Semantic development of foreign words. Mastering borrowed words

Semantic mastering of borrowings can manifest itself in different ways, but it comes down to the acquisition by a word of such a meaning or such a semantic structure that distinguishes it in the lexical system as a separate unit. Borrowing, getting into the Russian language, can lose all its inherent meanings in the source language, except for one. For example: 1) fr ... genre (,genre) means "genus, breed; image, manner; genre", passed into Russian only in the last meaning; 2) fr. jargon word (jargon) "chirping, chatter, incomprehensible language" mattered, then "spoiled language, dialect, jargon", got into Russian only in the last meaning; 3) English. image means "image, statue, image, symbol, reflection in the mirror", Russian image- the idea of ​​a person, formed on the basis of data about him.

In other cases, there was an expansion of the semantic volume of borrowing. So, in Polish the word idea means "thought, concept", and in Russian it has at least four meanings:

• 1) the general concept of an object or phenomenon;
• 2) the main, defining position in the system of views, views; belief;
• 3) the main idea of ​​a piece of art;
• 4) concept, plan, intention. In German, the noun Impuls means "impulse", and in Russian it has four meanings: 1) internal motivation, an impetus to something, a reason causing any action; 2) (physical) amount of movement equal to the product of body weight by its speed; 3) a wave of excitement propagating through the nervous system; 4) (special) short-term change in electrical voltage and current.

The semantic mastering of borrowing is probably the most difficult stage in the entry of a foreign word into the Russian language. Most mistakes are made in its understanding and comprehension by native speakers. Nowadays, for example, such borrowings are often found: aquapark, audit, auditor, outsourcing. But not all Russian speakers can explain their meanings: aquapark is an amusement and recreation park, on the territory of which artificial reservoirs for various purposes with heated water are located, audit- independent examination of the company's financial statements, auditor- an auditor who checks the financial activities of enterprises, outsourcing- hiring a company to manage a specialist from outside.

Journalists often sneer at the misinterpretation and use of a particular foreign language. "Experienced parliamentarians, - read in the magazine "New time" for 1991, - can reach consensus up to two to three times at a meeting. And they get the greatest satisfaction, when consensus is reached by all MPs at the same time. "

The so-called popular (false) etymology - the interpretation of a word based on its similarity, random associations with other words without scientific disclosure of its origin - is also associated with the wrong understanding of a foreign language word. For example:

He always makes a fool and makes a noise - colloquially,

Sharps up like a bad writer

And if speaker from the word "yell" comes,

Then he is an undoubted speaker ( A. Ertel).

In fact, the noun speaker, Latin in origin, borrowed into Russian at the beginning of the 18th century.

False etymology also captures proper names, especially foreign ones, primarily in the common people:

• - Well, really, this, like Evo, firing pin, they say, is in Cuba, Castrov or something, too Fedor, it seems.
• - Fidel Castro, - corrects the more literate Bear (V. Belov).

Often foreign words are deliberately interpreted in the spirit of folk etymology in order to ridicule the phenomena they denote.

In the common people, words of foreign origin, having no root support in their native language, are often distorted altogether:

• - Cho with you, dear one? Did the pain attack you, or what? Falling - I know this, but I have never seen a jumping isho.
• - This is exercise, grandma. Gymnastics, - Seryozha laughed.
• - And what is this vymnastika!- the old woman asked uncomprehendingly (£. Evtushenko).

A special case of borrowing is tracing - this is translation, copying, construction of a word from Russian morphemes in accordance with the structure of a foreign word while preserving the meaning of the latter.

In this case, a distinction is made between:

■ tracing paper - derivative words or expressions made up of Russian derivational elements based on the pattern of a foreign word or expression, taking into account both its individual parts and the entire composition. Wed: English. skin heads and skinheads- a youth group protesting with their appearance against generally accepted norms of behavior (as opposed to long-haired, Beatles, etc.); English business woman - businesswoman; English public relations - public relations. Such calques are called derivational, since they repeat in Russian morphemes or words the derivational structure of a foreign-language derivative;

■ semantic onions that borrow some meaning from foreign language equivalents, usually figurative. So, in English there is a word green, which in Russian corresponds to the adjective green. After in English green acquired the meaning of "member of the social movement for the preservation of the environment", its Russian equivalent has acquired a similar meaning. Also, English green has another variant of semantic development; they began to call the dollar by the color of the note. In Russian, not only the noun has become widespread green in the same sense, but also the adjective green also acquired the meaning of "dollar".

English words mouse- mouse - corresponds to Russian mouse. With the advent of computers, English mouse acquired the meaning of "pointing device, which is a small box"; the same happened with the Russian word.

English word garbage, meaning "garbage", in computer science began to call "unnecessary data not subject to further use in the computer memory". The same semantic shift took place in the Russian equivalent - rubbish;

■ half-calves are a kind of word-building cripples. These words are formed according to the model of borrowed derivatives of a certain structure, but they consist of two parts: one of them is common with these derivatives, and the second is its own, in Russian. For example, the English computer term cache memory corresponds to Russian cache memory- memory for intermediate data storage, term root segment of the same origin - Russian root directory- the directory in which all files are registered.

The semantic assimilation of borrowed words gives derivatives that are formed according to their model, but on Russian soil. For example, borrowing art show(from English. art- art, show- performance) served as a prototype for Russian art board, in which the first part is common with the English word, and the second - the Russian-speaking one. Anglicisms arm wrestling and armwrestler served as a model for creating the words on Russian soil arm table- a device in the form of a table on which armwrestlers compete, with one common (English) part arm. Modeled on borrowings with a common Greek part bio- life ( biogenesis, biochron, biocenosis) formed Russian biofield.

In addition, borrowed words became the basis of derivatives, which are formed from them on Russian soil through the addition of derivational affixes. For example, the prefix anti- is Greek in origin, and the noun reformer- Latin, but derivative anti-reformer represents the actual Russian education. In the word decollectivization all morphemes except the ending -a, are Latin by origin: the prefix de-, root collective and suffix -isations-. Noun concrete borrowed from French, but on Russian soil dozens of words were formed from it that have no direct relation to the French language: concrete worker, concrete worker, concrete, concrete, concrete truck, concrete mixer, concrete mixer, concrete paver etc. It is clear that such derivatives, which are formed with the help of morphemes of foreign language origin, but on Russian soil, should not be placed in dictionaries of foreign words. So even though the word collective historically goes back to the Latin language and, therefore, rightly placed in the "Dictionary of Foreign Words" ed. F.N.Petrova, the same cannot be said about derivatives from him collectivization and collectivism that appeared during the Soviet era. Derivatives such as particle-wave, cosmovision, quotation, laconic, legalization, Islam etc. etc., since they are not marked in any foreign language.

Borrowing a particular word, the Russian language rarely leaves it in the form in which it existed in the source language. This is due to the difference in sound structure, grammar, semantics between languages. Therefore, when borrowing words, they change their appearance, adapt to the laws of the Russian language, and begin to live according to its norms. The adaptation of words (mastering) begins, first of all, with a change in its graphic appearance. Graphic development is the transfer of a foreign word in writing by means of the Russian alphabet, since most Western European languages ​​are built on the basis of the Latin alphabet, and the Russian language is based on the Cyrillic alphabet. For example, English. meeting - Russian. Meeting; German. Grossmeister is a grandmaster. Some words and expressions retain their former appearance: tet-a-tet, veni, vidi, vici.

Phonetic mastery is a change in the sound composition of a word as a result of its adaptation to new phonetic conditions. Phonetic development is manifested regularly, naturally, because the articulatory base of languages ​​is different. Vowels foreign to the Russian language can be transmitted in different ways. For example, English. trust - rus. trust, German. Hulsa - rus. sleeve. For the Russian language, diphthongs are not characteristic, therefore they are also transformed: lat. auqūstus - Russian. August, lat. auditorium - Russian. audience. Adapting to the phonetic conditions of the Russian language, foreign words are reduced, stunned at the end and in the middle of the word. When mastering, the stress can also change: lat. kathedra - Russian. department, eng. standard - Russian. standard, lat. revisor - auditor.

Morphological development is the adaptation of a word to the grammatical system of the Russian language. Nouns, when mastered, obey the declension system, with the exception of non-declining nouns. Foreign language inflections, as a rule, are cut off or replaced by Russian ones, or become part of the stem. For example, gradus - degree, metallum - metal. When borrowing, it is possible to change the gender, since in other languages ​​the gender category is not grammatically relevant, but is determined on a semantic basis: all inanimate nouns are classified as neuter. In lat. language noun in -um belonged to the middle gender, and in Russian - to the male: aquarium, forum, council. In Greek. noun in -а were neuter, and in Russian they became feminine: theme. axiom, problem. Greek the words scarlet, asphalt, analysis were feminine. Changes can also be in number: for example, German. curl, valve, eng. coconut, cake, Greek. silo were n. pl. numbers. During development, a change in part of speech affiliation is observed. So, for example, major (fr.), Plenum (lat), piano (fr.), Nocturne (fr. "Night"), candidate (lat. "Dressed in white") were adjectives, creed (lat. "I believe" ) - verb, quorum (lat.) - pronoun. Due to the specifics of the Russian verb, as a rule, only the basis and the idea of ​​the action are borrowed, and it is formed according to the model of the Russian language: lieben - to love, gehen - to go.

Mastering is a lengthy process, so some words retain the characteristics of the original language, while creating an accent. In the process of borrowing, changes occur in the semantics of words. The meaning of words can be narrowed or expanded. In most cases, the word is borrowed in some specific meaning, so its semantics become narrower. For example, the French word la poudre meant "dust, powder, gunpowder", and was borrowed in the meaning of "powder for cosmetic purposes", lat. globus ("ball") has acquired the meaning of "model of the globe." An example of the expansion of semantics can serve as the words: greenhouse (from the French "greenhouse for growing oranges"), which means "any greenhouse" in Russian, the word room was in Italian. language meaning "room with a fireplace", in Russian. - any room in a residential building, vacations in lat. denoted the period from June 22 to August 23, when the Sun was in the constellation Canis, in Russian the word vacation means "a break in studies." The semantics can be changed to a greater extent: Greek. the diploma literally meant "a sheet folded in half", in Russian - "document", Latin for an entrant - "the one who is going to leave", in Russian - "the one who enters." Thus, entering the Russian language, a foreign language word must obey its rules, laws.

6. Oncology is a special type of borrowing

Calculation is called an "environmentally friendly" method of borrowing, since it allows, without destroying the integrity of the perception of the Russian lexical system, to expand its capabilities. Kalki (fr. Calgue - "copy, imitation") - words formed according to the model of a foreign language word. The tracing paper has been less studied for several reasons:

1) there are relatively fewer cripples than borrowings;

2) tracing paper is difficult to distinguish, since the criteria by which this or that word or combination should be recognized as the result of tracing are not clear.

There are several types of cripples: word-formation tracing paper, semantic tracing paper and semi-calques.

Word-building tracing paper is created by translating each morpheme of a foreign language word: consonance - gr. simphonia; proto-language - it. Urspache; peninsula - it. Halbinsel, adverb - lat. Аdverbum, television - television - half-calf (one of the parts without translation).

Semantic tracing paper is a word with a new figurative meaning that arose under the influence of the semantics of a foreign language word: shadow “illegal, not in power” (English) - shadow business, shadow economy; format "character, appearance, form" - eng. The meeting was held in an updated format; high “the best, elite” (English) - high fashion, high technologies, shock “shock, amaze” (English) - N. Mikhalkov's new film shocked the jury. Linguists note that the ratio of the types of cripples in different periods of language development is not the same. If in the XIX - XX centuries. word-formation tracing paper prevailed: superman, cost (German), binder (German), employer, skyscraper (English); Semantic calques are noted - the nail of the program (under the influence of the French), the platform “a set of principles of a political party” - under the influence of German, then in the Russian language of our days semantic calques predominate, and their main source is English.

Currently, the study of foreign language borrowings has a fairly long tradition. Since the 18th century, the problem of borrowing has constantly attracted the attention of domestic and foreign linguists, and above all the reasons for foreign language borrowing.

At the end of the XIX - beginning of the XX century. in works on borrowing, linguistic issues were considered in connection with cultural issues.

I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay in his work "Linguistics" writes that "with the help of the study of borrowed words, we can draw conclusions with great accuracy about the mutual cultural influence of one people on another" [Baudouin de Courtenay, II: 97].

JI. Bloomfield distinguishes dialectal borrowings and borrowings from the field of culture, when borrowed phenomena come from another language.

W. Weinreich notes that the speaker or listener (or both) usually know which language the utterance belongs to as a whole, elements that do not belong to it are distinguished as borrowed or transferred. This is one of the manifestations of linguistic interference.

Currently, the following problems are being actively developed: the dynamics of the borrowing process, the functioning of foreign words, the analysis of semantic shifts in them, the stages of assimilation of a foreign word and the differential signs of assimilation inherent in each stage for all language levels, the structural and semantic equivalence of the borrowed word and its foreign language prototype, the attitude of ordinary native speakers to foreign language vocabulary, forecasting the possibility of fixing a borrowed word in Russian.

The interaction between different languages ​​at the lexical level constitutes an important page in the history of the vocabulary of each national language. The problem of lexical borrowings as a consequence of such interaction is one of the important aspects in the development of the Russian language at different historical stages of its existence. When viewed synchronously, borrowings can be presented as a set of lexemes characteristic of each historical epoch; classifications of this kind represent layers of borrowings in a given language.

When considering diachrony in its dynamics, the idea of ​​gradual mastering of a word transferred from one language system to another in all its components (phonetic, accentological, semantic, grammatical and spelling adaptation) comes to the fore. The most common type of classification of borrowings is the classification according to the degree of mastering the word (starting with A. Schleicher's well-known division into foreign words - Fremdw? Rter and borrowed words - Lehnw? Rter).

Equally, both research plans admit etymological classification - according to the source of borrowing. The question of the etymological chronology of foreign language borrowings, that is, the question of which language and when this or that foreign language word came, attracted many Russian language researchers. This problem was studied by A.I.

Sobolevsky, I. Ogienko, Ya.K. Groth, L.P. Krysin, V.M. Aristova, E.F. Volodarskaya. The first appearance of English loanwords in Russian dates back to the 16th century. - to the beginning of the Anglo-Russian contacts. The second period of active borrowing of English words is the era of Peter I. The third period of penetration of English words is noted in the 20s of the XIX century. In the XX century. there was a fourth period of English borrowing, which took place in different years with different intensities.

In the "Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary" the following definition of borrowing is given: "Borrowing is an element of a foreign language (word, morpheme, syntactic structure, etc.), transferred from one language to another as a result of linguistic contacts, as well as the very process of transition of elements of one language in another ”[LES, 158]. Consequently, there are various types of borrowings: phonemes (the rarest case), morphemes, word borrowing, syntactic or structural-syntactic borrowing and semantic borrowing.

The most permeable in its essence is the lexical system, and, accordingly, the most mobile and capable of free migrations is such an element as a word. This is due to the very nature of the word, its focus on reality. The facts of material and cultural contacts, extra-linguistic facts play a decisive role in the implementation of borrowing at the lexical level.

The borrowing of such elements as phonemes and morphemes is a consequence of contacts at the lexical level. “Generalization of groups of lexemes with a similar derivational morpheme can lead to the allocation of a new unit of the word-formation level in the language” [Birzhakova, 8]. The same is the way of enriching the language with new phonemes, but this phenomenon is quite rare.

The phenomenon of semantic borrowing and the emergence of new units in the semantic structure of the word are fully connected with the word.

In our work, we will explore lexical borrowings.

In modern domestic and foreign linguistics, there are different approaches to the classification of borrowings: by the time of borrowing, by the source language, by the sphere of functioning of lexical units, by the degree of mastering of foreign language vocabulary by the recipient language.

There is no single view on the definitions of "borrowing" and "foreign language word".

In the "Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary" the following explanation of the difference between these terms is given: "3. they adapt to the system of the borrowing language and are often so assimilated by it that the foreign-language origin of such words is not felt by the speakers of this language and is revealed only with the help of etymological analysis ... foreign words retain traces of their foreign language origin in the form of sound, spelling, grammatical. and semantic. features that are alien to primordial words ”[LES, 158].

E. Haugen distributes all borrowings according to their structural features, based on the degree of morphemic and phonemic substitution:

a) loan words, i.e. full reproduction of a foreign language morpheme with zero, partial or full phonemic substitution;

b) borrowed morphemes (loan blends), i.e. partial reproduction of a foreign language model;

c) borrowed meanings (loan translations, semantic loans) with zero morphemic and phonemic reproduction.

Many linguists define “borrowed; word "as a word included in the lexical system of the recipient language, and a foreign word as a lexical unit not accepted into the system of the borrowing language [Krysin, 1968].

“Borrowing should be understood as any word that came into the Russian language from the outside, even if it does not differ in any way from the primordially Russian words in terms of its constituent morphemes” [Shansky, 1972: 86]. In borrowings N.M. Shanskiy distinguishes between foreign words and calques.

L.V. Shcherba, speaking of the mixing of languages, distinguishes three categories of such mixing: 1)

borrowings in the proper sense of the word, made by this language from a foreign one; 2)

changes in a particular language, which he owes to the influences of a foreign language; 3)

facts arising from insufficient acquisition of any language.

M.I. Fomina distinguishes two types of borrowings: from Slavic languages ​​and from non-Slavic languages. The latter, according to the process of mastering and stylistic role in the text, can be divided into the following groups:

a) international vocabulary, a variety of which are international terms;

b) exoticisms used to describe the life and life of other peoples, to create a local flavor;

c) barbarisms that are not fully mastered or not mastered at all and are used in terms alien to the Russian language;

d) grotesque-comic macaroni speech (immoderate filling of the text with barbarism or exoticism creates a comic effect) [Fomina, 1983].

L.P. Rat we find the following "main types of foreign words: 1)

borrowed words; 2)

exotic vocabulary; 3)

foreign language inclusions ”[Krysin, 1968: 43].

The fundamental difference between exoticism and inclusions, according to A.I. Zhuravsky, consists in their unequal attitude to reality and language. Exotisms, although they are elements of a foreign language, are aimed at acquainting the reader with new phenomena, objects and concepts. And foreign language inclusions mainly reflect the attitude towards a foreign language and the desire to acquaint the reader with the elements of a foreign language.

P.A. Budagov notes that “among the borrowed words, one should distinguish between foreign and international concepts” [Budagov, 90].

In our opinion, the most correct classification of foreign words is the classification of L.P. Ratty.

Linguistic and extralinguistic reasons for foreign language borrowing are distinguished, which are inextricably linked with each other.

According to U. Weinreich, the main reason for borrowing foreign words is the need to name a new phenomenon. If the borrowing has completely new content, it does not affect the vocabulary of the borrowing language. Otherwise, the transfer of units or the reproduction of foreign words affects the existing dictionary in one of three ways: 1)

creates a mixture of the content of new and old words; 2)

leads to the disappearance of the old word; 3)

preserves both new and old words, but specializes their meanings.

L.P. Krysin in the monograph "Foreign language word in the context of modern social life" gives the following linguistic reasons for borrowing:

the need for a name;

the need to distinguish between meaningfully close, but different concepts;

elimination of the polysemy of the original word, simplification of its semantic structure;

the need for specialization of concepts;

the tendency to match the indivisibility of the designated concept with the indivisibility of the designator;

perception of a foreign language word as more prestigious;

communicative relevance of the designated concept.

External, extralinguistic reasons for borrowing a foreign language vocabulary are:

close political, economic, industrial and cultural ties between peoples;

social, economic and political changes within the country of the borrowing language;

the political role of the country and the language from which the borrowing comes;

borrowing a thing, a concept and, together with them, borrowing a name.

L.P. Krysin says that “traditionally, the main condition for borrowing foreign words is the presence of contact of the recipient language with the source language and, as a consequence, the bilingualism of speakers” [Krysin, 1996: 143]. "... Any mutual influence of languages ​​requires the presence of people who, at least to an insignificant degree, were bilingual" [Shcherba, 1974: 67]. However, bilingualism is understood not only as territorial contacts of neighboring peoples. Reading and translation of foreign-language press, scientific and fictional literature, personal contacts at congresses, exhibitions, conferences, symposia, competitions, a great openness of society to the acceptance and use of foreign-language vocabulary create a fertile ground for borrowing.

The path of a foreign language word in the recipient language begins with its sporadic use by a small number of people who directly come into contact with texts in a foreign language or communicate with native speakers of a foreign language. behavior is reference for other native speakers. At different stages of the development of society, different social groups of speakers can be the conductors of a new foreign language vocabulary. In the XVIII century. such a guide was the language of diplomacy, the language of science, the language of business; “By the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. the role of the spoken language of scientists, writers, and journalists as a special environment for “processing” borrowing is growing ”[Krysin, 1993: 142]. In the XIX century. critics are gaining great influence, and in the last third of the XX century. - public figures, lawyers, members of political circles, unions and societies. In the XX century. the dominant place among the conductors of foreign words is occupied by the press, and nowadays - by radio and television. Social groups of native speakers, such as international journalists, sports commentators and reporters, artists, by their speech practice, contribute to the penetration of foreign words into the Russian language related to such thematic groups as politics, art, sports, diplomacy, fashion, entertainment, etc. Dr. L.P. Krysin notes that in "modern times" foreign language vocabulary penetrates almost exclusively through writing - mainly through such areas as the newspaper and scientific styles of speech. The press, as one of the main sources transmitting vocabulary from one language to another, was noted by O. Vaide ”[Krysin, 1968: 56].

According to its characteristics, foreign language vocabulary occupies a special place not only in dictionaries, but also in the linguistic consciousness of speakers. A foreign word captures the attention of native speakers; it turns out to be marked, complicated by negative or positive assessments, associations. So, a foreign language word is associated with bookishness, is incomprehensible, encrypted, socially prestigious, a manifestation of an alien ideology, fashionable. “Evaluation often turns out to be part of the lexical meaning, that is, it represents a certain semantic component, or forms positive or negative connotations of a given word” [Krysin, 1996: 146].

When a foreign-language word is borrowed by some uncodified language subsystem, it undergoes much more changes than when borrowing a literary language. But some subsystems borrow foreign language lexical material not directly from the source language, but through other subsystems of the given language, more often from literature. This phenomenon was first interpreted by V.V. Vinogradov in a work dedicated to the language of M.M. Zoshchenko: “... the cliches of book speech break down in their semantics, falling into a context that is not peculiar to them. Most often, the destruction of those semantic relationships that exist in the system of literary book vocabulary and phraseology occurs - through their extra-literary linkages or through morphological transformations ”[Vinogradov, 1928: 66] [cit. according to: Krysin, 1993: 148].

The process of alteration, alteration of literary words is characteristic of those units of the language that are perceived by the native speakers as socially prestigious, more cultural. Foreign language terms are the most striking example.

Observations on the use of scientific and technical terms in modern vernacular show that the processes of alteration are similar to those that are typical for the development of foreign language book vocabulary in general. But there are changes that are characteristic of the processing of a special term; personification, endowing the term with personal meaning and metonymy.

L.P. Krysin notes that studies show an extremely free circulation of colloquial speakers with foreign-language terminological vocabulary, but this freedom is not a consequence of knowledge of the corresponding concepts, but, on the contrary, is the result of ignorance or a very rough idea of ​​their content [Krysin, 1993].

The question of the etymological chronology of foreign language borrowings attracted many Russian language researchers, that is, the question of which language and when this or that foreign language word came. This problem was studied by A.I. Sobolevsky, I. Ogienko, Ya.K. Groth, L.P. Krysin, V.M. Aristova, E.F. Volodarskaya. The first appearance of English loanwords in Russian dates back to the 16th century. - the beginning of the Anglo-Russian contacts. The second period of active borrowing of English words is the era of Peter I. The third period of penetration of English words is noted in the 20s of the XIX century. In the XX century. the penetration of foreign words into the Russian language was uneven; in different years, words were borrowed from different languages, different thematic groups, and the attitude towards them was different. The largest percentage of borrowed words were words from the English language. And today, the borrowing of Anglicisms is an active process that affects almost all areas of human activity. The book by L.P. Rat "Foreign words in modern Russian". A detailed analysis of the process of borrowing a foreign language vocabulary by the Russian language in the Soviet period, an analysis of its functional and structural features allowed L.P. Rat to outline some common characteristic features of this process. The end of the 10s - the first half of the 20s is characterized by the development and use of foreign language vocabulary borrowed by the Russian language at the end of the 19th - first decade of the 20th century. broad masses, as well as stylistic shift and semantic expansion of the meaning of the borrowed word. New foreign words during this period are few in number and accidental. The author notes two essential features of the functioning of a foreign language vocabulary in this period:

a) increasing the frequency of foreign words in speech;

b) “variability of the form of a foreign language word. This refers to the sound of the word, and its meaningful parts - for example, affixes ”[Krysin, 1968: 82-83].

There are new technical foreign terms, words related to culture, sports, politics: foxtrot (from English foxtrot), blooming (from English blooming), sweater (from English sweater), etc.

In the late 1920s - early 1930s, the stabilization of the norms of the Russian literary language is outlined, the elimination of variability, the stabilization of foreign language vocabulary in the semantic and formal terms, and the delimitation of lexical doublets take place. The process of borrowing new foreign language vocabulary is being activated. Such borrowings are words denoting new realities and words that are not associated with the name of new concepts. New foreign language vocabulary refers primarily to technical and scientific terminology. The Russian language assimilates new borrowings without significant structural changes in foreign language prototypes. When describing events abroad in essay-journalistic genres, the frequency increases and the composition of exotic vocabulary expands.

A significant weakening of the borrowing process occurs in the 40s - early 50s, which is explained by extralinguistic reasons. This period was characterized by a sharply negative attitude towards everything foreign; therefore, foreign language vocabulary carries negative markings in semantic and stylistic terms and is used to depict the phenomena of foreign life. During this time, there were especially few new words borrowed from the English language, since the main words of the war years came from the German language. L.P. Krysin notes such words as bulldozer (from the English bulldozer), grader (from the English grader), which came into the Russian language together with the designated objects.

After the war, a struggle unfolded to cleanse the Russian language of foreign words and replace them with Russian words (for example, a bulldozer - a tractor blade) But, despite the tendency to abandon foreign words, new borrowings still penetrate the Russian language: adapter (from English adapter ), cross (from the English cross), radar (from the English radar). In such genres as articles on literature and art, travel essay, Englishisms and Americanisms are used, reflecting the realities of foreign life and having a negative emotional connotation: a gangster, a congressman (many of them are accompanied by explanations or translations).

Since the mid-50s, the process of borrowing has intensified, the functions, thematic and semantic circle of the borrowed vocabulary are expanding, the attitude towards foreign words is changing, and their frequency in journalism is increasing. New words enter the Russian language not only through scientific and technical literature, but also through newspapers, public speeches, translations of journalistic and artistic works, etc. During this period, there is an uneven influence of foreign language vocabulary on various subsystems of the language. So, for example, the terminology of technology and sports experienced the greatest foreign language influence. It is also important that there is a striving for adequate transmission of foreign language vocabulary by means of the Russian language, so that the overwhelming majority of new words do not differ structurally from foreign language prototypes.

In conclusion L.P. Krysin notes that in the Soviet period, in the process of vocabulary development, borrowed vocabulary plays a less noticeable role than methods such as word formation and semantic change of words. The author comes to the conclusion that at the present stage of the development of the Russian literary language, the borrowed word retains its structure with minor changes, that the tendency of weakening the process of semantic and word-formation tracing continues, and as a consequence - the internationalization of the vocabulary.

Currently, we are seeing a huge stream of foreign language vocabulary poured into the Russian language. And, of course, this phenomenon is reflected in the works of linguists who study various problems of foreign language borrowing. In the article "Foreign language word in the context of modern social life" L.P. Krysin notes that there is a distribution of foreign language words according to functional styles and speech genres. The largest number of borrowed words is observed in newspaper and magazine articles devoted to sports, art, fashion, politics, economics, and “Everyday speech does not experience any noticeable influx of foreign words” [Krysin, 1996: 158]. The intensification of the borrowing process is reflected in the change of names in the structures of the Vlmer-Mtister, Deputy Prime Minister, Mayor, Prefect, Sub-Prefect. A large number of English terminology is used in the field of computer technology: computer, display, hard drive, printer, driver, byte, bit, file, site [Krysin, 1996: 119]. A high percentage of Anglicisms was also noted in the field of sports (fighter, te-off, windsurfing, freestyle, skateboarding, kickboxing, overtime, armwrestling, etc.), economics (clearing, investor, dealer, distributor, voucher, broker, leasing, etc.) , art (sponsor, image, underground, thriller, show, showman, clip maker, hit, country, disc jockey, talk show, etc.). L.P. Krysin notes the peculiarities of the functioning of foreign language vocabulary at the present time. On the one hand, a borrowed word can be used without translation and any comments (even if it is a completely new term), and on the other hand, long borrowed and mastered words become the object of comments and explanations. Unlike the first half of the XX century. foreign language vocabulary loses its negative stylistic connotation, and the use of foreign words becomes prestigious, because it often indicates a high social and financial position of the speaker.

In special terminology, there are numerous borrowings due to the need to differentiate concepts or to specialize them: image, installation, killer, player, remake, sponsor, promoter. The tendency to establish a correspondence between the indivisibility of the object and the one-lexicality of its name explains the borrowing of the words overtime, tabloid, arm wrestling, know-how, hijacker. The terminology of computer technology, sports terminology, as well as the vocabulary of uncodified subsystems of the language (jargons of drug addicts, prostitutes, hippies, musicians, "shuttle traders") are constantly replenished with Anglicisms or tracing copies from English, which is explained by the presence in the language of existing systems of terms that are homogeneous in their source origin. The factor of the prestige of a foreign language word in comparison with the original word or previously borrowed and Russified had a certain impact on the activation of the use of such words as presentation, exclusive, consulting, shop, slacks. L.P. Krysin notes that “the greater social prestige of a foreign language, in comparison with the original, sometimes causes a phenomenon that can be called an increase in rank. A word that in the source language names an ordinary object, in the borrowing language is attached to an object, in one sense or another more significant, more prestigious ”[Krysin, 1996: 153].

The communicative relevance of concepts and the corresponding foreign words fall into the zone of social attention. At certain times, their frequency in speech becomes unusually high, they easily form derivative words and become an object of conscious use. But the social relevance of the concept can be lost, and then the communicative activity of the word denoting this concept decreases. The author gives an example with the word consensus, which did not leave the pages of newspapers and magazines and from the lips of politicians in the late 80s, but in the process of widespread use it lost its terminological certainty.

Noting the peculiarities of the functioning of foreign language vocabulary in modern Russian speech, L.P. Krysin writes that never before has a foreign language vocabulary been so widely borrowed, denoting realities that were considered to belong to another, "bourgeois" world. Now this vocabulary is filled with its own, "domestic" content (for example, words such as casino, cabaret, croupier, mafia, drug addiction, guest worker). Tolerant attitude to foreign language vocabulary is expressed in the fact that foreign words and phrases become the names of newspaper headlines, constant headings, sometimes even a foreign language spelling is preserved. But there is a tendency to clarify foreign words. Various kinds of author's comments to the used foreign language vocabulary by L.P. Krysin regards it as a kind of violation of speech automatism: “The speaker stops his attention on the form of the utterance, on the way of expression, which is very unusual for most“ normal ”speech acts” [Krysin, 1996: 156]. During the period when a foreign language word enters speech, cases of translation of this word into Russian are quite frequent, sometimes such a translation is carried out with the help of another borrowed word, the alienation of which is no longer felt by the speakers. Quite often there are comments by the writer or speaker about the use of a foreign language word, the sources of its origin, and its status in the Russian language.

The language of newspapers is characterized by cases of figurative, metaphorical use of foreign language vocabulary in unusual contexts, which indicates the widespread use and successful entry into the Russian language of foreign words, including special terms. The author says that there may be an impression of oversaturation of modern Russian speech with foreign words.

Currently, there is a large number of studies of words of English origin and suggesting different classifications.

M.G. Dakokhova, researching English borrowings in the Russian language of the 19th - 20th centuries, suggests the following classifications:

structural (division of anglicisms into groups depending on the composition of the word - one root or more than one root);

structural and semantic (all words are divided into groups based on monosemicity / polysemicity);

part of speech;

socio-communicative (anglicisms are divided into 30 groups according to denotative and communicative aspects of the meaning of the word).

B.JI. Vorontsov in the article "Active processes in the field of stress", using the criterion for the classification of borrowed words proposed by A.B. Superanskaya - according to the similarity of finite elements (finals), distributes the English-language borrowings of the 80s - 90s into the following groups:

nouns ending in -er, -or are two-syllable and three-syllable with an accent on the first syllable, which corresponds to the accent of the originals in English (sponsor, blazer, broker, dealer, manager, thriller) ",

nouns na -ing are two-syllable, characterized by stress on the first syllable (holding, rating, briefing, leasing, surfing) ", in polysyllabic words the stress falls on the syllable before the final (engineering);

polysyllabic nouns ending in -ment with accent on the first or second syllable as in English (establishment, impeachment, management,

nouns with singly presented endings, not combined into groups, -ey (display), -ile (freestyle), -et (market), -um (summit), -est (digest), -us (consensus) ", stress in these words are the same as in English;

monosyllabic nouns (grant, clip, file, byte, fax) ",

vowel nouns with accent on the first syllable (show, lobby, know-how).

The author notes that most monosyllabic words have a tendency to trivial stress, that is, the stress of the original is preserved. The number of words that tend to consolidate the stress on inflection in all declined forms or only in the plural is small. At present, these borrowings almost do not experience fluctuations in stress, they have yet to go through a period of assimilation and find an analogue among Russian words.

Computer and Internet technologies, which are used by people of different professions and ages, have become quite a distinctive and striking phenomenon of modern life. And, of course, the language of professional computer scientists and amateurs, the language of the Internet could not stay out of sight of linguists. The main attention in such studies is paid to the problem of word formation of foreign words on the Internet. A.A. Atabekova explores trends in the use of vocabulary in the language design of Web pages, which are a reflection of the culture of verbal communication. After analyzing sites of various social, professional and thematic orientations, the author draws the following conclusions:

a) typical use of lexical units that appeared as a result of the operation "transliteration plus an English word" (chat on-line);

b) found the use of English words without adaptation to the system of the Russian language in isolated use or as part of the phrase "English word form + Russian word form";

c) it is possible to combine the root English morpheme and Russian affixes;

d) there are inclusions of English units as independent statements or dependent components in syntactic constructions;

e) there are Russian nominative metaphors associated with the translation of English nominative metaphors in the process of mastering Internet technologies.

Statistical analysis showed that on sites for young people, compared to information and entertainment sites for representatives of older age groups, there is a large percentage of borrowings to designate blocks of information on pages. This is due to the fact that the younger generation as a whole speaks English more fluently and is more exposed to the expansion of the English-speaking culture. A.A. Atabekova's examples of word formation based on foreign words demonstrate the expansion of the sphere of corporate culture of users who make changes in the existing norms of word formation and the use of foreign words, although the use of such units as Chatlandia, Netskoe can hardly be justified from the point of view of preserving the norms of a standard literary language. website design, the author draws attention to the activation of the stylistic potential of lexical means. As a result of the analysis by A.A. Atabekova revealed that the following stylistic devices are traditionally used on Web pages - metaphor, metonymy, puns, allusion. Russian nominative metaphors in the space of Web pages are primarily associated with the translation of English nominative metaphors in the process of mastering Internet technologies. The author notes that “the emerging trends in the use of lexical units on Web pages do not cause the younger generation to find it difficult to identify the content of the site” [Atabekova, 68], in the survey results given in the article, the highest level of perception is 63%.

P.V. Likholitov analyzes the professional language of programmers and, especially, “the specific jargon of computer experts and just people who are fond of computer games” [Likholitov, 43]. The ways and means of forming computer jargon words are very diverse. First of all, the author of the article notes various methods of transfer (metaphor, metonymy), both native Russian words and borrowed ones. For example, you can find such a way of transferring as a synecdoche in the use of the word "boss" (from the English. Boss - boss) in the meaning of "the main villain" (usually this is an opponent in computer games). A special place in computer jargon is occupied by words that have no semantic motivation, but they have a connection with ordinary Russian words and computer terms, and this connection is based on partial homonymy (for example, "lazar" is a laser disk). There is a partial sound match in the roots of semantically dissimilar words (Lazarus-laser).

P.V. Likholitov identifies the following types of borrowing in the field of computer terminology:

grammatically not mastered, for example: "gamover" - unauthorized stop of a computer program (from the English game over - the end of the game);

grammatically mastered (jargon), for example: "mail" - letter (from the English. mail - mail);

Russified jargon, for example: “connect” - to communicate with a computer (from English to connect - to connect); "Pisyuk" - a personal computer (from the English abbreviation PC (personal computer -) formed with the suffix -yuk, characteristic of common speech;

abbreviations such as "poppies" refer to "Macintosh" computers;

semantic tracing paper, for example: "to kick" from the English. "To boot" takes on a figurative meaning in jargon - to load an operating system or program into a computer;

very often phrases are reduced to one word.

“Stylistically neutral words in the English language in the jargon of Russian programmers acquire a functionally determined reduced stylistic coloration: rude-fabulous, ironically-dismissive, or just colloquially casual” [Likholitov, 47].

B. Ya. Sharifullin notes two opposite in direction, but similar in goals, tendencies in the process of mastering a foreign language word in Russian. On the one hand, the borrowed word is likened to Russian words, which leads to "folk etymologization" or a language game, and on the other hand, "there is a desire to highlight, preserve the" excellent "," foreign ", due to which the expressiveness of word usage is enhanced" [Sharifullin, 46 ]. The author gives vivid examples of "dressing" borrowed words in the speech of young people and computer slang: cf. viewer "viewer", confuse "write file" (from English put). This is the result of a language game with a vivid expressive marking, which is caused by the desire to master the semantics of new Anglicism with the least effort.

The analysis of works devoted to foreign language borrowings allows us to conclude that at present the problems of etymology and chronology of borrowings have been investigated, the types of foreign words have been identified, the reasons, ways and conditions of borrowing have been disclosed, the methods of word formation of new borrowings have been studied, the stages of the adaptation process of a foreign word in the recipient have been identified. language. 1.1.

Getting into the Russian language, a foreign language word finds itself in a different language system, which differs from the source language by the features of the phonetic, grammatical structure, which has its own graphics, its own system of concepts. The borrowed word must adapt to this system in order to function normally in it. Therefore, the borrowed vocabulary, when switching from a foreign language, goes through the process of mastering. There are four types of mastering: phonetic, graphic, grammatical, semantic.

Phonetic mastering is a change in the sound appearance of words in accordance with the laws of the received language.

So, in the Russian phonetic system, many sounds are missing that are in foreign words coming into our language. When borrowing, they are replaced by the sounds of the Russian language. N: Aspirated sound H, which is in many languages, is replaced either by sound G: harmony(Greek harmonia), horoscope(Greek horoskopos), or sound NS: hippie(English hippie), hobby(eng. hobby).

Graphic mastering is the transfer of a word in writing using the letters of the borrowing language. The vast majority of borrowed words are transmitted using Cyrillic graphics: fax, office, stapler... However, at present it can be seen that many names of firms, their products are conveyed both by means of Cyrillic and by means of Latin graphics: “Dillette” and “Gillette” “Chop” - “Shop”.

Grammatical mastering is the subordination of someone else's word to the rules of the grammar of the borrowing language. Adaptation to the morphological system of the Russian language is associated with a change in the genus of the word: variety - m. (fr. - f.), vase - f. (fr.m.r.).

Semantic mastering is the inclusion of a foreign language word in the system of concepts of the borrowing language. Most of the loanwords used in our speech are semantically mastered: this is the designation of objects everyday life: sideboard, sofa, carpet; titles dishes, drinks: vermicelli, goulash, citro, cocoa; titles clothes: trousers, blouse, jeans.

Along with the semantically mastered words in our speech, there are many such foreign words that denote concepts that are not typical of Russian reality. N .: haiku(non-rhymed three-verse), guru(spiritual teacher). These words are called exoticism. Exotisms do not have synonyms in the Russian language, since they reflect the specific that is in the life of another people. Therefore, they can be translated into Russian only descriptively.

Exotic vocabulary reflects the most different aspects of the life of a particular country: its everyday life(in the name of dwellings, types of clothing, food): bungalow, saklya, chum, kimono, burqa, sari, lobio, spaghetti; culture(in the names of dances, musical instruments, literary genres): polonaise, rumba, tarantella, samisen, trembita, zekku. Many exoticisms reflect the realities associated with religion, beliefs: priest, mullah, rabbi, church, mosque... Exoticisms also include the names of phenomena that reflect the features geography, climate: prairie, samum, sirocco.

Along with exoticisms, in our speech we often find barbarism. Barbarisms- these are foreign words denoting realities, phenomena that exist in our life and are included in the system of concepts of the Russian language. Unlike exoticisms, barbarisms can be translated into Russian using one word without any semantic loss: good bye(English), orevoir(fr.), ciao(ital.) - Goodbye; sorry(fr.), sоrry(English) - sorry.

In modern Russian, there is a significant layer (layer) of international words. Internationalisms- these are words foreign in their morphological structure, mainly scientific and technical terms formed from Latin and Greek elements, existing not only in Russian, but also in other languages: telephone, telegraph, philosophy... The specificity of internationalisms is that they “have no homeland,” that is, living source of borrowing.

Such an expansion of the lexical layer and the appearance of dictionaries fixing this vocabulary contributed to the development of the literary language and the formation of its norms. The criteria for determining the mastery of foreign words are directly related to the processes of adaptation of the word in the recipient language. Semantic adaptation or semantic processing of a foreign language word is the adaptation of its semantic structure to the system of the borrowing language.

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Semantic adaptation of foreign language vocabulary (based on the material of dictionaries of foreign words of the XIX century)

Baryshnikova Svetlana Vladimirovna,

Senior Lecturer

Department of the Russian language

Institute of Philology

During the 19th century, Russia underwent a rapid development of the economy, science, technology, which entailed the involvement of foreign language vocabulary in the Russian language. This expansion of the lexical layer and the emergence of dictionaries fixing this vocabulary contributed to the development of the literary language, the formation of its norms.

The problem of mastering lexical borrowings in the Russian language was solved by many linguists of the 19th and 20th centuries. This problem has been actualized recently in connection with the active development of various aspects of the interaction of languages. The criteria for determining the mastery of foreign words are directly related to the processes of adaptation of a word in the recipient language. Semantic adaptation, or semantic processing, of a foreign language word is the adaptation of its semantic structure to the system of the borrowing language. "The lexical meaning of the newly borrowed word is formed, refined, polished as the word is included in syntagmatic and paradigmatic connections with the words of the receiving language." The consolidation of a foreign language word in Russian, as a rule, is accompanied by a variation in the external appearance of the word (sound, graphic), the change also applies to the content of the lexical meaning. This change occurs not only at the initial stage of borrowing, when the meaning of a new word in the recipient language is mobile and unstable, but the same changes can also occur during the functioning of the borrowed lexeme in the language.

In our work, the semantic development of foreign words borrowed at the end XVIII and XIX century or actualized in this period, is considered in the general context of active processes in the Russian literary language. At the same time, we focus on specific phenomena that characterize the process of lexical borrowing.

Researchers of the vocabulary of the Russian literary language XIX centuries note the "complex nature of the flow of borrowing" in this period, therefore, and the semantic adaptation of such units has a number of features. In a short time, a new foreign word “seeks” to become a full-fledged unit of the borrowing language, it enters into relationships with other words of the language, forming new thematic groups, entering the process of semantic derivation, determinologization, phraseologization, etc. The spheres of foreign language influence are changing.

From the point of view of the lexico-thematic characteristics, the composition of borrowings in XIX century differs from previous periods. This is due to the process of Europeanization of the life of Russian society in various spheres: social, cultural, scientific and everyday life. Thematic groups, which are actively replenished with foreign words, become more diverse: social and social vocabulary, art terms (theatrical, musical and confectionery crafts, names of clothing, etc.). By intensifying the process of borrowing household vocabulary and terms of medicine and anatomy in the end XVIII and XIX century due to the choice of material in our work.

Semantic changes in borrowings are due to such processes occurring in Russian vocabulary as: deideologization, active assimilation of foreign-style lexical means, actualization of words that were previously on the periphery of the language, transformation of semantics and the development of polysemy of some thematic groups, as well as a tendency towards systematic ordering of the lexical composition of the literary language aimed at transforming external relations between different genetic-stylistic layers - internal semantic-stylistic relations that form a new lexical-semantic system of the literary language.

Semantic adaptation of borrowings is a certain system in which a foreign language word goes through the stages of mastering the lexical meaning. We have identified the following parameters of semantic mastering of foreign language vocabulary in the period under study:

1. redistribution of the meanings of the borrowed word (narrowing, concretization, expansion, metaphorization, connotation, determinologization);
2. the emergence of semantic duplication;
3. change in stylistic coloring.

The process of entering a foreign language word into a receptor language is associated with its semantic development, the formation of semantic connections of a word in a new system, and its functioning in various contexts. An essential feature of the lexical semantics of foreign words is that at the moment of borrowing, as a rule, they are monosemous units. In the future, the borrowed lexico-semantic version can undergo changes, transform. Borrowing itself after some time can acquire a new meaning (values). When borrowing terms, words with a special meaning, the process of copying the semantics of the original word is characteristic. As noted by L.P. Krysin, M.A. Breiter and others, foreign language terms can not only designate new realities, but also name “old”, long-known concepts, but those that do not have a verbal designation by primordial means - a word or a stable phrase. In the course of the study, we observed the processes of transformation of the semantics of a foreign language word at different stages of its functioning in the receptor language (based on the analysis of lexical meanings recorded by dictionaries of foreign words of the beginning, middle and end of the 19th century). So, for example, a significant number of foreign words came from the French language, naming items of clothing, interiors, dwellings, means of transportation of that time, etc.: “But pantaloons, a tailcoat, a vest, / All these words are not in Russian» .

Pants, tailcoat, vestat the beginning of the XIX century. belonged to relatively new types of clothing, the functional use of which was established for a long time. The tailcoat was originally a dress for riding. Turning it into clothes for the salon was associated with Anglomania and the "fashionable arrogance" of English dandies. With the spread of English fashion on the continent, the tailcoat won recognition. The shape and name of the lower part of the men's suit was also in its infancy. French language and cultural tradition have created a well-established contrast between short pants, buttoned below the knee (culotte), and long ones, named after the costume of the comic character of the Italian scene. Pantalone ... The first were noble clothing, the second belonged to the costume of a person from the third estate. Later pantaloons (around the beginning XIX century) became fashionable in Russia. So the word trousers , borrowed from the French language, became part of the lexical system of the Russian literary language: “And Tsar Nikolai Pavlovich was right, constantly suspecting that under the wide brocade caftan of their stately "broadcast" trousers ordinary European bourgeoisie 1" [TO. N. Leontiev. Slavophilism of theory and Slavophilism of life (1891)] [RNC]. In the FRS (1962) the word is fixed in the meaning: “trousers, trousers; trousers; ~ de cheval leggings; ~ culo tte breeches". The most detailed interpretation of the word trousers (among dictionaries of foreign words XIX century) we find in the NS, in which the compiler fixes two lexical-semantic variants to it. In the first, the word is interpreted as “jester, buffon, actor in the comedy Italian face”, This meaning is motivated by the meaning of the word in Italian from which it was borrowed in French [UK 2008]. In the second meaning, the compiler gives a detailed description of this type of clothing, speaks of the possible harm to health from wearing pantaloons, because they “tighten the whole belly, the place of digestion and other important actions of the human body”, give advice to all who wish to wear such clothes, to pay attention “to this subject of lacing men; because nothing deserves much attention of each and every one, as the preservation of health by all possible means ... ”[NS 1803 - 1806]. In the Dictionary of 1861, a foreign language word has one definition, in which the number of differential semes is reduced, due to which the semantic volume of the word has expanded: from“A sort of wide trousers or long trousers reaching down to the ankles ..."They moved to the category"long wide pants". In SDubr. word pantaloons also has one meaning, in which the compiler includes differential semes characterizing a given type of clothing and belonging to a particular gender:"Kind of men's clothing", "kind of long clothing", "the size from the waist to the feet."In SD, the interpretation of the word is carried out using synonyms: “pants "," trousers "," underwear "(apparently, the latter has a relation with “ trousers "). IN AND. Dahl includes in the interpretation of the species semes:"Not wide", "tighter than trousers"[SD 1989]. Thus, having analyzed the semantics of a foreign language word trousers in dictionaries of foreign words XIX century, we note a noticeable expansion of the semantic volume of a word in dictionaries of the middle of the century and a narrowing of semantics (due to the appearance of differential semes) in dictionaries of the end of the century. Active use of the analyzed lexical unit in literary literary texts XIX century confirms the functional assimilation of this foreign language word in the Russian literary language:“Besides, you have to dress decently before the theater. Alexander looked at his dress and was surprised at his uncle's words. “What am I wearing indecently? - he thought, - blue coat, blue pantaloons ... " [AND. A. Goncharov. An Ordinary History (1847)] [RNR]. The given contexts confirm that during the period XIX century (in our opinion, it was during this period that the word was most actively used in Russian) the word refers to an item of men's outerwear, which can be both everyday and smart.

In the UK (2008), the word pantaloons has two lexical meanings, one of which is obsolete ("the same as pants"), and the second one interprets pantaloons like " type of women's underwear". The semantics of the word has changed: from the underwear of men trousers turned into a piece of women's underwear: “They laughed at something completely different. Blue trousers Ekaterina Mikhailovna. Long, almost to the knees *** "[Andrey Gelasimov. Fox Mulder looks like a pig (2001)] [RNC]. A similar change in semantics occurred in XX century. In Soviet times trousers were especially actively used as women's underwear: “God, what am I talking about - in your country at that time only ugly cotton pantaloons! " [Anna Karabash. La perla, or you never know? (2002) // "Brownie", 2002.06.04] [RNC]. This piece of clothing has not gone out of use at the present time.

Literature

Marinova 2008: Marinova, E.V. Foreign words in Russian speech of the late XX - early XXI centuries: problems of development and functioning / E.V. Marinov. - M., 2008 - 496 p .;

ILRLYA 1981: History of the vocabulary of the Russian literary language / Otv. ed. F.P. Owl. - M., 1981 - 374 p .;

Pushkin 1998: Pushkin, A.S. Compositions. Eugene Onegin - M., 1998 - 800 p .;

RNC: National Corpus of the Russian Language. - Access mode: http://www.ruscorpora.ru/search-main.html