimir", to "Christian Topography" by Kuzma Indikoplov, "Explanatory Psalter". An inventory of the frescoes of the Golden Chamber was compiled by the outstanding 17th century artist Simon Ushakov.

The monumental art of the 16th century, which stepped over the thresholds of the temple to decorate secular buildings, was decisively acquiring a narrative, everyday, non-religious character. Love for the story, for moralizing plots, for allegory determined the innovations of icon painting.

In the middle of the 16th century, a famous work was created in the Kremlin - the icon-painting "The Militant Church". By its purpose, it is an adornment of a palace, not a temple. It publicistically affirms the state idea, the idea of ​​its unity and military power. The icon was painted after 1552, i.e. after the conquest of Kazan. The plot of the icon allegorically represents the apotheosis of Ivan the Terrible and the triumph of the church, which managed to neglect the glory of the earth and rewarded with the glory of heaven. The composition of the huge icon is divided into three parts. Each third depicts the movement of an army led by one or another saint. The color scheme of the icon is light, festive, elegant, pale-yellow, blue, pink, pearl-gray and light green tones alternate rhythmically in it.

Another famous icon of the 16th century, the so-called "Four Particles" of the Moscow Cathedral of the Annunciation, is distinguished by its theological and dogmatic allegories. The "four-part" icon, together with three other icons ("The Last Judgment", "The Foundation of the Church of the Resurrection", "The Passion of the Lord in Gospel Parables") was painted by Pskov artists: Ostani, Yakov, Mikhail, Yakushka and Semyon Vysokiy Glagol. These craftsmen, together with other craftsmen from different cities, were summoned to Moscow "for sovereign affairs" after the fire of 1547. Samples for the preparation of icons were indicated in the Trinity-Sergius Lavra and the Moscow Simonov Monastery. The priest of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Kremlin, Sylvester, who was close at that time to Tsar Ivan the Terrible, oversaw the creation of the icons. These icons and paintings gave rise to a kind of aesthetic dispute-conflict of the 16th century. The adversary was the clerk Viskovaty, who expressed doubts about the legitimacy of writing "at the human discretion of the image of the Lord God and our Savior, Jesus Christ," and next to the Savior, the image of a woman who "dances carelessly," and so on.

At the council, assembled on this occasion, the theological and aesthetic views of Metropolitan Macarius triumphed. Viskovaty was condemned as a heretic who “should not be asked about the deity and God's deeds”. At the same time, at the council in 1554, the division of painting into existential (historical) writing and parables was recognized.

By the 16th century, Moscow art acquired the character of a national affair. Provincial masters are summoned to the capital as needed. But even in these remote centers, icon-painting workshops are undergoing significant stylistic changes. Researchers talk about the emergence of new schools in Vologda, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod, etc. By the end of the 16th century, the original "Godunov" and "Stroganov" schools of painting were formed.

Sculpture and carving at the end of the 15th-16th centuries

The sculpture of the late 15th - 16th centuries is characterized by two directions: one is traditional, associated with the art of the 15th century; the other is innovative and realistic. The first is represented by a monument with a large number of bone icons - the Kilikievsky cross of Vologda. It is a flat relief of exquisite fine workmanship. The second direction is made up of reliefs that emerged from the workshop of Vasily Vasilyevich Ermolin: Our Lady of Hodegetria from the Trinity-Sergius Lavra (1462) and a fragment of the relief of St. George the Victorious from the Kremlin's Spassky Gate (1464). This is a plastic carving, in which the author reveals a desire for three-dimensional volume and bold foreshortenings of figures. The high relief of the sculpture of Our Lady and George is polychrome. The technique of polychromy connects the master with the traditions of icon painting.

The "Ermolinsky" style was reflected only in individual monuments, the first, the traditional direction, turned out to be officially recognized. "Tsarskoe mesto", or "Monomakh's throne" of 1551 from the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin stylistically corresponds to the long tradition of low relief. The architectural form of the throne is a cube covered with a tent. The legs of the royal place are the figures of four lying animals. The hipped top is decorated with slotted kokoshniks. Text illustrated in stamps is carved along the edge of the eaves of the tent and on the doors. The side walls of the throne are covered with reliefs "whose content is associated with the" Legend of the Princes of Vladimir. " , stone, bone .. By the nature of the interpretation of the form, they can be brought closer to the sculptural relief, by the thoroughness of the work, the miniature details - with the art of jewelry, especially since they all had frames made of precious materials.

Arts and crafts

Artistic crafts of a very different profile: tile, jewelry, sewing, etc. reach a high level of skill. The Armory Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin employs specialist jewelers, enamellers, chasers who masterfully master the most complex filigree techniques, cloisonné enamel, grain, chasing, etc.

Fabrics patiently embroidered by female embroiderers are precious examples of arts and crafts. This skill was possessed by both nuns and secular craftswomen. The monuments of Old Russian sewing that have survived to this day are mainly valuable memorable contributions of eminent people to parish and monastery churches. Functionally, sewing is associated with the place of attachment, these are objects of church use: shroud, shroud, shroud, air, banners and even embroidered iconostases. The graphic contour on the embroidered canvas could be applied by special artists-banners, and the master-embroiderer only “painted with a needle”. Gold threads, pearls, various precious stones were used in sewing. The image and patterns on sewing were laid with a silk colored thread, but the fabric was not sewn through, and the upper thread was attached with another silk thread. The technique of execution was named "in attachment" sewing.

In the middle of the 16th century, the most famous were the metropolitan workshops of Tsarina Anastasia Romanovna and Euphrosyne Staritskaya, the wife of Andrei Staritsky, a pretender to the royal throne.

The contributions of Anastasia Romanovna have been preserved in Suzdal, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Trinity-Sergius and Pskov-Pechersky monasteries. On the cover of the shrine of Sergius of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery there is an inscription about the contribution of 1557. The composition with the image of the Calvary cross and two crying angels is extremely simple. Colored silk threads are combined in a muted soft color scheme. The veil of the Pskov-Pechersky monastery, according to legend, was carried out by the queen herself. A slight deviation from the traditional plot is allowed: the shroud does not depict the crying of the grave, but the carrying of Christ in the burial shroud. The cover is embroidered with silk, silver and precious stones were not used in the work. The influence of the art of Dionysius is noticeable in the graphics of the lines and rhythms of the artistic works of the workshop of Anastasia Romanovna.

The work of the embroiderers at the Staritskys' workshop is different in nature. In Trinity-Sergiev, Kirillo-Belozersky, Volokolamsk monasteries there are samples of sewing with inscriptions about the contribution of the Staritskys. The Shroud of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra of 1561 is a striking monument of this workshop. Large figures of the composition of the funeral lamentation, a wide border along the perimeter of the canvas, including an inscription and round hallmarks, are the peculiarities of the style of this work. But the technical execution of the shroud is masterly: embroidery in silk, gold and silver, stitching in a soft colorful scale with overflows of halftones.

Just as in icon painting, by the end of the 16th century, the Godunov and Stroganov schools competed in the art of sewing. The first is distinguished by the luxury of the texture of the embroidered linen, which includes pearls and precious stones; the second prefers a less sophisticated technique and a modest tonal color, in which gold sounds "under the mute."

At the same time, just as in painting, local workshops, scattered in small Russian cities, metropolitan courts and monasteries, continue their traditions.

Dependence on the Horde khans disappeared, a Russian centralized state was formed, which, unlike the mononational states of Western Europe, was initially formed as a multinational state. For two and a half centuries, Muscovite Rus organically assimilated many of the ideas and principles of the Horde. This applies primarily to the idea of ​​autocracy, the features of which were borrowed by the Russian tsars. In this respect, we can say that the Moscow Tsar was the heir to the Mongol Khan.

Russian literature of the 16th century.

Literature that time testifies to profound transformative processes that swept all spheres of Russian society. In addition to traditional annals and hagiographies, fiction and books with entertaining plots appear. Among them should be called the translated "Alexandria" about the life and adventures of Alexander the Great and "The Tale of Dracula", written by the clerk Fyodor Kuritsyn. These books talked about autocratic rulers, a strong government capable of holding the state in their hands.

The idea of ​​autocracy was clearly and strictly substantiated in philosophical and socio-political writings. Among them, a special place is occupied by the teaching of Elder Philotheus about Moscow as the "third Rome", which he set out in his letters to Basil III. Philotheus used the idea of ​​a "wandering kingdom" that had arisen back in Byzantium, according to which Orthodox Constantinople, which replaced the old Rome, occupies the central place in the Christian world. Therefore, it is natural that in the period of the crisis of the Byzantine Empire and its subsequent fall in Russia, there is a view of the Moscow Orthodox kingdom as inheriting the historical mission of Byzantium. According to Philotheus, the Russian kingdom is the only Orthodox kingdom in the world, the keeper of Orthodox shrines. Only Moscow remained faithful to Orthodoxy and therefore is the world center of Christianity. Hence the idea of ​​the messianic role of Russia, which, while preserving the true Christian faith, preserving true spirituality, saves the world from evil and filth. Moscow is destined to be a stronghold of truly universal Christianity until the second coming of Christ. "Two Romes have fallen, the third is standing, and the fourth will never be."

The rise of Moscow put an end to feudal fragmentation and contributed to the cultural rapprochement of the principalities.

Russian architecture of the 16th century

Moscow architecture borrowed the traditions of Vladimir-Suzdal and Pskov-Novgorod architecture. The new position of the city required the development of monumental construction.

Moscow Kremlin became an architectural symbol of state power, its walls began to be erected at the end of the 15th century. in the reign of Ivan III. Milanese engineers Pietro Antonio Solari, Marco Ruffo, Anton Fryazin (real name Antonio Gilardi) and others were invited to rebuild the Kremlin. Tainitskaya, Vodovzvodnaya, Spasskaya and Borovitskaya towers were erected under their leadership. Inviting foreign masters, Ivan III wanted to use the latest achievements of European engineering, but not forget national traditions. Therefore, the builders almost completely preserved the old layout of the walls, making them even more majestic and high. Brick walls with a total length of more than 2 km with 18 towers turned out to be not only a formidable fortress, but also a wonderful piece of architecture. After the completion of the walls and towers in 1515, the Kremlin became one of the best fortresses in Europe. The Kremlin almost completely repeated the plan of the fortress of Dmitry Donskoy, new cathedrals began to be erected mainly on the sites of old temples built under Ivan Kalita. Moscow, as it were, emphasized its ancient ties. The old churches were dilapidated and cramped and did not correspond to the increased political importance of the capital.

New Assumption Cathedral was called to become the main temple of the Moscow state and outshine Novgorod Sophia with its grandeur. For the construction of the cathedral, the architect Fioravanti, nicknamed by Aristotle for "building wisdom", was invited from Italy. He was asked to take the Vladimir Assumption Cathedral as a model, since the Moscow tsars considered themselves the heirs of the Vladimir princes. In a short time, the talented master managed to understand the beauty and logic of Old Russian architecture and, having introduced the most significant Old Russian forms into the building, creatively combined them with his Renaissance ideas. In the Moscow Dormition Cathedral, Fioravanti repeated the main features of the Vladimir Cathedral: a domed dome, an iozakomarny covering, an arcature belt on the facades, and perspective portals. However, the Moscow cathedral gives the impression of a more monolithic, more majestic, which corresponded to the idea of ​​statehood at that time.

Cathedral of the Archangel The Kremlin was erected on the central square and became the tomb of the Moscow tsars. Its construction was supervised by the Italian architect Aleviz New, who, while retaining the traditional forms and plan of the Russian five-domed church with choirs, used the magnificent architectural details of the Venetian Cinquecento in the exterior decoration. A cornice-belt on the walls, Corinthian pilasters, zakomaras decorated with white shells, organically combined with Russian architectural traditions, without violating the traditional appearance of the Orthodox church.

Blagoveshchensky cathedral The Moscow Kremlin was built by Russian craftsmen and served as the home church of the grand dukes and the royal family, therefore it was directly connected with the palace chambers. The building of the cathedral fully meets Russian architectural traditions, and its external appearance combines features of various architectural schools: from Pskov in it there are decorative belts on drums and a high iodclet; The Vladi-Miro-Suzdal school manifested itself in the columnar belts on the apses and drums; Moscow architectural element - the decoration of the building with kokoshniks with a keeled end in the center.

Russian masters, faced with Western European art, abandoned it in favor of searching for an independent path due to the collision of new ideas with the old canons that Russian culture lived by. This period in Russian culture is called the Pre-Renaissance, but in the 16th century. there was its modification, expressed, in particular, in new types of temples, which are beginning to be built in Russia. Thus, hipped-roof (pillar-like structure with a tent-shaped top) and pillar-like temples appeared.

Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye is the most famous tent-roofed temple. This is a truly Russian building in all forms, breaking with the usual image of the Byzantine cross-domed church. The composition of the church consists of four main elements: a basement, a powerful quadrangle with ledges - porches forming a cruciform plan, an octagon and a tent with a dome. The Temple of the Ascension, light, directed upward, surprisingly harmonious, at the same time solemnly monumental. In addition to the original architectural idea, the building amazed contemporaries with its architectural decor - capitals, cornices and the ornamental pattern of the brickwork of the tent itself.

Church of the Intercession of the Virgin on the Moat, better known to the whole world as St. Basil's Cathedral, is an equally remarkable architectural monument of the 16th century. It was built by Russian architects Barmoya Postnik in honor of the conquest of the Kazan Khanate.

The architectural ensemble of the cathedral, which has a complex star-shaped shape in plan, consists of nine pillar-like temples of different height: the central hipped-roof church is surrounded by eight others. All its parts rise from a single powerful stone platform and are connected by a gallery-gulbisch. The original color scheme of the building was formed by the combination of red brick with carved white decorative stone, in which the sparkling chapters, covered with white iron, and the colored majolica decorations of the central tent were in harmony. The ornate onion domes of the cathedral appeared at the end of the 16th century, and the flowery painting in the 17th-18th centuries.

Russian painting of the 16th century

Moscow painting represented by the largest artist of the era Dionysius. He was not a monk, he had two sons who worked with him. The most important among the surviving creations of the master is the cycle of murals on the Nativity Cathedral of the Ferapontov Monastery (Vologda Oblast), which has come down to us almost completely. The temple is dedicated to the image of the Mother of God, and this glorification becomes the leitmotif of the icon painter's works. In the temple there are three large solemn compositions - "The Cathedral of the Virgin", "Otebe rejoices" and "The Protection of the Virgin". They are written on the themes of the church chants of the same name, together making up the "akathist" (a cycle of songs in honor of the Mother of God). In the center of each composition there is a figure of the Mother of God sitting with a baby on her knees or standing with a veil in her hands against the background of a high five-domed cathedral. Saints and mere mortals praising the Theotokos settled around. Bright colorful combinations, variegated patterns of clothing and architecture, an iridescent halo around the Mother of God create a festive, solemn impression. In the second tier of frescoes stretching along the walls and pillars of the central part of the temple, the akathist to the Mother of God is illustrated in detail - a chant that is always listened to while standing. The slender, dark cherry silhouette of Mary repeating in each composition against the background of pale pink and golden hills or buildings gives the cycle of frescoes a semantic, compositional and coloristic unity. The painting makes a particularly solemn and joyful impression in the morning and in the evening, when the sun looks into the windows of the temple.

In painting of the XVI century. the symbolic beginning, the desire for abstract "philosophizing", the interpretation of the most important Christian dogmas in artistic images, is even stronger. New trends in painting took shape in an independent direction by the 1540s. In this respect, the paintings of the Kremlin chambers, including the Faceted ones, are evidence. The depicted cosmic spaces (air, sun, moon, earth, angels), as well as the paths of human life (Savior, evangelists, the gates of heaven, earthly, fiery, lunar and temporal circles) were accompanied by allegorical images, some of which were sometimes quite frivolous. Such murals required a wise reading, therefore, certain knowledge. At the same time, it is possible to combine symbolic and cosmological pictures, abstract religious ideas with specific images drawn from life itself. The plot of the Trinity often turns into an everyday scene with a table set diagonally. Such a decrease, a simplification of canonical images caused a response from the zealots of antiquity, which ultimately led to an increase in church regulation of artistic creativity and the prohibition to write according to one's own design, the strict icon-painting canon, which came from the Greeks and Andrei Rublev, was once again confirmed.

For icon painting of the 16th century. the exaltation of official political ideas by means of art was also characteristic. This is how the famous icon "Militant Church" or "Blessed is the army of the Heavenly King" appeared. It depicts the return of the Russian army after the Kazan victory. The main idea of ​​the work is clear - the apotheosis of the Moscow army under the leadership of Ivan the Terrible. But the allegorical form of expressing the idea of ​​the Kazan victory and the triumph of Moscow does not drown neither the feeling of wildlife with its wide space, nor the vital forces of the human military crowd, divided into three horizontally extended streams. This icon actually brings you close to the secular picture.

Secular genres at this time are actively developing. Various world-power theories, universal and cosmological concepts of the idea of ​​statehood, as well as dynastic interests contributed to the formation of a sense of historicism, increasingly freed from the allegorical form. In the painting of the Golden Chamber of the Kremlin Palace there were many compositions of a historical nature: the baptism of Rus, the history of the royal regalia of Vladimir Monomakh, Monomakh's campaign against Constantinople, etc. In the painting of the Faceted Chamber, Rurik's genealogy, the history of the division of the Kiev land by Prince Vladimir, etc. were developed.

Music. In the XV-XVI centuries. the idea of ​​angelic singing was rethought, with which monophonic unison singing was associated. This happened simultaneously with a change in icon painting, in which, starting from the 15th century. the iconography of the Trinity is actively developing. As Rublev's Trinity became the highest expression of theological teaching, so the idea of ​​trinity was expressed in Russian church music by a special form of polyphony - three lines. This singing got its name from the recording system: the voices were recorded alternately line by line in red and black, one above the other, and formed into a multi-colored score. The main one of the voices was the middle one - "the way", as it led the melody of the znamenny chant. Above it was the "top" - a duplicate voice, below it - "bottom". For a long time in Russia the custom of entrusting the most important chants, especially those of many years, to three youths, who were called executors (from the gr. The prototype of the three-line singing, apparently, was the biblical story from the book of the prophet Daniel about three youths who did not want to bow to the golden image, for which they were thrown into a fiery furnace by King Nebuchadnezzar, but sang a song of thanksgiving to God and were saved by angels who came down from heaven.

The creation of three-line singing belongs to the chanters Savva and Vasily Rogov, Novgorod masters who were considered the most authoritative musicians of Moscow in the second half of the 16th century.

The traditional znamenny chant has also changed. Remaining within the boundaries of monophonic choral singing, Russian singers managed to create several new chants. For example, a road banner arose, with which the stichera were performed, accompanying various kinds of church processions. At the end of the XVI century. a large chant appeared, characterized by the inexhaustibility of melodic richness. A new phenomenon was the demestny chant, distinguished by the magnificence, splendor and pomp of sound. Its name is associated with the position of choir choir director - a domestic who kept in memory melodies that were not subject to traditional laws.

The development of Russian singing culture led to the appearance in Moscow of a choir of sovereign singing clerks. It was divided into several groups of singers - stanitsa. The choir was headed by the choir leader. The choir also had an instructor, distinguished by a good voice (usually baritone) and who knew the liturgical rules; he was in charge of training young singers and taking care of order. This choir has existed under various names for over 300 years.

Noticeable shifts are taking place in the cultural life of Russia. Local cultural traditions are gradually fading into the past, giving way to general Russian tendencies. "Observation horizon" phenomena of public life among cultural figures is expanding. Yes, and opportunities, monetary, political and psychological, within the framework of a large state, naturally, have increased. The motives of patriotism and national pride are even more weighty and sonorous. At the same time, along with acquisitions, there were also losses - the mighty breath of the creators of the era of the Kulikovo battle disappeared (A. Rublev and F. Grek, chronicles and legends about the fight against the Horde), the growing and deadening influence of autocratic tyranny and the extremes of serfdom, oprichnina terror on the cultural environment of Russian society. The culture of that era is developing in contradictions and struggles.

Folklore of the late 15th - 16th centuries ... There are no records of oral-poetic folk art of this time. But some literary works, documents, for example Stoglav, conciliar epistles, etc., are mentioned about folk songs, merrymaking.

The events of that glorious era were reflected in fairy tales. So, in "The Tale of Borma-Yaryzhka" its hero, a simple Russian man, obtains for Tsar Ivan the Terrible signs of royal dignity in Babylon City. A similar plot developed in , but it is about the regalia for the Byzantine emperor. Russian fairy tale remakes this plot, adapts it "for yourself", some of its variants associate the receipt of the regalia by the tsar with the capture of Kazan.

Other tales glorify the mind, the sharpness of people from the people ( "Smart Boy Judge", "Fire serpent", "Wise maiden" and others), some tales were included in "The Tale of Peter and Fevronia"(about a peasant girl who became the wife of a prince).

In proverbs and songs, sayings and riddles, words and teachings, live folk speech, well-aimed and sharp, was reflected. These are, for example, the proverbs that he wrote in his message to the elders of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery: "The king pays, but the huntsman does not favor", "Give freedom to the king, to the other and to the hound".

In the second half of the century, a large number of fairy tales idealize the image of Ivan the Terrible as a fighter against the boyars, "Peasant" a king, a defender of the poor, a just judge, and so on. The genre of the historical song flourishes. In them, the people glorify the capture of Kazan, especially the heroes of the assault - gunners. Ermak in the eyes of singers and the people is an ideal Cossack hero. In the song about Kostryuk-Mastryuk, a simple Russian, "Inhabited country bumpkin", wins the visiting braggart of Prince Kostryuk in single combat. The image of the latter reflected the real features of the tsar's brother-in-law, the brother of his wife, Prince Dmitry Mamstryukovich Cherkassky. The people, on the one hand, sing of the Tsar for military exploits, reprisals against the boyars; on the other, notes his cruel disposition; on the whole, he supports for the defense of a united Russia - "Moscow kingdom", "Stone Moscow" how "The middle of the kingdom of Russia".

The people in their creativity are proud of the strong; his sons - peasants and artisans - are beginning to realize themselves not only faceless "The people of God", but also real people with earthly concerns, joys and sorrows.

Education. As before, monasteries remained centers of literacy and education. In them and in churches, especially in the metropolitan and episcopal courts, there were libraries of manuscript, later and printed books, sometimes very significant (for example, in Solovetsky, Trinity-Sergiev, Joseph-Volokolamsky, Kirillo-Belozersky, Rostov and other monasteries, in St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, etc.).

"Masters of Literacy" appear in cities and villages. Children and adults studied with them. Famous spiritual leaders Zosima of Solovetsky and Alexander Svirsky studied in the Obonezh villages, Anthony of Syria - in a village near the White Sea, Simeon, Archbishop of Novgorod - in his native village near Moscow, etc. The teachers were monks and clerks. Boyars and nobles put their signatures on many acts; to a lesser extent - peasants and townspeople.

They taught first the alphabet, then the Book of Hours (prayers, liturgical texts for the hours of the church service), the letter, the Psalter (the psalms of King David). This usually ended the teaching. Those who are richer managed to continue it - next in line were "Apostle", The gospel. Mathematical wisdom boiled down to counting to a thousand and further, addition and subtraction, multiplication and division were less common.

Texts and numbers were learned by heart and aloud, in the common school room, and therefore it was filled with noise and discord. For negligence, the teacher, in accordance with custom, could and should "Crush the ribs", "Increase the frequency of wounds" to his disciples. The same goal is for suggestion "Book wisdom"- served and "Soul-saving" rod. But even then they speak and write with encouragement about didascals - teachers who "Yours for teaching, so that the cunning was and reasonable mind, and meaningful, and not a rude person".

But, obviously, in real life we ​​met, depending on the circumstances and character of the teachers, both. No wonder Domostroy includes teachings that are mutually exclusive: "Do not faint, baby bey", “Teaching children, love and take care of them”... V "Bees", collections of moralizing content, one can find common thoughts about raising children and educators: "Let the teacher conquer the student with his temper, and not with his word".

Grammar guides appeared - the works of Maxim the Greek: "The beginning of the Greek and Russian literacy", "Preface about the Bukovitsa, Reksha about the ABC", "Conversation about teaching to read and write ...", "Telling by a literate degree" etc. Knowledgeable people highly respected grammar, it is said in "Azbukovnik" the end of the 16th century, "Base and sole of all free tricks".

In this century, the first textbook on arithmetic appears - "A book, recomma in Greek Arithmetic, and in German Algorism, and in Russian tsyfir counting wisdom"... According to a simple calculus system ( "Small number") studied units, tens, hundreds, thousands, tens of thousands (darkness), hundreds of thousands (legions), millions (leodra), according to a complex system ( "Great Slovenian number") - millions (also - darkness), trillions (also - legions), trillions of trillions (also - leodra, another name - septillions), crows (leodra leodr - a number of 49 digits). Fractions (known as far back as the 11th century) are also studied at this time; the numerator was called "Top number", the denominator is "Underneath".

Under Ivan IV, Fyodor Ivanovich, some young people were sent to Constantinople to study Greek and grammar. Traveled "parobki" with similar goals and in European countries.

Some noble people collected libraries of handwritten books in their homes. Tsar Ivan the Terrible had a large collection of such books. Where his library went is unknown. Maybe she is walled up in the Kremlin dungeons. Or the books included in it were later sold to other libraries, for example, the Metropolitan's, later - the Patriarch's, and others.

The appearance of book printing was of pivotal importance for enlightenment. Even under Ivan III, Bartholomew Gotan, the first printer in Lubeck, tried to print books in Russia. But the first experiment failed. More than half a century later, in the mid-50s. XVI century, the first books of the so-called "Hopeless press"(did not have a designation of the place and year of publication) appeared in Moscow. It was then that Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich started a printing house. 10 years later, on April 1, 1564, Ivan Fedorov published in it "Apostle"... Then followed "Book of Hours" and others, books. Two years later Fedorov moved to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and died in Lvov in 1583. Here he continued his beloved work. Among other books "Drukar Muscovitin"(a Moscow printer), as he was called in the Ukraine, published the first printed Russian Primer “for the benefit of the Russian people,” as he wrote in the afterword.

In Moscow, books were published by the collaborators and followers of Ivan Fedorov (Andronic Nevezha and others); in total, about 20 books of theological content have appeared. A big step forward has been made in teaching and enlightenment.

Scientific knowledge. The elements of scientific knowledge, multiplying from century to century, were of an applied nature. So, the need for accurate accounting of land and the calculation of taxes from them gave rise to a complex system of soshny writing - the same amount of money was taken from the plow, that is, from a certain amount of land, which was not the same for different classes.

Gennady, Archbishop of Novgorod, Metropolitan Zosima in Moscow and their assistants at the end of the 15th century. compiled special tables for Easter, indicating the dates of Easter and other holidays by year. Later, Agathon, priest of St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, prepared a manuscript of the work "Peaceful circle", continued Gennadiy's tables. In the middle of the XVI century, the same was done by Ermolai-Erasmus, the author "Sighted Easter"... Translated works "Sixwing", "Cosmography" made it possible to calculate lunar phases, eclipses of the Sun and Moon.

Knowledge in the field of physics and technology was required by the foundry masters in the manufacture of guns, arquebuses, including rifled guns, created in Russia. The same is with the construction of buildings, stone and wooden, sometimes very high, up to 50-60 m; in this matter, one cannot do without accurate calculations, knowledge of building statics, technology.

Salting and potash production, medical and icon painting required knowledge of applied chemistry, medicine, and they are reflected in recipe manuscripts, herbalists (herbs, their healing properties, the preparation of medicines from them).

Geographical knowledge can be studied from documents of that time - scribes and landmarks, from ambassadorial and category books; by cards ( "Drawings") and unsubscriptions of service people, chronicles and descriptions of travelers, Russians and foreigners.

Historical knowledge is reflected in chronicles and chronographs, stories and legends; knowledge of the language - in various dictionaries ( "Speeches of the subtleties of the Greek", "Sense of the Polovtsian language", "Se Tatar language", dictionary of Slavic words, etc.).

In the second half of the XVI century. this applied knowledge is multiplied and complicated. For example, the construction of the Intercession Cathedral (Basil the Blessed) on Red Square in Moscow, a very complex structure, could not do without theoretical information on mechanics and mathematics. The same - with the casting of powerful cannons that accompanied the Russian armies on campaigns to Kazan, Livonia, etc.

In the second half of the 16th - early 17th century. detailed manuals on salting appeared ( "Painting how to conceive to make a new pipe in a new place"), on clerical business (1556), article "About the earthly layout, how to layout the earth"(calculus of the area of ​​squares, straight and triangles, parallelograms, trapezoids).

V "Walking" the authors described the countries they visited; such is, for example, the visit of the ambassador and merchant Vasily Poznyakov, who visited Constantinople and Mount Athos, Jerusalem and Egypt (1558-1561). And even earlier, in 1525, diplomat and translator Dmitry Gerasimov, in a conversation with Pavel Iovy Povokomsky, said: China and India can be reached not only by the warm southern seas, but also by the Arctic Ocean. He described the conversation in his treatise on Russia, and they learned about it in Western Europe. There, as if under the influence of these messages, an expedition was equipped, a member of which R. Chancellor came to Russia. Ivan the Terrible promised a reward to whoever finds "Sea route to China and India".

Russian literatureXV - XVI centuries ... Historical and political thought. There was a noticeable rise in this area. In the annals, stories and legends, the ideas of the greatness of the grand ducal and royal power, the world role of Russia are developed. As stated in "Chronograph"(review of world history) 1512, after the conquest of Byzantium by the Turks and others "Kingdoms" they are in "Put desolation sha and subdue sha under your rule", "Our Russian land ... is growing and younger and rises".

"Tale of the Babylonian Kingdom" with their idea of ​​the continuity of the power of the Byzantine emperors from the rulers of Babylon on Russian soil, they are supplemented by the version about the transfer of Monomakh's cap, porphyry and scepter by the Byzantine emperor Leo to the Grand Duke of Kiev Vladimir Monomakh: "... and to this day that cap of Monomakhov in the Russian state, in the God-protected in the reigning city of Moscow".

"The Legend of the Princes of Vladimir" early 16th century deduces the genealogy of the Moscow rulers from Augustus, Roman Caesar. This is how the autocracy and the sovereignty of the power of the Russian monarchs were exalted. This was used both in subsequent journalism and in political practice. "Tsar's place" Ivan the Terrible, for example, on one of the locks has a thread with a story about the sending of the cap of Monomakh from Byzantium. And Grozny himself, in a letter to the Swedish king, argued without a shadow of a doubt: "We are by kinship from Augustus Caesar".

The same or similar ideas are developed in the letters of Philotheus, abbot of the Pskov Eleazarov Monastery, to Vasily III, in "The Tale of the White Hood", "The Story of the Beginning of Moscow", chronicle vaults of the XVI century.

In the writings of heretic freethinkers at the turn of the 15th - 16th centuries ( "Heresy of the Judaizing"), especially their left, radical, wing, the main dogmas of the Christian doctrine were denied - the Trinity of God, the virgin birth, communion, the need for icons, the very institution of the church. The heretics criticized bribery and other vices of the clergy. The more moderate wing claimed only free thinking in literature and scientific pursuits.

The humanistic, rationalistic ideas of heretics, their criticism of ecclesiastical and monastic land tenure, and acquisitiveness at first aroused sympathy even among the Grand Duke Ivan III. But in the end, the Orthodox Church, led by Joseph Sanin, prevailed! hegumen of the Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery, whom the grand ducal authorities considered the best support for themselves than heretics. The Church Council of 1504 condemned the latter, some of them were executed.

Ideas "Non-acquisitiveness" the Trans-Volga elders (monks of the Trans-Volga monasteries), led by Nil Sorsky, also developed. They denounced the desire to appropriate the labor of others' hands, love of money, gluttony, pride, vanity and other vices. They preached humility, contemplative life, moral self-improvement. Monks, according to their teachings, must earn food by their labor, not have land and peasants, and abandon worldly vanity and money-grubbing. Joseph Volotsky spoke about something else: "The wealth of the churches is the wealth of God".

The struggle between the Josephites and the non-possessors continued after the death of their leaders (Joseph died in 1525, the Nile in 1508). Iosiflyan was headed by Metropolitan Daniel, the non-possessors - by the monk-prince Vassian Patrikeev Kosoy (princes Golitsyns, Kurakins, Khovansky and others came from the Patrikeevs clan). The latter were joined by Maxim the Greek (Mikhail Trivolis), a learned monk from Mount Athos, who arrived in Moscow in 1518. They found support among the opposition boyars and paid for it: church councils in 1525 and 1531. condemned them, and they ended up in exile. Their denunciations of the church, and thus of the secular authorities, references to the plight of the peasants were in keeping with the topical sentiments of Russian society.

Stories and legends tell about the most important events of that era - the annexation of Novgorod the Great and other Russian lands to Moscow, Tsar Ivan the Terrible and his deeds, the struggle of Russia with foreign invaders (for example, "The Tale of the Molodinsky Battle" 1572, "The story of the passage of Stefan Batory to Pskov" in 1581, etc.).

A galaxy of talented publicists is working in the 16th century. F.I. Karpov, a highly educated person (knew Latin, Greek, Oriental languages), the falconer of Vasily III, grieved over the imperfection of society, secular power: "Now there is strife everywhere, now they live from theft", "I understood what harmful and unwanted paths, lame feet, with blind eyes the earthly power and the whole human race are now walking"... The rulers should, in his conviction, bring to the world "The truth, to root out the wicked who do not want to be healed and love God".

In the middle of the century, many publicists sharply and passionately discuss the problems of autocracy and the organization of the state, boyars and the position of the peasants. I. S. Peresvetov is a supporter of a strong royal power, its support "Warriors"- nobles and restrictions on the rights of boyars, centralization of government. He wrote: "The king cannot be without a thunderstorm: like a horse under the king without a bridle, so is a kingdom without a thunderstorm"... He is a supporter "Truth" ("God loves not faith, but truth"), "Books", "Wisdom", an opponent of servitude, enslaving dependence, "Which land is enslaved, in that land evil is created ... the whole kingdom is a great impoverishment".

Ermolai-Erasmus, a priest of one of the churches of the Moscow Kremlin, calls to alleviate the situation of the peasants, for, as he says: "Ploughmen are most useful, their works create the most important wealth".

Sylvester, Archpriest of the Annunciation Cathedral in the same Kremlin, in the messages, "Domostroy"(he owns the final edition of the monument) preaches rational management, obtaining "Correct acquisition"(arrived).

The second half of the century was marked by a vivid, emotional correspondence between the Tsar of Terrible and the fugitive prince A.M. Kurbsky. To the first of these also belong messages to many other persons, secular and spiritual; the second - "The story of the Grand Duke of Moscow" and other compositions. The tsar proceeds in his judgments from the idea of ​​the power of the autocrat being disposed of by God, its unlimitedness: “We are free to grant favor to our slaves (all subjects - V. B.), and I am free to execute”.

Kurbsky is the enemy "Ferocity" king, who, according to him, should reign with "Wise counselors"... As a follower of the non-possessors (he was a student of Maxim the Greek), the prince opposes the Josephite clergy. Oprichnina is criticized, along with Kurbsky, Korniliy, the abbot of the Pskov-Pechersky monastery, the compiler of the Pskov chronicle collection of 1567, the authors of the story about the defeat of Novgorod by the tsar of Terrible in 1570, inserted into the Novgorod chronicle.

In the XVI century. compiled one after another large chronicle collections - Vologda-Perm, Voskresensky, Nikonovsky, etc. They include, in addition to the previous collections, stories, legends, and extensive documents. In the second half of the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the so-called obverse vault was compiled - the Nikon Chronicle was adorned with almost 16 thousand miniature illustrations (“faces”, hence the name of the vault). In it, the history of Russia is conducted from ancient times to the mid-50s. XVI century This grandiose monument, like others, affirms the ideas of the greatness of the Russian autocracy, its centralizing policy. The same are the ideas underlying the Book of Degrees (1562-1563, the author is Athanasius, who came out of the circle of Metropolitan Macarius), Kazan History (Kazan Chronicler, mid-60s), Cheti-Miney (collection of the lives of Russian saints, arranged by months of the year).

At the end of the century, there are heavyweight in style "The Story of the Honorable Life of Tsar Fyodor"(the author is the patriarch Job), "Life of Metropolitan Philip"... The compilation of chronicles continues, although not as extensive as before.

Russian architectureXV - XVI centuries ... This era was characterized by a significant rise in the art of building. At the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. the Kremlin ensemble in Moscow is being formed - walls and towers, cathedrals and the Faceted Chamber. They were erected by Italian architects (Aristotle Fioravanti, Pietro Solari, Marco Ruffo, Aleviz Novy, etc.) and Russian masters (Vasily Dmitrievich Ermolin and others). They used the traditions of Old Russian, primarily Vladimir-Suzdal, architecture, as well as the techniques of Italian architecture of the Renaissance.

Fortifications in the first half of the century were built in Nizhny Novgorod, Tula, Zaraisk, Kolomna. The wall of Kitai-Gorod (1530s) and the Novodevichy Convent (1525) appear in the capital.

In church architecture, a tent-roofed temple, modeled on wooden churches ( "For woodwork"). The most outstanding example of this style is the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye (1532), built to commemorate the birth of Ivan the Terrible. A contemporary chronicler could not restrain a sense of admiration, writing down the news about this architectural miracle in his work: "Velma is wonderful in height and beauty, and lordship, the same has not been before this in Russia".

Throughout the century, timber construction continues to prevail. In addition to the ubiquitous huts, mansions of rich people are being built, sometimes very complex in plan and bizarre in shape. Such are the mansions of the Stroganovs, eminent merchants, in Solvychegodsk (1565).

In stone architecture, the Russian national style is clearly expressed in the nine tent buildings of St. Basil's Cathedral. It was erected on the occasion of the capture of Kazan in 1552.

They continue to build cathedrals and fortress walls in monasteries - Solovetsky, Trinity-Sergiev, and others. In Moscow, the White City was surrounded by a wall, within the modern Boulevard Ring.

Following the example of the Moscow Assumption Cathedral in Vologda, St. Sophia Cathedral is being built (1568-1570). And in Vyazyomy, west of Moscow, in the estate of Boris Godunov, a majestic five-domed church of the Holy Trinity appears; later they began to call him Preobrazhensky.

Extensive construction throughout Russia made it necessary to create a special institution - the Order of Stone Affairs (1580s). He organized construction work, on a very large scale (calling workers from different cities, procurement of building materials).

Russian paintingXV - XVI ... At the turn of the XV - XVI centuries. in icon painting and fresco painting, Dionysius with his sons and associates became famous. They own the icons of the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin, the frescoes of the Ferapontov Monastery. They attract with their colorfulness, decorativeness, magnificent solemnity. The icon painting of the Novgorod school is distinguished by its greater laconicism and severity.

In painting, the predominance of the Moscow school is increasing. Genre motives are more and more penetrating into icon painting, there are elements of realism. This is even more typical for the second half of the 16th century.

Painting is becoming more and more a matter of state. The church after the Stoglava Cathedral in 1551 strengthens the supervision of icon painters. Icon "Militant Church"(mid-16th century) in allegorical form sings, the Russian army, the young autocrat. The paintings of the Golden Chamber in the Kremlin (1547-1552) are dedicated to historical events. For example, the frescoes of the Faceted Chamber, telling about Joseph the Beautiful, tell about.

At the end of the XVI century. icons become famous "Stroganov letter"... They are distinguished by their diminutiveness, subtlety and gracefulness of drawing, decorativeness and festivity. Moscow masters Prokopiy Chirin, Istoma Savin and other “tsarist icon painters” worked in this manner. They often performed icons on the orders of the eminent people of the Stroganovs. Their own masters from their former serfs in Solvychegodsk also worked for them. This school also existed in the 17th century, under its influence many masters subsequently worked, including in the famous Palekh.

The craving for decorativeness and virtuosity, sophistication and splendor is characteristic of the painting of this era. There is, on the one hand, an increase in skill and technical excellence; on the other, the loss of depth, monumentality, and the broad breath of painting by A. Rublev and F. Grek.

Everyday lifelate 15th - 16th centuries ... The extensive construction of temples and monasteries, palaces and towers caused a desire to decorate them with items of applied art. The masters of that time made frames of amazing beauty and subtlety for books and icons with filigree (filigree) and basma embossing. From the end of the 15th century. the flourishing of the art of enamel, forgotten in.

In church use, products with artistic sewing were often used - hanging shrouds and tombstones, shroud and "Air"... They were usually made of silk, gold and silver, in "Picturesque style"(combination of multi-colored tones, dark and light, brightness and colorfulness).

The book miniatures depicted scenes from the Old and New Testaments, the lives of the saints, the events of Russian history. Illustrations of the Observatory of the Chronicle and the collection of the lives of the saints of Chetia-Minea are rightfully considered masterpieces of Russian miniature art. Illustrations in printed editions are marked with splendor and decorativeness.

In the second half of the XVI century. outstanding examples of sewing came from the workshop of the Staritsky princes ( "Shroud" "Appearance of the Mother of God to Sergius of Radonezh"). Ksenia Godunova, the daughter of Tsar Boris, skillfully embroidered on Spanish and Venetian velvet.

All these products were prepared for wealthy people who had considerable means and extensive premises for housing or church services.

Noble people lived in mansions, usually two-story, with different outbuildings, residential and economic, for themselves, courtyards, cattle and poultry. The houses were mostly wooden, but there were also stone ones. They are filled with cellars with utensils of silver and copper, pewter and glass; chests with clothes, jewelry (rings, earrings, etc.). There were sometimes clocks on the walls. There were foreign fabrics, adornments, dishes, clothes; oriental footwear, carpets, weapons. Even greater splendor is inherent in royal palaces and courtyards.

The nobles even then began, in the Western manner, to cut their hair short, shave or pluck out the mustache and beard.

The meals were plentiful and varied. Spices were used for seasoning: pepper and saffron, cinnamon and cloves. We were familiar with lemons, raisins, almonds, rice and sugar.

Noble people had fun at feasts with buffoons, playing folk instruments, dancing. No matter how the church persecuted "Demonic games", it was difficult to get them out. Were carried away by bear baiting, "Horse rippling", hound and falconry. At home they played dice and cards, checkers and chess.

Folk songs and church music served another side of spiritual needs. In the XVI century. polyphonic church chants came from Novgorod to Moscow and other regions of Russia. The Russian people also loved the bell ringing. New instruments (organs, harpsichords, clavichords) and Western European music penetrate into the life of the nobility from abroad.

Ordinary nobles lived more modestly. The bulk of the population - peasants - lived in wooden huts, covered with straw or shit; there were cages for property, cattle sheds, sheds. The huts were drowned in black, illuminated with torches. In winter, small livestock and poultry were placed in them.

The furnishings in the hut were very sparse: wooden, crudely made tables and benches; a dress was kept in chests and boxes (among the poor they hung it on poles propped against the wall). In the summer they wore clothes made of home canvas, in the winter they wore clothes made of homespun cloth and lamb fur, bast bast shoes on their feet, and for those who were richer, boots. Dishes - wooden and earthenware: dishes and plates, ladles, ladles, bowls, cups, broths, wooden spoons and clay pots, occasionally - pots and pans made of iron and copper.

Bread and pies, jelly, beer and kvass were made from grain and flour; ate cabbage, fresh and sauerkraut, carrots and cucumbers, beets and horseradish, radishes and turnips. The meat was on the table mainly on holidays. They ate a lot of fish, river and lake.

Similar to the peasants, but with the more prosperous, the townspeople lived in cities. The courtyard often consisted of an upper room, which stood on a porch, a porch for a porch, a cage for a porch, a bathhouse; it is surrounded by a tynom with a gate that had a canopy. There were mica and "Glassy" window. In the house, among other things, there were icons, sometimes richly decorated, a lot of dishes, including silver, and clothes, sometimes of fur. Guests, large trading people lived richly - stone chambers, a large number of dishes, gold and silver, and other property.

Festivities with songs, dances, buffoonery performances gave working people the opportunity to take a break from work. Folk performers - singers, like all buffoons, were professionals. From them, peasants and townspeople heard historical and lyrical, satirical and ritual songs. The singing was accompanied by accompaniment on instruments: wind instruments - pipes and horns, snuffs and flutes, bagpipes, trumpets and surnas; strings - psaltery, beeps, balalaikas; percussion - tambourines and rattles.

Elements of the theater, drama contained Christmas games, carnival, winter and summer farewell. Their participants put on masks, staged dressing up, mimic performances, dramatic performances, staged riddles. In round dance songs, at weddings, a kind of performances were played with a large number of characters, certain roles, a strict ritual (matchmaking, arm-wrestling, hen party, wedding, bread, etc.).

The buffoons gathered in troupes, sometimes very large, up to 60-100 people. Their art is the embryo of folk theater. They - actors and musicians, singers and dancers, acrobats and magicians - acted out comedy scenes, including those with the beloved people of Petrushka. His humor and ingenuity, ridicule of the rich, confidence and inexhaustibility in inventions delighted the audience.

Circus performances with a bear, a goat and other animals were also organized. Skomorokhs walked all over Russia, as well as across Europe, right up to Italy. The authorities and especially the clergy persecuted buffoons. Strongly condemns them "Domostroy": "Buffoons and their business, dancing and sniffing, always loving demonic songs ... all together I will be in hell, and here cursed"... But buffoonery, like other folk entertainments, continued to exist in spite of everything.