The achievements of Russian scientists in the field of geographical research were of particular importance. Russian travelers visited places where no European had ever set foot before. In the second half 19th century. their efforts were focused on exploring the interior of Asia.

The beginning of expeditions into the depths of Asia was laid Pyotr Petrovich Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914) geographer, statistician, botanist. He made a number of trips to the mountains of Central Asia, to the Tien Shan. Having headed the Russian Geographical Society, he began to play a leading role in developing plans for new expeditions.

The Russian Geographical Society was associated with the activities of other Russian travelers- P. A. Kropotkin and N. M. Przhevalsky.

P. A. Kropotkin in 1864-1866 traveled through Northern Manchuria, the Sayans and the Vitim Plateau.

Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky (1839-1888) he made his first expedition along the Ussuri region, then his paths ran through the most inaccessible regions of Central Asia. He several times crossed Mongolia, Northern China, explored the Gobi Desert, Tien Shan, visited Tibet. He died en route, at the start of his last expedition. In connection with the news of his death, A.P. Chekhov wrote that such “ ascetics are needed like the sun». « Constituting the most poetic and cheerful element of society, he added, they excite, console and ennoble ... If the positive types created by literature constitute valuable educational material, then the same types given by life itself are beyond any price.».

overseas Russian travels scientists in the second half of the 19th century. become more targeted. If before they were mainly limited to describing and mapping the coastline, now they studied the life, culture, and customs of local peoples. This direction, the beginning of which in the XVIII century. put S. P. Krasheninnikov, it was continued Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay (1846-1888). He made his first travels to the Canary Islands and North Africa. In the early 70s, he visited a number of Pacific islands, studied the life of local peoples. For 16 months he lived among the Papuans on the northeastern coast of New Guinea (this place has since been called the Maclay Coast). The Russian scientist won the trust and love of the locals. Then he traveled to the Philippines, Indonesia, Malacca, again returned to " Maclay coast". The descriptions of life and customs, economy and culture of the peoples of Oceania, compiled by the scientist, were largely published only after his death.

World geographical science in those years largely relied on the achievements of Russian researchers. By the end of the XIX century. the era of geographical discoveries ended. And only the icy expanses of the Arctic and Antarctic still kept many of their secrets. The heroic epic of the latest geographical discoveries, in which Russian researchers took an active part, falls at the beginning of the 20th century.

Graph Evfimy (Efim) Vasilyevich Putyatin(8 (20) November 1803, St. Petersburg - 16 (28) October 1883, Paris) - Russian admiral, statesman and diplomat. In 1855 he signed the first treaty of friendship and trade with Japan, an honorary member of the Imperial Orthodox Palestine Society.

Descended from the noble family of the Putyatins, dating back to the 15th century: the eldest son of retired lieutenant commander Vasily Evfimyevich Putyatin (a Novgorod landowner, a neighbor of Count Arakcheev) and Elizaveta Grigorievna Putyatina (daughter of a major general, a member of the State Admiralty Board, civil governor of Grodno and Kiev, Grigory Ivanovich Bukharin).

He spent his childhood in the family estate of Pshenichishche, Chudovskaya volost, Novgorod district. By the will of his parents, he entered the Naval School, where he studied well. After summing up the results of the final exam, he turned out to be the first in graduation. On March 1, 1822, he received the rank of midshipman and in the same year was appointed to circumnavigate the world on the frigate "Cruiser" under the command of Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev. The journey, which began on August 17, took 3 years: the expedition passed along the route Kronstadt - Rio de Janeiro - Cape of Good Hope - Russian America - Cape Horn - Kronstadt. As a result, Putyatin was awarded an order and a double salary. In 1826 he was appointed captain Lazarev midshipman on the battleship Azov. Participated in the Battle of Navarino October 20, 1827, was awarded the Order of Vladimir IV degree.

From 1828 to 1832 he made several crossings from the Mediterranean to the Baltic, conducted 18 campaigns, and was awarded the Order of St. George IV degree. In 1832, by order of the Commander-in-Chief of the Black Sea Fleet, M.P. Lazarev, he carried out an inventory of the coasts and measurements of the depths of the Dardanelles and Bosphorus straits. In 1834 he was promoted to lieutenant commander and appointed commander of the Iphigenia corvette and the Agatopol frigate. In 1838-1839, he participated in the landing during the occupation of Cape Adler, the towns of Tuapse and Shapsuhu. During the landing at Cape Subashi was wounded in the leg. For successful operations, he was promoted to captain of the 1st rank. In 1841, he temporarily left the service at sea and went to England to purchase steamships for the Black Sea Fleet.

In 1852, the imperial government decided to try to open diplomatic relations with Japan. Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich supported Putyatin's old plan to strengthen Russia's position in the Pacific. The reason for the haste in organizing the expedition was the fact that in order to conclude a trade agreement with Japan, a squadron led by Matthew Perry was equipped from America. The country that would be the first to break Japan's centuries-old policy of self-isolation (sakoku) would receive the most favorable conditions for trade. In addition to Putyatin, the expedition included I. A. Goncharov (official of the trade department, secretary of Putyatin, well-known Russian writer), I. A. Goshkevich (official, connoisseur of Chinese and Korean languages), A. F. Mozhaisky and Archimandrite Avvakuum (scientist- orientalist, sinologist). The frigate "Pallada" was chosen as the vessel under the guidance of an experienced sailor-Adjutant Wing I. S. Unkovsky. The frigate left Kronstadt on October 7, 1852: the route ran around Africa, across the Indian Ocean. During the trip, it turned out that the Pallada frigate was unsuitable for such an expedition, and another, more reliable 52-gun frigate, the Diana (built in Arkhangelsk in 1852), was called from St. Petersburg under the command of S. S. Lesovsky.

Gennady Ivanovich Nevelskoy(November 23 (December 5), 1813, Drakino, Kostroma province - April 17 (29), 1876, St. Petersburg) - Russian admiral (1874), explorer of the Far East, founder of the city of Nikolaevsk-on-Amur. He proved that the mouth of the Amur is accessible to ships and that Sakhalin is an island.

In 1829, Gennady Nevelskoy entered the Naval Cadet Corps. The head of the Marine Corps at that time was the famous navigator Admiral I.F. Kruzenshtern, whose name is associated with the first Russian circumnavigation. Among the cadets of those times, not so much the military as the research, geographical direction of study was especially popular. Cadets and midshipmen were inspired by the famous sea voyages of Russian sailors. Everyone was talking about the discovery of Antarctica by F. F. Bellingshausen and M. P. Lazarev, the campaigns of F. P. Wrangel, M. N. Stanyukovich, F. P. Litke and others. It is no coincidence, therefore, that many of Nevelsky's classmates subsequently became famous navigators, explorers, and geographers.

Even in the Naval Corps, Nevelskoy became interested in the geography of the Far East. Not quite unambiguous information given in books and maps, Gennady Nevelskoy questioned. He was seized by a thirst for his own geographical research.

In 1832, Nevelskoy graduated from the Naval Cadet Corps among the best and, among the elect, became a student of the newly created Officer class (the prototype of the future Naval Academy). On March 28, 1836, midshipman Nevelskoy successfully passed the exams for the course of the officer class and was awarded the rank of lieutenant of the fleet.

At the end of the officer class, Lieutenant Nevelskoy was appointed to the squadron of Admiral Fyodor Petrovich Litke as an officer on the Bellona ship under the command of an experienced naval officer Samuil Ivanovich Mofet. Then he served on the ships "Prince Varshavsky" ("Konstantin"), "Aurora" and "Ingermanland". During these years, he, as a well-trained naval officer, was a watch officer under His Highness Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich. Tsesarevich Konstantin, the son of Emperor Nicholas I, at the age of 9, was appointed Admiral General of the Fleet and placed under the guardianship of Admiral Litke. Gennady Nevelskoy became the actual trustee of the young Grand Duke for many years. Subsequently, this circumstance may have served to ensure that Nevelskoy's arbitrariness during the development of the Amur was not only forgiven, but approved by Emperor Nicholas I. The historian A.I. Alekseev suggests that Nevelskoy at some point saved the life of the Tsarevich.

During the years of Nevelsky's service in the Litke squadron, this squadron did not take part in long-distance voyages, it mainly sailed within Europe. In 1846, Nevelskoy received the rank of lieutenant commander. A year later, he asked for the position of commander of the Baikal transport ship under construction, which was supposed to go to Kamchatka with cargo.

A major role in the organization of geographical expeditions, in the study of the territory of Russia in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. played by the Russian Geographical Society (RGO), established in 1845 in St. Petersburg. Its departments (hereinafter - branches) were organized in Eastern and Western Siberia, Central Asia, the Caucasus and other regions. A remarkable constellation of researchers has grown up in the ranks of the Russian Geographical Society who have received worldwide recognition. Among them were F.P. Litke, P.P. Semenov, N.M. Przhevalsky, G.N. Potanin, P.A. Kropotkin, R.K. Maak, N.A. Severtsov and many others. Along with the geographical society, natural scientists' societies that existed in a number of cultural centers of Russia were engaged in the study of nature. A significant contribution to the knowledge of the territory of a vast country was made by such government institutions as the Geological and Soil Committees, the Ministry of Agriculture, the Committee of the Siberian Railway, etc. The main attention of researchers was directed to the study of Siberia, the Far East, the Caucasus, Central and Central Asia.

Central Asia Studies

In 1851 P.P. Semenov, on behalf of the Council of the Russian Geographical Society, began translating the first volume of Ritter's Geoscience of Asia into Russian. The large gaps and inaccuracies that Ritter had necessitated special expeditionary studies. This task was undertaken by Semyonov himself, who personally met Ritter and attended his lectures during his stay in Berlin (1852-1855). Semyonov discussed with Ritter the details of the translation of Asia's Geosciences, and after returning to Russia, in 1855 he prepared the first volume for publication. In 1856-1857. a very fruitful journey of Semenov to the Tien Shan took place. In 1856, he visited the Issyk-Kul basin and went to this lake through the Boom Gorge, which made it possible to establish the insufficiency of Issyk-Kul. After wintering in Barnaul, in 1857 Semenov crossed the Terskey-Alatau ridge, reached the Tien Shan syrts, discovered the upper reaches of the river. Naryn - the main source of the Syr Darya. Further, Semenov crossed the Tien Shan on a different route, went into the basin of the river. Tarim to the river. Saryjaz, saw the Khan-Tengri glaciers. On the way back, Semyonov explored the Zailiysky Alatau, Dzungarian Alatau, Tarbagatai and Alakul Lake ranges. Semenov considered the main results of his expedition to be: a) establishing the height of the snow line in the Tien Shan; b) the discovery of alpine glaciers in it; c) refutation of Humboldt's assumptions about the volcanic origin of the Tien Shan and the existence of the Bolor meridional ridge. The results of the expedition provided rich material for corrections and notes to the translation of the second volume of Ritter's Geoscience of Asia.

In 1857-1879. N.A. was engaged in the study of Central Asia. Severtsov, who made 7 major trips to different regions of Central Asia, from desert to high mountains. Severtsov's scientific interests were very wide: he studied geography, geology, studied flora and especially fauna. Severtsov penetrated into the deep regions of the central Tien Shan, where no European had been before him. Severtsov devoted his classic work "Vertical and Horizontal Distribution of Turkestan Animals" to a complex characterization of the altitudinal zonality of the Tien Shan. In 1874, Severtsov, heading the natural history detachment of the Amu Darya expedition, crossed the Kyzylkum desert and reached the Amudarya delta. In 1877, he was the first European to reach the central part of the Pamirs, gave accurate information about its orography, geology and flora, showed the isolation of the Pamirs from the Tien Shan. Severtsov's work on the division of the Palearctic into zoogeographic regions based on physical and geographical zoning and his "Ornithology and ornithological geography of European and Asian Russia" (1867) allow us to consider Severtsov the founder of zoogeography in Russia.

In 1868-1871. the highlands of Central Asia were studied by A.P. Fedchenko and his wife O.A. Fedchenko. They discovered the grandiose Zaalai range, made the first geographical description of the Zeravshan valley and other mountainous regions of Central Asia. Studying the flora and fauna of the Zeravshan valley, A.P. Fedchenko for the first time showed the faunistic and floristic community of Turkestan with the countries of the Mediterranean. For 3 years of travel, the Fedchenko spouses have collected a large collection of plants and animals, among which there were many new species and even genera. Based on the materials of the expedition, a map of the Ferghana Valley and the mountains surrounding it was compiled. In 1873 A.P. Fedchenko died tragically while descending from one of the Mont Blanc glaciers.

Friend A.P. Fedchenko V.F. Oshanin in 1876 made an expedition to the Alay valley and in 1878 to the valleys of the Surkhoba and Muksu rivers (Vakhsh basin). Oshanin discovered one of the largest glaciers in Asia, which he named the Fedchenko Glacier in memory of a friend, as well as the Darvazsky and Peter the Great ranges. Oshanin owns the first complete physical and geographical description of the Alai Valley and Badakhshan. Oshanin prepared for publication a systematic catalog of the Palearctic hemipterans, published in 1906-1910.

In 1886, Krasnov, on the instructions of the Russian Geographical Society, investigated the Khan-Tengri Range in order to identify and substantiate the ecological and genetic relationships of the mountain flora of the Central Tien Shan with the adjacent floras of the Balkhash steppes and sandy deserts of Turan, as well as to trace the process of interaction between the relatively young flora of the Quaternary alluvial plains of the Balkhash region and much more ancient (with an admixture of tertiary elements) flora of the highlands of the Central Tien Shan. This problem, evolutionary in its essence, was developed and the conclusions from it are well stated in Krasnov's master's thesis "Experience in the history of the development of the flora of the southern part of the Eastern Tien Shan".

Fruitful was the expedition led by Berg, who studied in 1899-1902. and in 1906 the Aral Sea. Berg's monograph "The Aral Sea. The experience of a physical-geographical monograph" (St. Petersburg, 1908) was a classic example of a complex regional physical-geographical characteristic.

Since the 80s of the XIX century. much attention was paid to the study of the Central Asian sands. This problem arose in connection with the construction of a railway to Central Asia. In 1912, the first permanent integrated research geographical station for the study of deserts was founded at the Repetek railway station. In 1911 and 1913 Expeditions of the Resettlement Administration operated in Central Asia and Siberia. The most interesting geographical information was obtained by Neustruev's detachment, which made the transition from Ferghana through the Pamirs to Kashgaria. Clear traces of ancient glacial activity have been discovered in the Pamirs. Summary results of studies of Central Asia in the 19th - early 20th centuries. are set out in great detail in the publication of the Resettlement Administration "Asian Russia".

Central Asia Studies

The beginning of its research was laid by N.M. Przhevalsky, who from 1870 to 1885 made 4 trips to the deserts and mountains of Central Asia. At the beginning of his fifth journey, Przhevalsky fell ill with typhoid fever and died near the lake. Issyk-Kul. The expedition started by Przhevalsky was completed under the leadership of M.V. Pevtsova, V.I. Roborovsky and P.K. Kozlov. Thanks to Przhevalsky's expeditions, reliable data on the orography of Central Asia were obtained and mapped for the first time. During the expeditions, meteorological observations were regularly made, which provided valuable data on the climate of this region. Przhevalsky's writings are replete with brilliant descriptions of landscapes, flora and fauna. They also contain information about the Asian peoples and their way of life. Przhevalsky brought to St. Petersburg 702 specimens of mammals, 5010 specimens of birds, 1200 reptiles and amphibians, 643 fish. Among the exhibits were a previously unknown wild horse (named the Przewalski's horse after him) and a wild camel. The herbarium of the expeditions consisted of up to 15 thousand specimens belonging to 1700 species; among them there were 218 new species and 7 new genera. From 1870 to 1885, the following descriptions of Przhevalsky's travels, written by himself, were published: "Journey in the Ussuri Territory 1867-1869." (1870); "Mongolia and the country of the Tanguts. A three-year journey in East mountainous Asia", vol. 1-2 (1875-1876); "From Kulja beyond the Tien Shan and to Lob-Nor" (Izv. Russk. Geogr. ob-va, 1877, v. 13); "From Zaisan through Khami to Tibet and to the headwaters of the Yellow River" (1883); "Investigations of the northern outskirts of Tibet and the route through Lop-Nor along the Tarim Basin" (1888). Przhevalsky's works were translated into a number of European languages ​​and immediately received universal recognition. They can be put on a par with the brilliant writings of Alexander Humboldt and are read with exceptional interest. The London Geographical Society in 1879 awarded Przhevalsky its medal; in his decision, it was noted that the description of Przewalski's Tibetan journey surpasses everything that has been published in this area since the time of Marco Polo. F. Richthofen called the achievements of Przhevalsky "the most amazing geographical discoveries." Przhevalsky was awarded awards from geographical societies: Russian, London, Paris, Stockholm and Rome; he was an honorary doctor of a number of foreign universities and an honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, as well as many foreign and Russian scientific societies and institutions. The city of Karakol, where Przhevalsky died, later received the name Przhevalsk.

G.N. Potanin (who did a lot of ethnography), V.A. Obruchev, M.V. Pevtsov, M.E. Grum-Grzhimailo and others.

Studies of Siberia and the Far East

The development of Russia urgently required the study of all the Asian outskirts, especially Siberia. A quick acquaintance with the natural wealth and population of Siberia could only be carried out with the help of large geological and geographical expeditions. Siberian merchants and industrialists, interested in studying the natural resources of the region, financially supported such expeditions. The Siberian department of the Russian Geographical Society, organized in 1851 in Irkutsk, using the funds of commercial and industrial companies, equipped expeditions to the basin of the river. Amur, on about. Sakhalin and the gold-bearing regions of Siberia. They were attended for the most part by enthusiasts from various strata of the intelligentsia: mining engineers and geologists, gymnasium teachers and university professors, army and navy officers, doctors and political exiles. Scientific leadership was carried out by the Russian Geographical Society.

In 1849-1852. The Trans-Baikal Territory was explored by an expedition consisting of the astronomer L.E. Schwartz, mining engineers N.G. Meglitsky and M.I. Kovanko. Even then, Meglitsky and Kovanko pointed to the existence of gold and coal deposits in the basin of the river. Aldana.

The real geographical discovery was the results of the expedition to the basin of the river. Vilyui, organized by the Russian Geographical Society in 1853-1854. The expedition was headed by the natural science teacher of the Irkutsk gymnasium R. Maak. The expedition also included topographer A.K. Zondhagen and ornithologist A.P. Pavlovsky. In the difficult conditions of the taiga, with complete impassibility, the expedition of Maak examined the vast territory of the Vilyui basin and part of the basin of the river. Olenek. As a result of the research, a three-volume work by R. Maak "Vilyuisky district of the Yakutsk region" (parts 1-3. St. Petersburg, 1883-1887) appeared, in which the nature, population and economy of a large and interesting region of the Yakutsk region are described with exceptional completeness.

After the completion of this expedition, the Russian Geographical Society organized the Siberian Expedition (1855-1858) as part of two parties. The mathematical party led by Schwartz was to determine astronomical points and form the basis of the geographical map of Eastern Siberia. This task has been successfully completed. The botanist K.I. Maksimovich, zoologists L.I. Shrenk and G.I. Rudd. The reports of Radde, who studied the fauna of the vicinity of Lake Baikal, the steppe Dauria and the Chokondo mountain group, were published in German in two volumes in 1862 and 1863.

Another complex expedition - the Amur one - was headed by Maak, who published two works: "Journey to the Amur, made by order of the Siberian Department of the Russian Geographical Society in 1855." (St. Petersburg, 1859) and "Journey through the valley of the Ussuri River", vol. 1-2 (St. Petersburg, 1861). Maak's work contained much valuable information about the basins of these Far Eastern rivers.

The most striking pages in the study of the geography of Siberia were written by the remarkable Russian traveler and geographer P.A. Kropotkin. The journey of Kropotkin and the natural science teacher I.S. Polyakov to the Leno-Vitim gold-bearing region (1866). Their main task was to find ways to drive cattle from the city of Chita to the mines located along the Vitim and Olekma rivers. The journey started on the banks of the river. Lena, ended in Chita. The expedition overcame the ridges of the Olekmo-Charsky highlands: the North-Chuysky, South-Chuysky, Okrainny and a number of hills of the Vitim plateau, including the Yablonovy ridge. The scientific report on this expedition, published in 1873 in the Notes of the Russian Geographical Society (vol. 3), was a new word in the geography of Siberia. Vivid descriptions of nature were accompanied in it by theoretical generalizations. In this regard, Kropotkin's "General Sketch of the Orography of Eastern Siberia" (1875) is of interest, summing up the results of the then studied Eastern Siberia. The scheme of the orography of East Asia compiled by him differed significantly from Humboldt's scheme. The Schwartz map served as the topographic basis for it. Kropotkin was the first geographer to pay serious attention to the traces of the ancient glaciation of Siberia. The famous geologist and geographer V.A. Obruchev considered Kropotkin one of the founders of geomorphology in Russia. Kropotkin's companion, the zoologist Polyakov, compiled an ecological and zoogeographic description of the path traveled.

Member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences Schrenk in 1854-1856. led the expedition of the Academy of Sciences to the Amur and Sakhalin. The range of scientific problems covered by Schrenk was very wide. The results of his research were published in the four-volume work "Travel and Research in the Amur Territory" (1859-1877).

In 1867-1869. studied the Ussuri region Przhevalsky. He was the first to note an interesting and unique combination of northern and southern forms of fauna and flora in the Ussuri taiga, showed the originality of the nature of the region with its harsh winters and wet summers.

The largest geographer and botanist (in 1936-1945, President of the Academy of Sciences) V.L. Komarov began researching the nature of the Far East in 1895 and retained his interest in this region until the end of his life. In his three-volume work "Flora Manschuriae" (St.-P., 1901-1907), Komarov substantiated the allocation of a special "Manchurian" floristic region. He also owns the classic works "Flora of the Kamchatka Peninsula", vols. 1-3 (1927-1930) and "Introduction to the floras of China and Mongolia", no. 1, 2 (St. Petersburg, 1908).

Living pictures of the nature and population of the Far East were described in his books by the famous traveler V.K. Arseniev. From 1902 to 1910, he studied the hydrographic network of the Sikhote-Alin ridge, gave a detailed description of the relief of Primorye and the Ussuri Territory, and brilliantly described their population. Arseniev's books "On the Ussuri Taiga", "Dersu Uzala" and others are read with unflagging interest.

A significant contribution to the study of Siberia was made by A.L. Chekanovsky, I.D. Chersky and B.I. Dybovsky, exiled to Siberia after the Polish uprising of 1863. Chekanovsky studied the geology of the Irkutsk province. His report on these studies was awarded a small gold medal of the Russian Geographical Society. But the main merit of Chekanovsky lies in the study of previously unknown territories between the rivers Lower Tunguska and Lena. He discovered a trap plateau there, described the river. Olenek and compiled a map of the northwestern part of the Yakutsk region. The geologist and geographer Chersky owns the first summary of theoretical views on the origin of the lake depression. Baikal (he expressed his own hypothesis about its origin). Chersky came to the conclusion that the oldest part of Siberia is located here, which has not been flooded by the sea since the beginning of the Paleozoic. This conclusion was used by E. Suess for the hypothesis of the "ancient crown of Asia". Deep thoughts were expressed by Chersky about the erosive transformation of the relief, about leveling it, smoothing out sharp forms. In 1891, already being terminally ill, Chersky began his last great journey to the basin of the river. Kolyma. On the way from Yakutsk to Verkhnekolymsk, he discovered a huge mountain range, consisting of a series of chains, with heights up to 1 thousand meters (later this range was named after him). In the summer of 1892, during a trip, Chersky died, leaving a completed "Preliminary report on research in the area of ​​the Kolyma, Indigirka and Yana rivers." B.I. Dybovsky and his friend V. Godlevsky explored and described the peculiar fauna of Baikal. They also measured the depth of this unique reservoir.

Of great interest are the scientific reports of V.A. Obruchev about his geological research and his special articles on the nature of Siberia. Along with the geological study of gold-bearing placers in the Olekma-Vitim country, Obruchev dealt with such geographical problems as the origin of permafrost, glaciation in Siberia, orography of Eastern Siberia and Altai.

Western Siberia, with its flat relief, attracted little attention from scientists. Most of the research was carried out there by amateur botanists and ethnographers, among whom N.M. Yadrintseva, D.A. Clemenza, I.Ya. Slovtsov. Of fundamental importance were the studies carried out in 1898 by L.S. Berg and P.G. Ignatov's studies of salt lakes, set out in the book "Salt lakes of Selety-Dengiz, Teke and Kyzylkak of the Omsk district. Physical and geographical sketch". The book contains a detailed description of the forest-steppe and the relationship between the forest and the steppe, essays on flora and relief, and so on. This work marked a transition to a new stage in the study of Siberia - from route studies to semi-stationary, complex, covering a wide range of physical and geographical features of the territory.

At the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. and in the first decade of the 20th century. geographical research of Siberia was subordinated to two problems of great national importance: the construction of the Siberian railway and the agricultural development of Siberia. The Committee of the Siberian Road, established at the end of 1892, attracted a large number of scientists to study a wide strip along the route of the Siberian Railway. Geology and minerals, ground and ground waters, vegetation, climate were studied. Of great importance were the studies of Tanfiliev in the Baraba and Kulunda steppes (1899-1901). In the book "Baraba and the Kulunda Steppe" (St. Petersburg, 1902), Tanfiliev, having considered the views of previous researchers, expressed convincing considerations about the origin of the ridge relief of the Baraba steppe, about the regime of numerous lakes in the West Siberian lowland, about the nature of soils, including chernozems. Tanfiliev explained why forests in the steppes of European Russia are located closer to river valleys, while in Baraba, on the contrary, forests avoid river valleys and are located on watershed ridges. Before Tanfilyev, the Baraba lowland was studied by Middendorf. His small work "Baraba", published in 1871 in the "Appendix" to the "Notes of the Imperial Academy of Sciences", is of great interest.

From 1908 to 1914, soil-botanical expeditions of the Resettlement Administration of the Ministry of Agriculture operated in the Asian part of Russia. They were led by an outstanding soil scientist, a student of Dokuchaev, K.D. Glinka. Expeditions covered almost all regions of Siberia, the Far East and Central Asia. The scientific results of the expeditions are set out in the 4-volume work "Asiatic Russia" (1914).

Studies of European Russia, the Urals and the Caucasus

At the same time, the attention of scientists and the Ministry of Agriculture was attracted by the search for the reasons for the depletion of soils, the drying up of rivers, the decrease in fish catches, and the often repeated crop failures in densely populated European Russia. Research for this purpose was carried out in the European part of the country by natural scientists of various specialties: geologists, soil scientists, botanists, hydrologists, who studied individual components of nature. But every time when trying to explain these phenomena, researchers inevitably came to the need to consider and study them on a broad geographical basis, taking into account all natural factors. Soil and botanical studies, caused by the need to establish the causes of recurring crop failures, resulted in a comprehensive study of the territory. Studying the Russian chernozems, Academician F.I. Ruprecht proved that the distribution of chernozems is closely related to the geography of plants. He determined that the southern border of spruce distribution coincides with the northern border of Russian chernozems.

A new stage in the field of soil and botanical research was the work of Dokuchaev, who led in 1882-1888. Nizhny Novgorod soil expedition, which resulted in a scientific report ("Materials for the assessment of the lands of the Nizhny Novgorod province. Natural history part ...", issue 1-14. St. Petersburg, 1884-1886) with two maps - geological and soil. This essay discusses the climate, relief, soils, hydrography, flora and fauna of the province. This was the first such comprehensive study of a large agricultural area. It allowed Dokuchaev to formulate new natural-historical ideas and substantiate the genetic direction in soil science.

Tanfiliev summed up the results of a 25-year study of the swamps of Russia, organized by the Ministry of State Property. In his articles "On the swamps of the St. Petersburg province" (Proceedings of the Free Economic Society, No. 5) and "Swamps and peat bogs of Polesie" (St. Petersburg, 1895), he revealed the mechanism for the formation of swamps and gave their detailed classification, thus laying the foundations scientific marsh science.

In studies conducted in the second half of the XIX century. in the Urals, the main attention was paid to the study of its geological structure and the distribution of minerals. In 1898-1900. The Orenburg branch of the Russian Geographical Society organized barometric leveling of the southern part of the Ural Range. The leveling results were published in the "Izvestia of the Orenburg Branch of the Russian Geographical Society" for 1900-1901. This contributed to the emergence of special geomorphological studies. The first such work in the Urals was made by P.I. Krotov. He critically examined the history of orographic research in the Middle Urals, gave a general picture of the structure of its relief, described many characteristic surface forms and explained the geological conditions for their occurrence.

A thorough study of the climate of the Urals began in the 80s of the 19th century, when 81 meteorological stations were established there. By 1911, their number increased to 318. The processing of meteorological observation data made it possible to reveal the pattern of the distribution of climatic elements and to determine the general features of the climate of the Urals.

From the middle of the XIX century. work began to appear on a special study of the waters of the Urals. From 1902 to 1915, the Department of Inland Waterways and Highways of the Ministry of Communications published 65 issues of "Materials for the Description of Russian Rivers", which also contained extensive information about the rivers of the Urals.

By the beginning of the XX century. the flora of the Urals (except for the Northern and Polar ones) has already been studied quite well. In 1894, the chief botanist of the St. Petersburg Botanical Garden S.I. Korzhinsky first drew attention to traces of ancient vegetation in the Urals. An employee of the Petrograd Botanical Garden I.M. Krasheninnikov was the first to express his thoughts on the relationship between the forest and the steppe in the Southern Trans-Urals, thereby posing important botanical and geographical problems. Soil research in the Urals was considerably late. Only in 1913 did Dokuchaev's colleagues Neustruev, Krasheninnikov and others begin a comprehensive study of the soils of the Urals.

In the second half of the XIX century. systematic work began on triangulation and topographic surveys of the Caucasus. Military topographers in their reports and articles reported a lot of general geographical information. Using the data of geodetic works and geological research G.V. Abikha, N. Salitsky in 1886 published "Essay on the Orography and Geology of the Caucasus", in which he outlined his ideas about the geography of this mountainous region. Much attention was paid to the study of the glaciers of the Caucasus. The work of K.I. Podozersky, who gave a qualitative and quantitative description of the glaciers of the Caucasus Range ("Glaciers of the Caucasus Range". - Notes of the Caucasian Department of the Russian Geographical Society, 1911, book 29, issue I).

Voeikov, studying the climate of the Caucasus, was the first to draw attention to the relationship between the climate and vegetation of the Caucasus, and in 1871 made the first attempt at natural zoning of the Caucasus.

Dokuchaev made an important contribution to the study of the Caucasus. It was during the study of the nature of the Caucasus that his doctrine of latitudinal zonality and altitudinal zonality finally took shape.

Along with these well-known scientists, dozens of geologists, soil scientists, botanists, zoologists, etc. have studied the Caucasus. A large number of materials about the Caucasus are published in the Izvestia of the Caucasian Department of the Russian Geographical Society and special trade journals.

Research in the Arctic

In 1882-1883. Russian scientists N.G. Yurgens and A.A. Bunge participated in research under the program of the First International Polar Year. Russia then organized polar stations on the islands of Novaya Zemlya (South Island, the village of Malye Karmakuly) and in the village. Sagastyr at the mouth of the river. Lena. The creation of these stations laid the foundation for Russian stationary research in the Arctic. In 1886, Bunge and the young geologist Toll explored the New Siberian Islands. Toll characterized the geology of the islands and proved that the north of Siberia was subjected to powerful glaciation. In 1900-1902. Toll led the Polar Expedition of the Academy of Sciences, which tried on the Zarya yacht to find the Sannikov Land, rumors about the existence of which had been kept since 1811. In two summer seasons, the Zarya passed from the Kara Sea to the area of ​​the New Siberian Islands. The first wintering near the Taimyr Peninsula was used to collect geographic materials. After the second wintering at about. Kotelny Toll with three companions on dog sleds went towards about. Bennett. On the way back, the travelers died. The existence of "Sannikov Land" was not confirmed by subsequent searches.

In 1910-1915. hydrographic surveys were carried out on the icebreakers "Taimyr" and "Vaigach" from the Bering Strait to the mouth of the river. Kolyma, which ensured the creation of sailing directions for the seas washing Russia in the north. In 1913 "Taimyr" and "Vaigach" discovered the archipelago, now called Severnaya Zemlya.

In 1912, Lieutenant of the Navy G.L. Brusilov decided to go from St. Petersburg to Vladivostok along the Northern Sea Route. The schooner "Saint Anna" was equipped with private funds. Off the coast of the Yamal Peninsula, the schooner was covered with ice and carried away by currents and winds to the northwest (north of Franz Josef Land). The crew of the schooner died, only the navigator V.I. survived. Albanov and sailor A.E. Konrad sent by Brusilov to the mainland for help. The ship's log, preserved by Albanov, gave rich materials. After analyzing them, the famous polar traveler and scientist V.Yu. Wiese in 1924 predicted the location of an unknown island. In 1930 this island was found and named after Vize.

G.Ya. did a lot for the study of the Arctic. Sedov. He studied approaches to the mouth of the river. Kolyma and Krestovaya Bay on the islands of Novaya Zemlya. In 1912, Sedov reached Franz Josef Land on the ship "Saint Foka", then wintered on Novaya Zemlya. In 1913, the Sedov expedition again came to Franz Josef Land and wintered on about. Hooker in Tikhaya Bay. From here, in February 1914, Sedov, with two sailors on sledges, headed towards the North Pole, but did not reach it and died on the way to the pole.

Rich hydrobiological materials were received by the Murmansk scientific and fishing expedition led by N.M. Knipovich and L.L. Breitfuss. During its activity (1898-1908), the expedition on the ship "Andrew the First-Called" carried out hydrological observations at 1,500 points and biological observations at 2,000 points. As a result of the expedition, a bathymetric map of the Barents Sea and a map of currents were compiled. In 1906, Knipovich's book Fundamentals of the Hydrology of the European Arctic Ocean was published. A lot of new information about the Barents Sea was obtained by the scientists of the Murmansk Biological Station, founded in 1881.

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>>Russian explorers and travelers

§ 16. Russian discoverers and travelers

The 19th century was the time of the largest geographical discoveries made by Russian explorers. Continuing the traditions of their predecessors - explorers and travelers of the 17th-18th centuries, they enriched the ideas of Russians about the world around them, contributed to the development of new territories that became part of the empire. Russia for the first time realized an old dream: her ships went to the oceans.

I. F. Kruzenshtern and Yu. F. Lisyansky.

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In the 19th century, Russian explorers made a number of outstanding geographical discoveries. In 1803 I. Kruzenshtern on the "Nadezhda" and "Neva" made the 1st Russian round-the-world expedition, exploring the northern part of the Pacific Ocean, Sakhalin, Alaska, the Aleutian Islands. Y. Lisyanyakiy on the Neva discovered one of the Hawaiian Islands. In 1819-21 F. Bellingshausen and M. Lazarev on the sloops "Vostok" and "Mirny" made the 2nd Arctic expedition. During its 16/1/1820, the ships approached Antarctica, which Bellingshausen called "the ice continent". Having rested in Australia, the expedition moved to the tropical Pacific Ocean and discovered islands in the Tuamotu archipelago. They were named after Kutuzov, Lazarev, Raevsky, Barclay de Tolly, Yermolov and others. After resting in Sydney, the ships returned to Antarctica and discovered about. Peter I and the land of Alexander I. In July 1821, the ships returned to Kronstadt, bringing a huge amount of materials and collections. The development of Russian America is associated with the name of A. Baranov. A merchant from Kargopol had been trading in Alaska since 1790. He made detailed maps of Alaska and nearby islands. In 1799 Baranov became the ruler of the colonies in America. In 1804 He founded Novoarkhangelsk. Baranov tried to annex Hawaii to Russia, but failed. Despite his illness, he remained in office until his death. The territory of the Far East remained a white spot on the Russian map. In 1848, Nicholas 1 sent an expedition of G. Nevelsky to the Far East. He proved that Sakhalin Island and explored the lower reaches of the Amur. E. Putyatin during the round-the-world expedition of 1822-25. discovered the Rimsky-Korsakov Islands and concluded an agreement with Japan. Round-the-world expeditions were made by V. Golovin-1807-11,F. Litke-1826-29 and made 50 cards. I. Voznesensky in 1839-40 described Alaska, the Aleutian and Kuril Islands. In 1809 A. Kolodkin began to explore the Caspian. In 1848, E. Hoffman and M. Kovalsky explored the North. Ural. In 1845, the Russian Geographical Society was established.