Crib on "philosophy". Topic: Modern philosophy of the West A Camus considers the most important essential characteristic of being
The immediate forerunner of existentialism is the Danish philosopher...
S. Kierkegaard
The need to defend the consistency of religious truths in the context of the dominant scientific picture of the world becomes a prerequisite for the formation of a philosophical school...
Neo-Thomism
The founder of phenomenology is the philosopher ...
E. Husserl
The principle of determining the significance of knowledge by its practical consequences was formulated in the philosophical school ...
pragmatism
The relationship of the problem of truth with the analysis of the logical structure of language is the subject of research in the philosophical school ...
neopositivism
In the philosophy of postmodernism, the concept of "simulacrum" was introduced, denoting ...
copy of non-existent original
A. Camus considers the most important essential characteristic of being ...
J. Deleuze is a representative of the philosophy of ... Postmodernism
One of the most prominent representatives of the "philosophy of life" is ...
The spiritual value of the human personality in the context of the realities of the twentieth century is defended by the religious-idealistic trend ...
personalism
The clash of civilizations as a scenario for the near future of world history describes
S. Huntington
The priority of unconscious processes in the behavior and essence of a person is defended by the philosopher ...
The representative of the hermeneutic tradition in philosophy is ...
V. Dilthey
"The whole world is a text," says the philosophical school...
hermeneutics
Analysis of the dynamics of scientific knowledge becomes one of the central problems in the philosophical school...
post-positivism
Existentialism focuses primarily on the problem...
existence
According to J.-P. Sartre, the specificity of human existence lies in the fact that ...
existence precedes essence
Topic: Domestic philosophy
The philosophers who developed the theme of love in Russian philosophy include ...
V. V. Rozanov S. L. Frank
Russian philosophers of the 19th century include ...
N. G. Chernyshevsky V. S. Soloviev A. I. Herzen P. Ya. Chaadaev
The properties of Good, according to V.S. Solovyov, are ...
Purity Self-Legitimacy Effectiveness
The formation of "pre-philosophy" in Russia was influenced by ...
non-possessiveness
approval of the ideologeme "Moscow - the third Rome"
split of the Russian Orthodox Church
Representatives of the materialistic direction in Russian philosophy are ...
G. V. Plekhanov D. I. Pisarev M. A. Bakunin
Representatives of Russian religious philosophy of the 20th century include ...
S. L. Frank L. P. Karsavin S. N. Bulgakov N. A. Berdyaev
Representatives of Russian cosmism are ...
N. F. Fedorov K. E. Tsiolkovsky V.I. Vernadsky
Topic: Dialectics of Being
The essential determinateness of an object, due to which it exists precisely as such and not another object, is called ...
quality
The driving force of any development, according to dialectics, is ...
contradiction
Changing an object under the influence of its inherent contradictions, factors and conditions is called
self-propulsion
The internal content of an object, expressed in the stable unity of all the diverse and contradictory properties of being, is called ...
essence
An important characteristic of development is ...
irreversibility of changes
The measure of opportunity is called...
probability
The basic laws of dialectics were formulated ...
G. Hegel
Dialectics appeared as an opposition...
Metaphysics
A new stage of development in dialectics is called ...
synthesis
From the standpoint of dialectical materialism, the source of movement is ...
contradiction
The direction of development from the lowest to the highest is called...
Progress
The realization of a single possibility under certain conditions is called ...
Necessity
The system of philosophical views of K. Marx and F. Engels is called ...
dialectical materialism
A state alternative to stability, a transition from one state to another, is called ...
Change
The process of development, due to certain determining factors and subject to certain laws, is called ...
evolution
The materialist dialectic was developed and substantiated...
F. Engels
The main principles of dialectics, from the standpoint of dialectical materialism, are ...
universal communication and development
Directed, irreversible qualitative changes in the system are called ...
development
Topic: Concepts of being
In medieval philosophy, the source and the highest form of being was considered (-as, -axis) ...
The direction in philosophy, proceeding from the primacy of spiritual, mental, mental and the secondary nature of material, natural, physical being, is called ...
idealism
The doctrine of being is called...
ontology
The totality of all forms of existence of matter, the Universe in all its diversity are called ...
The potential form of being is called...
opportunity
The position according to which the world in relation to a person has two hypostases - will and representation, belongs to ...
M. Heidegger
The idea that being is formed as a unity of matter and form belongs to ...
Aristotle
The existence of a certain class of natural objects (microorganisms, plants and animals, including humans) is called ...
The position according to which there are two worlds - the noumenal ("things in themselves") and the phenomenal (representations of things), belongs to ...
Existentialism sees existence as...
human existence
The transformed form of being is called...
otherness
Dialectical-materialistic ontology refuses the concept of "______ being".
The essence in its existence is called...
Phenomenon
The equivalence of being and non-being, expressed in the acceptance of the two principles of everything that exists - atoms and emptiness, postulates ...
Democritus
The idea that the world exists only in the mind of one perceiving subject is called ...
solipsism
The doctrine of being is called...
ontology
The world of physical states is called...
material existence
According to M. Heidegger, _________ is the house of being.
Similar information.
a) universalism and individualism;
b) cosmocentrism and theocentrism;
c) materialism and idealism;
d) Stoicism and Epicureanism.
4. A characteristic feature of German classical philosophy is ...
a) theocentrism;
b) materialism;
c) anthroposociocentrism;
d) irrationalism.
5. The main features of the irrationalist trend in modern Western philosophy include ...
a) critical discussion of any issue;
b) skeptical attitude towards scientific achievements;
c) checking the truth of knowledge;
d) recognition of the value of scientific knowledge.
6. A. Camus considers the most important essential characteristic of being ...
7. The criterion of the truth of knowledge, from the point of view of R. Descartes' rationalism, is ...
a) clarity, clarity;
b) practical feasibility;
c) validity of logical conclusions;
d) reliability of experience.
8. J. Deleuze is a representative of the philosophy ...
a) Marxism;
b) postmodernism;
c) existentialism;
d) neo-Thomism.
9. The focus of ancient Greek natural philosophy is the question of (about) ...
a) the essence of a person;
b) the relationship between nature and society;
c) in the beginning;
d) the relationship between God and the world.
10. In the philosophy of the Enlightenment, the highest historical value of mankind is considered ...
a) art;
b) a strong state;
c) individual will;
d) progress.
11. In the philosophical system of G. Hegel, the central concept that guides and implements the process of development of all things is ...
b) a person;
c) an absolute idea;
d) absolute matter.
12. The ancient school called for refraining from judgments...
a) cynicism;
b) skepticism;
c) neoplatonism;
d) stoicism.
13. L. Feuerbach sees the main obstacle to happiness in ...
a) the sensual nature of man;
b) mind thinking "I";
c) alienation of human essence;
d) natural necessity.
14. Materialistic dialectics was developed and substantiated...
a) G. Hegel;
b) V. Solovyov;
c) F. Nietzsche;
d) F. Engels.
a) scholastics;
b) reformation;
c) patristics;
d) Averroism.
16. The concept of "intentionality" is characteristic of the philosophical direction ...
a) existentialism;
b) phenomenology;
c) structuralism;
d) Freudianism.
17. As a truly scientific method of cognition, F. Bacon claims ...
a) transfer;
b) induction;
18. The founder of psychoanalytic philosophy is ...
a) F. Nietzsche;
b) Z. Freud;
c) E. Fromm;
d) L. Feuerbach.
19. Realism and nominalism - directions in medieval scholasticism that solve the problem ...
a) the relationship between faith and reason;
b) the relationship between God and the world;
c) universals;
d) the purpose and meaning of history.
20. The philosophers of the Renaissance solved the problem of the relationship between God and the world from the position ...
a) deism;
b) Neoplatonism;
c) rationalism;
d) scholastics.
21. I. Kant sees the positive content of metaphysical ideas in the fact that they are ...
a) a priori forms of thinking;
b) a posteriori data;
c) objects of theoretical reason;
d) objects of practical reason.
22. In the tradition of German classical philosophy, the system of subjective idealism was created...
a) K. Jaspers;
b) G. Hegel;
c) D. Hume;
d) I. Fichte.
23. Defending the idea of a special status of the head of state, standing outside the system of philistine morality, N. Machiavelli becomes the founder of such a socio-political trend as ...
a) plutocracy;
d) comparative political science.
24. Ontology as a doctrine of being is born in philosophy...
a) Plato
b) Heraclitus;
c) Parmenides;
d) Pythagoras.
25. The philosophical direction, whose representatives consider understanding and interpretation as the main ways of knowing, is called ...
a) dialectics;
b) nominalism;
c) hermeneutics;
d) empiricism.
26. The philosophical position of L. Feuerbach can be defined as...
b) vulgar materialism;
c) subjective idealism;
d) anthropological materialism.
27. Zeno of Elea, in his aporias, raised the problem...
a) existence and non-existence;
b) a priori knowledge;
c) logical contradictions;
d) freedom and necessity.
28. Representatives of philosophical neorealism include ...
a) E. Husserl;
b) B. Russell;
d) A. Schopenhauer.
29. The ideological movement of the Renaissance, upholding respect for the dignity and rights of man, his value as a person, is called ...
a) humanism;
b) anthropodices;
c) secularization;
d) liberalism.
30. The opposition of materialism and idealism in ancient Greek philosophy is represented by the teachings ...
a) Heraclitus and Pythagoras;
b) Plato and Aristotle;
c) Democritus and Plato;
d) Democritus and Epicurus.
31. The central problem in the philosophy of modern times is ...
a) proof of the absence of a center in the universe;
b) the dialectic of absolute and relative truth;
c) development of the scientific method;
d) the question of the relationship between faith and reason.
32. A sufficient condition for moral action, according to Socrates, is ...
a) renunciation of sensual pleasures;
b) knowledge of the nature of things;
c) striving for a goal;
d) knowledge of the good.
33. From the point of view of Thomas Aquinas, faith and reason are in a state of ...
a) dialogue
b) harmony;
c) neutrality;
d) enmity.
34. The founder of positivism in philosophy is ...
a) I. Kant;
b) W. Dilthey;
c) O. Comte;
d) M. Heidegger.
35. Establish a correspondence between the model of the world and the philosopher in whose work this model was embodied.
Section 3. History of Russian Philosophy
1. The “pre-philosophy” of Kievan Rus is characteristic of ...
a) the priority of natural philosophical constructions;
b) mysticism;
c) moralizing character;
d) substantiation of the exclusivity of the Russian people.
2. Properties of Good, according to opinion, are not ...
b) cleanliness;
c) self-legality;
d) rationality.
3. "The Word of Law and Grace" was written by ...
a) Daniil Zatochnik;
b) Philotheus;
c) Vladimir Monomakh;
d) Hilarion.
4. The ideologeme "Moscow - the Third Rome" was first substantiated by ...
a) Philotheus;
b) Vladimir Monomakh;
c) Dionysius;
d) Sergius of Radonezh.
5. A supporter of deistic materialism in Russian philosophy was ...
6. "Russian Socrates" was nicknamed ...
b) Daniil Zatochnik;
d) Stefan Yavorsky.
7. The work “On Man, on His Mortality and Immortality”, which is one of the first philosophical and anthropological works in the history of Russian philosophy, was written ...
c) Daniil Zatochnik;
8. Russian philosophers of the 19th century include ... (
9. The question of the role and place of Russia in the history of mankind was raised in the "Philosophical Letters" ...
10. The ideological head of the Slavophiles was ...
11. The term "sobornost" in the philosophy of the Slavophils means ...
a) the communal structure of society in the absence of state power;
b) the priority of the collective over the individual;
c) free unity of people in Christ;
d) the salvation of all believers.
12. The central concept of philosophy is ...
a) mini-system;
b) civilization;
c) noosphere;
14. The philosophers who developed the theme of love in Russian philosophy include ... ( more than one answer is possible)
15. Representatives of Russian cosmism are ... ( more than one answer is possible)
b) K. Jaspers:
d) O. Spengler.
17. Representatives of the materialistic trend in Russian philosophy are ... ( more than one answer is possible)
a) Pavel Florensky;
b) Vladimir Solovyov;
c) Alexey Losev;
d) Nikolai Berdyaev.
19. The course of Russian social and political thought in the 40s. XIX century, which advocated overcoming the historical backwardness of Russia from the countries of Western Europe, was called ...
b) radicalism;
c) Westernism;
d) historicism.
20. The ethical position can be characterized as ethics...
a) resistance to evil by force;
b) lesser evil;
c) benefits;
d) non-violence.
21. One of the specific features of the Russian philosophical tradition is ...
- 264.50 KbAugustine Aurelius is the most prominent representative of the medieval philosophy of the period ... patristics, scholastics
Agnosticism is characteristic of philosophy: conventionalism; positivism; subjective idealism
The axiological aspect characterizes such a property of consciousness as selectivity.
Analysis of the dynamics of scientific knowledge becomes one of the central problems in the philosophical school of ... postpositivism
Angelic Doctor" is called the medieval thinker Thomas Aquinas.
The attributes of matter are ... universal and inalienable properties of material objects
B. Spinoza believed that there is only one substance that is the cause of itself - this is ... nature
The basic concept of the materialistic approach to history is ... a socio-economic formation
Infinity and infinity, both in the existential and cognitive senses, is called ... infinity
The existence of a certain class of natural objects (microorganisms, plants and wildlife, including humans) is called ... life
B. Russell's statement "... The circumstances of people's lives largely determine their philosophy, but vice versa, their philosophy largely determines these circumstances" reflects the social function of philosophy.
In the dualism of R. Descartes, substances are ... extended and thinking
In Italian philosophy, the image of a utopian state - the city of the Sun - was created by ... T. Campanella
The philosophical ideas of the school of ... Confucianism were adopted as the official ideology of the Chinese Empire.
In Marxist philosophy, the science of the most general laws of the development of nature, society and thinking is ... Dialectics
In thinking, the following levels are distinguished: reason, reason
In modern European philosophy, the question of the fundamental principle of the world is solved with the help of the concept ... substance
The classical concept of truth is based on the principle of ... correspondence
The basis of the modern biological picture of the world is the principle of ... evolution
At the heart of the modern scientific picture of the world lies ... the theory of relativity
At the heart of the philosophical picture of the world lies the solution to the problem of ... being
Unlike non-scientific knowledge, scientific knowledge is characterized by ... consistency, evidence
Unlike idealism, materialism considers the ideal as ... a subjective image of objective reality
Within the framework of Chinese philosophy, there is an idea that the world arose as a result of the interaction of five principles (Wu-xing), such a position in philosophy is called ... pluralism
In modern epistemology, there are various concepts of truth: classical (correspondent); conventionalist.
In modern scientific literature, technology in the broad sense of the word means any means and methods of activity created by man to achieve any goals.
In medieval philosophy, the source and highest form of being was considered (-as, -axis) ... God
In medieval philosophy, the special status of a person in the system of the world order is determined by the fact that he was created ... in the image and likeness of God
In the structure of consciousness, along with thinking, they distinguish ... Will and emotions
There are two periods in Kant's work: pre-critical; critical.
In the tradition of German classical philosophy, the system of subjective idealism was created by ... I. Fichte
In the utopian writings of Thomas More and Tommaso Campanella, the following features of an ideal state are presented: compulsory labor / education / common property
In the philosophy of postmodernism, the concept of "simulacrum" was introduced, denoting a copy of a non-existent original.
In the philosophy of the Enlightenment, the highest historical value of mankind is considered ... progress
In the philosophy of the Enlightenment, the main sign of a person was considered (-s) ... reason
In philosophy, various historical theories, a certain "philosophy of history" are denoted by the term ... historicism
In the philosophy of the twentieth century, the idea of the end of history is developed by the American philosopher ... F. Fukuyama
In the philosophical system of G. Hegel, the central concept that guides and implements the process of development of everything that exists is ... the absolute idea
In the twentieth century, the opposition of two social systems - socialism and capitalism, was designated by the term ... "bipolar world"
In the Renaissance, a new natural philosophy is emerging, which is characterized by the following features: pantheism; the idea of the identity of the micro- and macrocosms, as well as ... hylozoism, the belief in the liveliness and even animation of all being / the idea of self-activity of matter
In the ethics of I. Kant, the universal and necessary moral law, which does not depend on the actual conditions of human will and therefore is unconditionally obligatory for execution, is called ... the categorical imperative
The most important social value is ... a person
A. Camus considers the most important essential characteristic of being ... absurdity
The most important component of the material and production sphere is ... labor
An important characteristic of development is ... the irreversibility of changes
The leading epistemological problem of modern times is the problem of the relationship between the subject and objective reality.
Man's faith in the world of divine revelation, ideal values is characteristic of _ cognition. religious
The whole world is a text, ”says the philosophical school of ... hermeneutics
Interdependent, mutually stimulating science and technology is called technical progress
The relationship of the problem of truth with the analysis of the logical structure of language is the subject of research in the philosophical school of ... neopositivism
The type of matter that exists exclusively on Earth is called ... socially organized matter
Vital values are linked to the ideals of…healthy living
The external essence of a phenomenon that justifies its existence is called ... the meaning
The internal content of an object, expressed in the stable unity of all the diverse and contradictory properties of being, is called ... the essence
The internal dismemberment of material existence is called ... structural
The ancient school called for refraining from judgments ... skepticism
The emergence of fundamentally new images and ideas in the mind is associated with such a person's cognitive ability as intuition.
The emergence of engineering activity is associated with the emergence of manufactory and machine production.
The question of the relation of thinking to being as the main question of philosophy was formulated by F. Engels.
Questions - is the world cognizable, is truth achievable? - relate to ___________ problems of philosophy. epistemological
Questions - what comes first? what is being, substance, matter? - relate to _____________ problems of philosophy. ontological
Questions - what is good and evil? what is morality, morality, dignity? - relate to __________ problems of philosophy. ethical
Questions of anthroposociogenesis, the essence and existence of man belong to _____________ problems of philosophy. Anthropological
Upbringing and education belong to __________ culture. spiritual
Perception is a form of reflection of reality at the level of cognition. sensual
Whole concentration, immutability and fullness of being and life, endless duration is called ... eternity
The entire philosophy of the Hellenistic period is permeated by the contradiction between ... universalism and individualism
Any inanimate system tends to the most probable state for it, that is, to chaos, - says the law of ... entropy
Putting forward a theory about the presence of many spiritual entities - "monads" that make up the fundamental principle of the world, G. V. Leibniz becomes a representative of ontological ... pluralism
Performing an ideological function, philosophy formulates ... a system of certain values
The expression "Man is a wolf to man" belongs to ... T. Hobbes
The statement “It (technology) exposes a person to a process of dismemberment, separation, by virtue of which a person, as it were, ceases to be a natural being, as he was before” belongs to N.A. Berdyaev
The saying “Man is the measure of all things: those that exist in that they exist, and those that do not exist in that they do not exist” belongs to ... Protagoras
The highest degree of a valuable, or the best, completed state of any phenomenon is called ... an ideal
The highest form of mental activity inherent in the human way of life is called ... consciousness
The highest level of knowledge and ideal development of the world in the form of theories, ideas, human goals is ... Thinking
The highest good for a person, from the point of view of Renaissance humanism, is ... pleasure, happiness
GV Plekhanov is a representative of Marxism.
Hegel considered world history as a natural process of development ... of an absolute idea
The main danger of technological progress is that the development of technology: contributes to the rapid pollution of the environment; threatens to become an end in itself.
L. Feuerbach sees the main obstacle to happiness in ... the alienation of human essence
The main difference between faith and knowledge is ... subjective significance
Global problems associated with the catastrophic destruction of the natural basis for the existence of world civilization, environmental pollution, climate change, are called ... environmental
The global problems associated with an excessive increase in the population of the Earth, the deterioration of the health of the population, the aging of the population in developed countries, the high birth rate in underdeveloped countries, are called ... demographic
The epistemological position that draws an insurmountable boundary between experience and objective reality is called agnosticism.
The epistemological trend that doubts the reliability of human knowledge and recognizes the relativity of all knowledge is called ... skepticism
Epistemology studies: human cognitive abilities; the structure of the process of cognition; the problem of knowing the world.
The humanistic function of philosophy includes ... the formation of values \u200b\u200band ideals / helping a person during periods of unstable development of society
Movement is any change.
The driving force of any development, according to dialectics, is ... a contradiction
The driving force of social development is divine providence, according to representatives of the ___ approach ... theological
Two logically possible alternative interpretations of scientific knowledge are: non-classical philosophy of science, classical philosophy of science.
The motto "Know thyself" is associated in the history of philosophy with the name of ... Socrates
The activity of thinking aimed at creating a theoretical world and models describing it is called construction.
The activity of receiving, storing, processing and systematizing conscious concrete sensory and conceptual images is called ... Cognition
The activities of the philosophers of the Enlightenment, aimed at criticizing the vices of society and the state, existing on the basis of church institutions, can be designated as ... anti-clericalism
Dialectics appeared as an opposition to ... metaphysics
Dialectics is the methodology of knowledge, which requires the study of phenomena in their inconsistency, variability and interconnection.
Dialectical-materialistic ontology refuses the concept of "______ being" ... pure
Dialectical materialism singles out ... practical activity as the essence of man
The duration and sequence of successive events is called ... time
Work description
They can be inductive and deductive. inference
Augustine Aurelius is the most prominent representative of the medieval philosophy of the period ... patristics, scholastics
The author of the concept of a "single industrial society" is ... R. aron
The author of the concept of "methodological anarchism" is P. Feyerabend
The author of the concept of "justified rationalism" is ... G. Bashlyar
Answers to test tasks in PHILOSOPHY 2012-13 ac. Year (2 semester) for EMF and FUPP
1. "The whole world is a text," says the philosophical school... hermeneutics
2. “Truth is an agreement,” the representatives believed ... conventionalism
3. From the point of view of conventionalism, the main criterion of truth is ... an agreement between scientists
4. From the point of view of pragmatism, the main criterion for truth is ... success
20. Analysis of the dynamics of scientific knowledge becomes one of the central problems in the philosophical school ... post-positivism
21. The attributes of matter are… universal and inalienable properties of material objects
22. B. Spinoza believed that there is only one substance that is the cause of itself - this is ... nature
23. The basic concept of the materialistic approach to history is ... socio-economic formation
24. The existence of a certain class of natural objects (microorganisms, plants and wildlife, including humans) is called ... life
25. In Italian philosophy, the image of a utopian state - the city of the Sun - was created ... T. Campanella
26. In Marxist philosophy, the science of the most general laws of the development of nature, society and thinking is ... dialectics
27. The following levels are distinguished in thinking: mind reason
28. In modern European philosophy, the question of the fundamental principle of the world is solved with the help of the concept ... substance
29. The basis of the modern biological picture of the world is the principle of ... evolution
30. At the heart of the modern scientific picture of the world lies ... theory of relativity
31. At the heart of the philosophical picture of the world lies the solution to the problem of ... being
32. Unlike idealism, materialism considers the ideal as ... a subjective image of objective reality
33. Within the framework of Chinese philosophy, there is an idea that the world arose as a result of the interaction of five primary principles (U-xing), such a position in philosophy is called ... pluralism
34. In medieval philosophy, (-as, -axis) was considered the source and highest form of being ... God
35. In medieval philosophy, the special status of a person in the system of the world order is determined by the fact that he was created ... in the image and likeness of God
36. In the philosophy of postmodernism, the concept of "simulacrum" was introduced, denoting copy of non-existent original
37. In the philosophy of the Enlightenment, the main sign of a person was considered (-s) ... reason
38. In philosophy, various historical theories, a certain "philosophy of history" are denoted by the term ... historicism
39. In the philosophical system of G. Hegel, the central concept that guides and implements the process of development of everything that exists is ... absolute idea
40. In the twentieth century, the opposition of two social systems - socialism and capitalism, was designated by the term ... "bipolar world"
41. In the ethics of I. Kant, the universal and necessary moral law, which does not depend on the actual conditions of human will and therefore is unconditionally obligatory for execution, is called ... the categorical imperative
42. The most important social value is ... Human
43. A. Camus considers the most important essential characteristic of being ... absurd
44. The most important component of the material and production sphere is ... labor
45. An important characteristic of development is ... the irreversibility of changes
46. Man's faith in the world of divine revelation, ideal values is characteristic of _ knowledge. religious
47. The relationship of the problem of truth with the analysis of the logical structure of language is the subject of research in the philosophical school ... neopositivism
48. The internal content of an object, expressed in the stable unity of all the diverse and contradictory properties of being, is called ... the essence
49. The internal dismemberment of material existence is called ... structural
50. The ancient school called for refraining from judgments ... skepticism
51. Questions - is the world cognizable, is the truth achievable? - relate to ___________ problems of philosophy. epistemological
52. Questions - what comes first? what is being, substance, matter? - relate to _____________ problems of philosophy. ontological
53. Questions - what is good and evil? what is morality, morality, dignity? - relate to __________ problems of philosophy. ethical
54. Upbringing and education belong to __________ culture. spiritual
55. Perception is a form of reflection of reality at the level of cognition. sensual
56. Whole concentration, immutability and fullness of being and life, endless duration is called ... eternity
57. Any inanimate system tends to the most probable state for it, that is, to chaos, - says the law ... of entropy
58. Putting forward a theory about the presence of many spiritual entities - "monads" that make up the fundamental principle of the world, G. V. Leibniz becomes a representative of ontological ... pluralism
59. Performing an ideological function, philosophy formulates ... a system of certain values
60. The expression "Man is a wolf to man" belongs to ... T. Hobbes
61. The saying “Man is the measure of all things: those that exist in that they exist, and those that do not exist in that they do not exist” belongs to ... Protagoras
62. The highest degree of a valuable, or the best, complete state of any phenomenon is called ... ideal
63. The highest form of mental activity inherent in the human way of life is called ... consciousness
64. The highest level of knowledge and ideal development of the world in the form of theories, ideas, human goals is ... thinking
65. The highest good for a person, from the point of view of Renaissance humanism, is ... pleasure, happiness
66. Hegel considered world history as a natural process of development ... of an absolute idea
67. L. Feuerbach sees the main obstacle to happiness in ... alienation of human nature
68. The main difference between faith and knowledge is ... subjective significance
69. Global problems associated with the catastrophic destruction of the natural basis for the existence of world civilization, environmental pollution, climate change, are called ... environmental
70. Global problems associated with an excessive increase in the population of the Earth, deteriorating health of the population, aging of the population in developed countries, high birth rates in underdeveloped countries, are called ... demographic
71. An epistemological trend that doubts the reliability of human knowledge and recognizes the relativity of all knowledge is called ... skepticism
72. The driving force of any development, according to dialectics, is ... contradiction
73. The motto "Know thyself" is associated in the history of philosophy with the name of ... Socrates
74. The activity of receiving, storing, processing and systematizing conscious concrete sensory and conceptual images is called ... cognition
75. The activity of philosophers of the Enlightenment, aimed at criticizing the vices of society and the state, existing on the basis of church institutions, can be designated as ... anti-clericalism
76. Dialectic appeared as an opposition... metaphysics
77. Dialectical materialism singles out ... practical activity as the essence of man
78. The duration and sequence of successive events is called ... time
79. To distinguish between scientific and non-scientific knowledge, K. Popper proposed the principle ... falsifications
80. Medieval philosophy associated with the Christian religion is characterized by ... monotheism
81. A sufficient condition for moral action, according to Socrates, is ... knowledge of the good
82. The spiritual value of the human personality in the context of the realities of the twentieth century is defended by the religious-idealistic trend ... personalism
83. The natural end of a single living being, which only for a person acts as a defining moment of his life and worldview, is called ... death
84. The defense of Christian truths from criticism from the later ancient schools was called ... apologetics
85. Knowledge, which is directly given to the consciousness of the subject and is accompanied by a feeling of direct contact with the cognized reality, is called ... experience
86. Knowledge that deliberately distorts the idea of reality is called ... anti-scientific
87. The game as a universal principle of the formation of human culture was proposed ... J. Huizingoy
88. The ideas of Marxist philosophy on Russian soil were developed by ... A. A. Bogdanov
89. An ideology that absolutizes the role of the state in society and involves extensive and active state intervention in the economic and social life of society has been called ... statism
90. The idea of the “end of history” in the modern global world was proposed by ... F. Fukuyama
91. The idea as the fundamental principle of the world was proposed by ... Plato
92. The idea of regression of historical development was proposed by ... Hesiod
93. Changing an object under the influence of its inherent contradictions, factors and conditions is called ... self-propulsion
94. The historically developing set of man-made means that allow people to use natural materials, phenomena and processes to meet their needs is called ... technology
95. A historically stable community of people, formed on the basis of a common language, territory, economic life, material and spiritual culture, is called ... a nation
96. History is a linear progressive movement, the logic of which is expressed in a change in socio-economic formations, representatives of the ____________ approach believe. formational
97. The history of the culture of mankind, in which there were many original cultural traditions, is called ... world culture
98. The global problems of interstate relations include the problem of ... war and peace
99. The natural sciences include ... physics chemistry biology
100. The ideal objects of scientific knowledge include ... geometric point, ideal of justice
101. General scientific methods include ... abstraction, analysis, induction
102. The main forms of theoretical knowledge include ... problem, hypothesis, law
103. The features of personal cognition include ... dependence on the abilities of the subject
104. The principle of ... consistency
105. Among the Socratic schools is the school of ... cynics
106. K. Jaspers believes that the peculiarity of modern technical civilization is that ... technology is only a tool in the hands of man
107. The picture of the world that arose in the 17th century, based on the principles of deism, is called ... mechanistic
110. Classical science is based on the principle of ... objectivity
111. The classical definition of personality in Western European philosophy was given by ... Boethius
112. A quantitative measure of possibility is called ... probability
113. The concept of modern science and philosophy, which considers it necessary to consider the evolution of human society and the biosphere in a single scientific system, is called ... co-evolution
114. The concept, according to which a person is considered as the highest value, the meaning of earthly civilization, is called ... personalism
115. The concept that man was created by God is called ... creationism
116. The criterion of the truth of knowledge, from the point of view of R. Descartes' rationalism, is ... obviousness, clarity
117. A cultural community with its own limited circle of adherents, with its own values and ideas, style of clothing, language, norms of behavior, is called ... subculture
118. Personality as a special individual entity became the object of philosophical analysis in the period Middle Ages
119. Personality as a subject of social relations is characterized by ... activity
120. Materialistic dialectics was developed and substantiated by ... F. Engels
121. An interdisciplinary direction that studies the process of evolution and self-organization of complex systems is called ... synergetics
122. An international public organization engaged in the scientific study of global problems is called the ___________ club. Roman
123. Metaphysics as a model of development absolutizes ... sustainability
124. The ideological position, which limits the role of God to the act of creating the world and setting it in motion, is called ... deism
125. The variety of objects produced by man, as well as natural things and phenomena changed by human influence, are called ... material culture
126. The thinker who introduced the concept of “world-historical spirit” into scientific circulation was ... G. Hegel
127. The thinker who substantiated the concept of "post-industrialism" is ... D. Bell
128. The thinker who defended the priority of geographical factors in social development was ... C. Montesquieu
129. The thinker defending the priority of the demographic factor in social development was ... T. Malthus
130. The thinker who develops the theory of the social contract of the origin of the state is ... T. Hobbes
131. A thinker who considers culture as a product of the sublimation of unconscious mental processes is ... Z. Freud
132. A thinker who considers the scientific and technological potential as the dominant indicator of historical development is ... D. Bell
133. A thinker who considers the course of development of civilizations through the “challenge-and-response” scheme is ... A. Toynbee
134. The thinker who believed that “in the modern social life of Europe ... all power in society has passed to the masses” is ... J. Ortega y Gasset
135. The thinker who argued that an outstanding person must have three decisive qualities: passion, a sense of responsibility and an eye, was ... M. Weber
136. The most general laws and values of social life are studied by ... social philosophy
137. The most significant achievements of the philosophy of Thomas Aquinas were developed by the school ... Thomism
138. The direction in medieval scholasticism, which affirmed the real (physical) existence of things and recognized general concepts only as names of things, is called ... nominalism
139. The direction in the theory of knowledge, whose representatives consider sensory experience the main source of knowledge, is called ... empiricism
140. The direction in philosophy, which considers the spiritual fundamental principle of the world, nature, being, is called ... idealism
142. The direction that considers science and scientific and technological progress to be the main cause of global problems and criticizes them is called ... anti-scientism
143. The focus on the chosen consumer, who has artistic susceptibility and material means, is characteristic of ___________ culture. Elite
145. The science that studies all forms of social behavior of living beings, including humans, based on the principles of genetics and evolutionary biology, is called ... sociobiology
146. science in the system of culture, the spiritual life of society, is called ... scientism
147. The science of the forms and methods of rational thinking is ... logic
148. The beginning of the dispute between the Slavophiles and Westernizers was laid by the publication of “Philosophical Letters” ... P. Ya. Chaadaeva
149. An indivisible, non-composite unity, the beginning of being, a measure and a prototype of a number is called ... a monad
150. The need to defend the consistency of religious truths in the context of the dominant scientific picture of the world becomes a prerequisite for the formation of a philosophical school ... neo-Thomism
151. The need to defend the viability of religious truths in the context of the dominant scientific picture of the world becomes a prerequisite for the formation of a philosophical school ... neo-Thomism
152. The Danish philosopher is considered the immediate predecessor of existentialism ... S. Kierkegaard
153. The field of knowledge about the systemic organization of society, which studies the structural aspect of social life, is called ... sociology
154. The area of knowledge in which the regularities of the “second nature” are described and studied is called ___________ sciences. Technical
155. The field of research aimed at understanding the nature of technology and assessing its impact on society, culture and man is called ... philosophy of technology
156. The field of philosophical knowledge, seeking to rationally comprehend the integrity of nature and its origin, to comprehend nature as a general, ultimate concept, is called ... natural philosophy
157. The field of knowledge, historically the first to make the transition to the proper scientific knowledge of the world, is ... mathematics
158. The image of a person as a set of instincts, drives, conflicts arises in ... psychoanalysis
159. Social being determines social consciousness, representatives of the _ approach believe. Marxist
160. Social being determines social consciousness, representatives of the _______________ approach believe. Marxist
161. A society that has achieved partnership relations with the state, capable of putting the state under its control, while ensuring the safety of its citizens, is called ... civil
162. Society, its structure and historical development are determined by the laws of nature, believe the representatives of the ____________ approach. naturalistic
163. Objective reality that exists outside and independently of human consciousness and reflected by it is called ... matter
164. The limited knowledge of the historical conditions of society is reflected in the category "_____". Relative truth
165. One of the most prominent representatives of ancient Greek atomism was ... Democritus
166. One of the most prominent representatives of Roman stoicism is ... Marcus Aurelius
167. One of the most prominent representatives of the "philosophy of life" is ... F. Nietzsche
168. One of the signs of pseudoscientific theories is ... uncritical use of facts
169. One of the principles of non-classical science is ... irrationalism
170. One of the fundamental principles of modern cosmology, which fixes the connection between the large-scale properties of our Universe and the existence of man in it, is the ______________ principle. Anthropic
171. One of the brightest representatives of the Russian Enlightenment is ... A. N. Radishchev
172. One of the greatest merits of German classical philosophy is the development of the laws of objective ... dialectics
173. One of the natural-science prerequisites for the formation of Marxist philosophy is ... Ch. Darwin's theory of evolution
174. One of the first scientific pictures of the world was __________ picture of the world. Mathematical
175. One of the essential characteristics of the Hegelian philosophical system is ... panlogism
176. One of the theories that influenced the spread of the concept of "system" in all areas of scientific knowledge was ... evolutionary
177. One of the characteristics of truth is... concreteness
178. The ontological position of B. Spinoza, who claimed the existence of a single substance underlying the world, can be characterized as ... monism
179. The definition of a person as a political (social) being belongs to ... Aristotle
180. The basis of existence, acting as unchanging first principles and principles, is called ... substrate
181. The founder of objective idealism is ... Plato
182. The founder of the first system of objective idealism in the ancient tradition is the philosopher ... Plato
183. The main feature of the scientistic trend in philosophy is ... faith in the limitless possibilities of science
184. The basic laws and categories of idealistic dialectics were developed by ... G. Hegel
185. The main methods of empirical research are ... scientific observation, experiment, object description
186. The main principles of dialectics, from the standpoint of dialectical materialism, are ... universal communication and development
187. The main characteristics of space are ... 3D structure and reversibility
188. The basis of every value is ... an ideal
189. The basis of self-consciousness is… reflection
190. The founder of Russian cosmism N. F. Fedorov understood the philosophy of the common cause as ... resurrection project
191. The philosopher becomes the founder of the rationalistic method in modern European philosophy... R. Descartes
192. The founder of the theory of the social contract is the philosopher ... T. Hobbes
193. The founder of the philosophical school of Neoplatonism is ... Plotinus
194. A special type of cognitive activity aimed at developing objective, systematically organized and justified knowledge about the world is called ... science
195. Attitude towards someone or something as unconditionally valuable, association and connection with someone (what) is perceived as a blessing, is called ... love
196. The denial of the socio-historical nature of the individual is characteristic of ... existentialism
197. Defending the idea of a special status of the head of state, standing outside the system of philistine morality, N. Machiavelli becomes the founder of such a socio-political trend as ... real politics
198. The first scientific picture of the world (XVII-XIX centuries) was called ... mechanical
199. The transfer of culture occurs according to the principle ... "social relay races"
200. The transmission of false knowledge as true or true knowledge as false is called ... disinformation
201. The period of “Great” science begins from ... the end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th centuries.
202. The period of medieval philosophy, marked by the concentration of philosophical life around universities and the dominant desire to rationally substantiate and systematize Christian doctrine, was called ... scholastics
203. According to M. Heidegger, _________ is the house of being. Language
204. According to Descartes, the criterion for the truth of scientific knowledge is the correct ... deduction
205. According to J.-P. Sartre, the specificity of human existence lies in the fact that ... existence precedes essence
206. According to I. Kant, the basis of personality is ... moral law
207. According to C. G. Jung, the unconscious components of the fundamental values of culture are called ... archetypes
208. According to Confucius, a person must transform himself, become ... noble husband
209. According to N. Ya. Danilevsky, an original civilization, a closed self-sufficient education is called ... a cultural-historical type
210. According to Pythagoras, the harmony of the Cosmos can be comprehended with the help of ... numbers
211. According to T. Hobbes, before the emergence of the state, the natural state of society was ... war of all against all
212. The activity of consciousness is understood as its ... selectivity and purposefulness
213. An approach to the problem of the development of scientific knowledge, which affirms the principle of incommensurability of scientific theories, is called ... anti-cumulative
214. An approach to the problem of the development of scientific knowledge, which states that the main driving forces for the development of science are in the internal factors of scientific knowledge (the internal logic of the development of science, etc.), is called ... internalism
215. The approach, according to which the role of science in the system of culture, the spiritual life of society, is absolutized, is called ... scientism
216. The approach according to which culture is a system of information codes that fix life social experience, as well as the means of fixing it, is called ... semiotic
217. The approach according to which a person is a natural being, an animal, is called ... naturalization
218. The position in epistemology, according to which the basis of knowledge is experience, is characteristic of ... empiricism
219. The position proceeding from the recognition of equality and irreducibility to each other of the two principles of being (spirit and matter) is called ... dualism
220. The position according to which matter was identified with matter, with atoms, with a complex of their properties, was called ... physicalist
221. The position according to which the world in relation to a person has two hypostases - will and representation, belongs to ... A. Schopenhauer
222. The position according to which experience not processed by the mind cannot underlie cognition is characteristic of ... rationalism
223. The position according to which there are two worlds - noumenal ("things in themselves") and phenomenal (representations of things), belongs to ... I. Kant
224. The position according to which only moral value determines the value of human individuality belongs to ... I. Kant
225. Cognition of the world through works of art and literary values is characteristic of cognition. Artistic
226. Knowledge of the world through works of art and literary values is characteristic of ______________ knowledge. artistic
227. Complete exhaustive knowledge, which is identical to its subject and cannot be refuted with the further development of knowledge, is understood as _____________ truth. Absolute
228. The concept of "scientific community" introduces ... T. Kuhn
229. The concept of "value" appears in the works of ... I. Kant
230. A concept is a form of reflection of reality at the ______________ level of cognition. rational
231. An attempt to distinguish between scientific and non-scientific knowledge, to determine the boundaries of the field of scientific knowledge is called the problem ... demarcation
232. An attempt to synthesize philosophy and art was made by a representative of German classical philosophy ... F. Schelling
233. A potential form of being is called ... a possibility
234. The appearance of the first original philosophical texts in Russia is attributed to ... XI-XII centuries
235. The subject of the philosophy of science at the present post-positivist stage of development is ... dynamics of knowledge
236. Deliberate erection of deliberately incorrect ideas into truth is called ... lies
237. The representative of the English Enlightenment, who substantiated the principle of separation of powers, was the philosopher ... J. Locke
238. The representative of the hermeneutic tradition in philosophy is ... V. Dilthey
239. The representative of modern philosophy, who believed that the growth of scientific knowledge occurs as a result of putting forward bold hypotheses and implementing their refutation, is ... K. Popper
240. The idea of being as a nature-mechanism that opposes man arose in the philosophy of ... Modern times
241. The idea that being is formed as a unity of matter and form belongs to ... A Christotle
242. The idea that the world exists only in the mind of one perceiving subject is called ... solipsism
243. The advantages of empiricism as a universal method of scientific knowledge were defended by the English philosopher ... F. Bacon
244. Recognition of the existence of a single beginning of being is called ... monism
245. To accept one's destiny as a manifestation of a good providence, to follow duty and virtue contrary to desires and passions is called upon by the ancient philosophical school of ... stoicism
246. The principle of verification was proposed by ... L. Wittgenstein
247. The principle of determining the significance of knowledge by its practical consequences was formulated in the philosophical school of ... pragmatism
248. The principles of dialectics as a universal method of cognition are ... the principle of objectivity, the principle of consistency
249. Problems related to the problem of resources, energy, food, environment are classified as _____________ problems. natural and social
250. Problems related to disarmament, prevention of thermonuclear war, world social and economic development are classified as ___ problems. intersocial
251. The process of emergence and development of man as a biological species is called ... anthropogenesis
252. Pseudo-scientific theory associated with attempts to obtain a perfect metal (gold, silver) from imperfect metals is called ... alchemy
253. A psychological attitude, consisting in the recognition of the unconditional existence and truth of something, is ... faith
254. The equality of all possible directions of space is called ... isotropy
255. Development is a process characterized by a change in ... quality
256. Development is a process characterized by change ... quality
257. The development of anthropological problems in medieval philosophy was associated, first of all, with the solution of the question of ... free will
258. The branch of philosophy that deals with the study of the problems of man, human existence, is called ... anthropology
259. The branch of philosophy that studies consciousness and cognition is called ... epistemology
260. The section of philosophy, which deals with questions about the essence of knowledge, about the ways of comprehending the truth, its foundations and criteria, is ... epistemology
261. The extension of the principles of materialistic dialectics to the explanation of the laws of animate and inanimate nature was carried out by ... F. Engels
262. Prevalence and general availability are signs of ______ culture. mass
263. Realization of the only possibility under certain conditions is called ... necessity
264. The real extent of the territory to which the historically conditioned political system extends or its political influence is exercised is called ... political space
265. The result of the process of cognition is ... knowledge
266. The results of specific sciences, incomplete knowledge about the subject are understood as _ truth. Relative
267. Religious worldview affirms as the meaning of human life ... soul salvation
268. The decisive role in the formation of man, according to the theory of anthroposociogenesis, was played by ... work
269. From the standpoint of dialectical materialism, the source of movement is ... contradiction
270. From the standpoint of creationism, the source of movement is ... God
271. From the standpoint of German classical idealism, the doctrine of the development of reality as a whole is called ... dialectics
272. From the point of view of the axiological approach, culture is ... a system of values
273. From the point of view of D. Bell, in a post-industrial society, specialists in ______________ sciences will become the main professional group. Technical
274. From the point of view of the activity approach, culture is ... way of human life
275. From the point of view of dialectical materialism, the main forms of truth are ... absolute and relative
276. From the point of view of J.-J. Rousseau, the individual, uncorrupted by the conventions and prejudices of culture, is called... natural person
277. From the point of view of L. Mumford, a strict hierarchical social organization, leading to an increase in the amount of material wealth at the cost of limiting the possibilities and spheres of human activity, is called ... a megamachine
278. From the point of view of positivism, true knowledge must be confirmed by ... experience
279. From the point of view of the civilizational approach, the concepts of culture and civilization ... are opposed to each other
280. The property of truth, which implies the dependence of knowledge on connections and interactions, the place and time in which they exist and develop, is called ... concreteness
281. The system of historically developing suprabiological programs of human activity, behavior and communication, acting as a condition for the reproduction of social life, is called ... culture
282. The system of essential, from the point of view of a specific scientific research, properties and features of an object is called ... the subject of research
283. The system of philosophical views of K. Marx and F. Engels is called ... dialectical materialism
284. Consistency, validity, consistency are characteristic of __________ cognition. scientific
285. Pantheism and materialism see the meaning of life in ... life itself, existence
286. The meaning of the historical development of society, according to P. Teilhard de Chardin, is ... the union of the souls of people in the cosmic Christ
287. The totality of internal, spiritual and intellectual qualities that embody the human ideal in its moral perfection is called ... virtue
288. The totality of all forms of existence of matter, the Universe in all its diversity are called ... the world
289. The totality of material, spiritual and artistic values developed by mankind in the process of evolution is called ... culture
290. The totality of scientific research aimed at identifying the essence of global problems, problems affecting the interests of humanity as a whole and each individual, and finding ways to overcome them, is called ... globalistics
291. The totality of stable connections of an object, which ensure the preservation of its basic properties during various external and internal changes, is called ... structure
292. A set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other and form integrity is called ... a system
293. Modern sociologists and philosophers to characterize the specific features of modern society use the concept ... "mass society"
294. The modern Western philosopher J. Huizinga believes that the essential characteristic of a person is ... a game
295. According to the concept of V. S. Solovyov, an ideally perfect person is the highest manifestation of ... Sophia
296. According to the concept of C. G. Jung, the psychological type of a person, focused mainly on his inner world, closed, shy, is called ... introvert
297. According to the concept of C. G. Jung, the psychological type of a person, aimed mainly at the outside world, sociable, active, is called ... an extrovert
298. According to the position of Aristotle, the possibility of being anything is called ... matter
299. According to the fundamental principle of Christian anthropology, each person is ... a person
300. The creative influence of philosophical principles and concepts on the formation of natural scientific theories shows the role of philosophy. constitutive
301. The social purpose of philosophy is to contribute to the solution of _ problems. worldview
302. A specific property of time is ... irreversibility
303. The method of definition and the method of philosophy is called ... reflection
304. The ability to comprehend the truth by direct observation of it without recourse to logical arguments is called ... intuition
305. The ability of a person to create images that were not previously perceived is called ... imagination
306. Medieval ideas about the creation of all living and non-living things by God are characterized as ... creationism
307. The medieval thinker who put forward the thesis of "harmony between faith and reason" was ... F. Aquinas
308. Standardization and unification of the production of cultural images are characteristic of ___________ culture. mass
309. The formation of anthropological problems in ancient philosophy is associated with the school of ... sophists
310. The formation of classical logic as a science is carried out in the work of the ancient Greek philosopher ... Aristotle
311. The clash of civilizations as a scenario for the near future of world history is described by the philosopher ... S. Huntington
312. A structural component of consciousness that performs a control function is ... will
313. The substratum-substantial concept considers matter as ... carrier of properties other than them
314. The subject, which is a unique spiritual and bodily integrity, the "author" of life, which determines its meaning and goals, is called ... personality
315. The essential definiteness of an object, thanks to which it exists precisely as such and not another object, is called ... quality
316. An essential feature of the development of Russian philosophy of the twentieth century is its split into ... Soviet and Russian foreign
317. An essential feature of the philosophy of the period of the Middle Ages becomes ... theocentrism
318. A significant difference between Antiquity and the subsequent stages of development of Western European philosophy is its ... syncretism
319. The existence of a person precedes his essence from the point of view ... J.-P. Sartre
320. Essence in its existence is called ... phenomenon
321. The essence of the Christian religion, from the point of view of L. Feuerbach, is that ... man creates God in his own image and likeness
322. The thesis "know thyself" becomes the leading one in the philosophy of ... Socrates
323. The epistemological position, according to which sensations are the only source and foundation of knowledge, is called ... sensationalism
324. The theoretical core of the worldview is ... philosophy
325. The theory that showed the dependence of space-time properties on the nature of the movement and interaction of material systems is called the theory of ... relativity
326. The course of Russian social and political thought in the 40s. XIX century, which advocated overcoming the historical backwardness of Russia from the countries of Western Europe, was called ... Westernism
327. The type of culture characterized by an organized consumer industry and a widely ramified network of means of communication is called ____________ culture. Bulk
328. The type of scientific rationality, which takes into account intersubjective relations between scientists, non-logical methods and procedures of cognitive activity, the social nature of scientific knowledge, is called ... post-non-classical
329. Accuracy and unambiguity are a characteristic feature of _____ knowledge. Scientific
330. The labor concept of the origin of man was proposed by ... F. Engels
331. The universal properties of matter, expressing its systemic nature (unity and interconnection) are ... eternity of existence in time and infinity in space
332. Establish a correspondence between the types of knowledge and their specific properties. 1. Objectivity, rationality 2. Reflexivity, criticality 3. Authoritarianism, subordination to moral and ethical standards 4. Reliance on common sense, unwritten character 1 scientific knowledge 2 philosophical knowledge 3 religious knowledge 4 everyday knowledge
333. Establish a correspondence between the historical epoch and its characteristic understanding of the subject matter of philosophy. 1. Philosophy is "the servant of theology." 2. The main goal of philosophy is the search for a universal method of knowing the world. 3. The spreading of the light of reason is the main business of philosophy. 1 Middle Ages 2 Modern times 3 Enlightenment
334. Establish a correspondence between the thinker and the idea of the essence of the world characteristic of his philosophy. 1. There are two worlds: the “world of ideas” and the “world of things”. Plato 2. The world consists of an infinite number of monads. G. Leibniz 3. God created the world out of nothing. Augustine 4. There are two kinds of substances: material and spiritual. R. Descartes
335. Establish a correspondence between different approaches to solving the problem of being and their characteristics: 1. All things and the whole world as a whole are understood as living organisms. 2. God and nature are identified. 3. Matter and spirit are two independent substances. 4. Everything in this world is material. 1 hylozoism 2 pantheism 3 dualism 4 materialism
336. Establish a correspondence between the type of worldview and its characteristics. 1. Studies the universal laws of the development of the world 2. Based on belief in the supernatural 3. Knowledge is reflected in the form of artistic images 1 philosophy 2 religion 3 art
337. Establish a correspondence between philosophical trends and their ideas about the essence of the world. 1. Everything in the world has a material beginning. 2. The external world, reality exist only thanks to our consciousness, are the products of its activity. 3. Spirit and matter are two different and independent substances. 4. Both the external world and our consciousness are a product or manifestation of the highest principle, which has a spiritual nature. 1 materialism 2 subjective idealism 3 dualism 4 objective idealism
338. Arguing that "freedom is a conscious necessity", B. Spinoza takes the position ... determinism
339. A statement taken on faith without proof is called ... dogma
340. The statement that “in practice a person must prove the truth, that is, the reality and power, this-worldliness of his thinking”, belongs to the philosopher ... K. Marx
341. The doctrine in epistemology, which denies the possibility of reliable knowledge of the essence of material systems, the laws of nature and society, is called ... agnosticism
342. The doctrine of the future in relation to historical and social time is called ... futurology
343. The doctrine of being is called... ontology
344. The doctrine of the natural (material) causality of all phenomena of the objective world is called ... determinism
345. The doctrine of the ideal state was created by the ancient Greek philosopher ... Plato
346. The phenomenon of technology from the point of view of religious meaning was first considered by ... N. Berdyaev
347. Philosophy of science as a special philosophical direction has developed ... in the second half of the 19th century.
348. The philosophy of technology arises in (in) ... second half of the 19th century
349. Philosophy, being a breakthrough from the meaningless, empirical, forcing a person from all sides of the world to the world of meaning, performs a _______ function. humanistic
350. The philosopher who substantiated the ideal of life according to the principle "Man is God to man" was ... L. Feuerbach
351. The philosopher, who considered hostility to culture as an inborn property of a person, was ... Z. Freud
352. A philosopher who considered a person to be a “bundle or bunch of perceptions” was ... D. Hume
353. The philosopher who considered the essence of man the totality of social relations was ... K. Marx
354. The philosopher, who considered man as a transitional stage from the animal to the superman, was ... F. Nietzsche
355. A philosopher who believed that the world consists of single and indivisible atoms, different in size, was ... Democritus
356. The philosopher who claimed that being does not arise and does not disappear, that it is indivisible, whole, motionless and looks like a ball, was ... Parmenides
358. The philosophical position of P. Holbach, who asserted that “the Universe, this colossal combination of everything that exists, everywhere shows us only matter and motion”, can be characterized as ... materialism
359. The philosophical system of K. Marx can be defined as ... dialectical materialism
360. The philosophical direction, whose representatives consider understanding and interpretation as the main ways of cognition, is called ... hermeneutics
361. The philosophical trend that recognizes the substantiality of the unconscious is called ... irrationalism
362. A philosophical concept that serves to generalize the sphere of higher values and obligations is ... morality
363. The philosophical doctrine of the final destinies of the world and man is called ... eschatology
364. The philosophical doctrine of morality and morality is called ... ethics
365. A philosophical doctrine that denies the role of reason in cognition and highlights other types of human abilities - instinct, intuition, direct contemplation, insight, is called ... irrationalism
366. Philosophical doctrine, recognizing the presence of two independent and equal principles in the basis of the world, is called ... dualism
367. The philosophical doctrine, according to which there is knowledge acquired by a person before experience and independently of it, is called ... apriorism
368. The philosophical position of L. Feuerbach can be defined as ... anthropological materialism
369. The philosophers of the Renaissance solved the problem of the relationship between God and the world from the position ... Neoplatonism
370. Philosophers and scientists who participated in the creation of the "Encyclopedia, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts", united by the goal of disseminating knowledge and promoting educational ideals, were named ... encyclopedists
371. The form of extra-scientific knowledge, which is characterized by mysticism and spiritualism, is ________ knowledge. parascientific
372. The form of rational cognition is... judgment
373. A form of sensory cognition is… sensation
374. Fundamental physical theory created at the beginning of the 20th century. to explain micromotions, which underlies the modern scientific picture of the world, is called ... quantum mechanics
375. The function of philosophy, which involves the search and finding answers to the main questions of being, is called ... worldview
376. The function of philosophy, revealing the laws of the thought process and knowledge of the world, is called ... epistemological
377. The function of philosophy, which is realized in highlighting and taking into account the complex nature of the connections between the method and the object of knowledge in science, is called ... coordinating
378. The function of philosophy, which is realized in the formation of an integral system of knowledge, is called ... integrating
379. The function of philosophy, which is realized in an extremely attentive attitude towards a person, is called ... humanistic
380. The function of philosophy associated with the explanation of not only the past and present, but also the future is called ... prognostic
381. The function of philosophy, associated with the development of the most general principles and methods of scientific knowledge of the world, is called ... methodological
382. The function of philosophy, associated with the formation of philosophical thinking, the transfer of experience of social life, supranatural programs of behavior and communication, is called ... cultural and educational
383. The function of philosophy, which consists in promoting the growth of scientific knowledge, including the creation of prerequisites for scientific discoveries, is called ... heuristic
384. The function of philosophy, closely connected with the problem of substantiating values for a person and society, is called ... socio-axiological.
385. The close attention to the problems of the development and meaning of world and national history, characteristic of Russian philosophy, is usually called ... historiosophical
386. A characteristic feature of scientific knowledge is ... rationality
387. Characteristic for the scientific picture of the world are the principles ... objectivity and materiality of the world
388. Christian ideas about history are presented in the work of Augustine Aurelius ... "On the City of God"
389. Artistic creativity as a special form of social consciousness, a kind of spiritual assimilation of reality is called ... art
390. Values associated with the spiritual sphere of the life of society, which largely determine the way of life of a person, are called ... ideological
391. Values containing social institutions, prohibitions, goals and projects, expressed in the form of normative ideas (about goodness, justice, etc.), are called ... subjective
392. The central concept of the philosophy of V. I. Vernadsky is ... the noosphere
393. A sensory-visual image of objects and phenomena of reality, preserved and reproduced in consciousness without the influence of the objects themselves on the senses, is called ... a representation
394. E. Toffler develops the concept of ... "electronic cottage"
395. Existentialism focuses attention, first of all, on the problem ... existence
396. Electromagnetic interactions are a _______ form of movement. Physical
397. The ethical conception of Epicurus may be designated by the term "__________". eudemonism
398. Yu. A. Lotman developed an ____________ approach to the consideration of culture. Semiotic
399. The core of the political sphere of society is (are) ... state
400. The brightest representative of agnosticism is ... I. Kant
401. The thinker becomes an ardent opponent of Russian revolutionary radicalism ... F. M. Dostoevsky
The field of knowledge in which the regularities of the “second nature” are described and studied is called ___________ sciences.
technical
The empirical method of cognition, during the application of which knowledge is obtained about the external aspects and properties of the object in question, is called ...
observation
TASK N 3 report an error
Topic: Development of science
Establish a correspondence between scientific events and the main stages in the development of science.
1. Creation of scientific laboratories
2. Research by G. Galileo
3. Scientific and technological revolution
4. Creation by A. Einstein of the theory of relativity
1 XVIII - XIX centuries.
2 16th – 17th centuries
3 second half of the 20th century
4 first half of the 20th century
TASK N 4 report an error
Topic: Scientific and non-scientific knowledge
The main concepts of the origin of life on Earth are…
panspermia
abiogenesis
Solution: The main concepts of the origin of life on Earth are panspermia and abiogenesis. According to the concept of panspermia, life on Earth was brought from space. The classical concept of panspermia was developed by the German physicist G. Helmholtz and the Swedish scientist S. Arrhenius, who suggested that life spreads in the Universe with the help of comets that contain elements of living matter (water, organic matter, microorganisms).
From the point of view of abiogenesis, life arises spontaneously, from inanimate nature. The modern concept of abiogenesis distinguishes three stages of prebiological evolution: 1) the stage of synthesis of the simplest organic compounds; 2) the stage of polymerization, at which precursors of living cells arise; 3) the biochemical stage at which the genetic code arises and the transition to biological evolution takes place.
TASK N 5 report an error
Topic: Man and culture
The approach according to which culture is a system of non-biological programs of human practice is called ...
active
The approach according to which culture is a system of non-biological programs of human practice is called activity approach. As a way of regulating, preserving and developing society, culture includes not only spiritual, but also objective activity.
TASK N 6 report an error
Topic: The origin and essence of man
The saying "Man is the measure of all things: those that exist in that they exist, and those that do not exist in that they do not exist" belongs to ...
Protagoras
TASK N 7 report an error
Topic: Values and meaning of human life
The concept of "value" appears in the writings of...
TASK N 8 report an error
Theme: Man, individual, personality
The concept according to which a person is considered as the highest value, the meaning of earthly civilization, is called ...
personalism
TASK N 9 report an error
Topic: Global problems and the future of mankind
An international public organization engaged in the scientific study of global problems is called the ___________ club.
TASK N 10 report an error
Topic: The structure of society
Establish a correspondence between the historical types of social stratification and the degree of "openness" of society:
1. Closed society
2. Open society
3. Conditionally open society
1 caste system
2 class society
3 class society
TASK N 11 report an error
2. Spirit reaches full bloom and maturity
3. "The realm of beautiful freedom"
4. Aristocracy as a form of government
1 Eastern world
2 German peace
3 Greek world
4 Roman peace
In accordance with geography, G. Hegel divides history into the Eastern world, Greek, Roman and German.
The Eastern world is the childhood age of history. Here despotism reigns and only the despot feels free. People revolve around one center, that is, the ruler, who stands at the head of the state as a patriarch. It requires all citizens to comply with the relevant regulations.
The Greek world is the period of the youth of world history, when individuals are formed. Here, according to G. Hegel, the real freedom of the individual, true harmony, peace and concord reign. The individual will of the subject adheres to customs, habits, generally accepted norms and laws.
The Roman world is the age of manhood of history. In Rome, abstract freedom dominates, placing the state and politics above any individuality, but at the same time a free personality is created that differs from individuality. The predominant form of government is the aristocracy. The aristocracy fights the kings, the plebeians fight the aristocracy.
The German world is the fourth period of history. The German people, according to G. Hegel, are called upon to preserve the Christian principles of spiritual freedom and reconciliation. The spirit in the German world reaches its full flowering and maturity. The Prussian monarchy seems to be the crown and pinnacle of the development of world history.
TASK N 12 report an error
Theme: Society and history
The thinker who considers the scientific and technological potential as the main indicator of historical development is ...
TASK N 13 report an error
Theme: Pictures of the world
Establish a correspondence between the main models of the world and the philosophers who were characterized by these representations:
1. Atomic model of the world
2. Pluralistic model of the world
3. Naturalistic model
4. Religious model
1 Democritus
2 G. Leibniz
TASK N 14 report an error
Topic: The subject of philosophy
A European thinker who believed that “essentially speaking, all philosophy is only human reason in a vague language” was ...
Goethe Solution: The European thinker who believed that “essentially speaking, all philosophy is only human reason in a vague language” was Goethe. JW Goethe is a German poet and naturalist. His views are anti-philosophical in nature.
TASK N 15 report an error
Topic: Functions of Philosophy
The function of philosophy, closely related to the problem of substantiating values for a person and society, is called ...
socio-axiological
TASK N 16 report an error
Topic: The structure of philosophy
The science of the forms and methods of rational thinking is ...
TASK N 17 report an error
Topic: Philosophy of the New Age
According to Descartes, the criterion for the truth of scientific knowledge is the correct ...
dededuction
TASK N 18 report an error
Topic: German classical philosophy
The rethinking of the idealistic dialectics of G. Hegel from the position of materialism was carried out ...
K. Marx
TASK N 19 report an error
Topic: Domestic philosophy
Representatives of Russian religious philosophy of the 20th century include ...
S. L. Frank
L. P. Karsavin
S. N. Bulgakov
N. A. Berdyaev
TASK N 20 report an error
Topic: Philosophy of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance
The defense of Christian truths against criticism from the late ancient schools was called ...
apologetics
TASK N 21 report an error
Topic: Ancient philosophy
Socratic schools include the school ...
TASK N 22 report an error
Topic: Modern philosophy of the West
According to J.-P. Sartre, the specificity of human existence lies in the fact that ...
existence precedes essence
TASK N 23 report an error
Topic: Concepts of being
The idea that the world exists only in the mind of one perceiving subject is called ...
solipsism
TASK N 24 report an error
Theme: Movement, space, time
The real extent of the territory to which the historically conditioned political system extends or its political influence is exercised is called ...
political space
TASK N 25 report an error
Topic: Dialectics of Being
The direction of development from the lowest to the highest is called...
progress
TASK N 26 report an error
Topic: Consistency of being
The substratum-substantial concept considers matter as ...
carrier of properties other than them
TASK N 27 report an error
Topic: Human cognitive abilities
Consistency, validity, consistency are characteristic of __________ cognition.
scientific
TASK N 28 report an error
Topic: Consciousness and Cognition
Along with scientific knowledge, one can distinguish ...
ordinary religious
TASK N 29 report an error
Subject: The Problem of Truth
"Truth is an agreement," the representatives of...
conventionalism
TASK N 30 report an error
Topic: Essence and nature of knowledge
The epistemological position, according to which sensations are the only source and basis of knowledge, is called ...
sensationalism
TASK N 1 report an error
Topic: The structure of society
Establish a correspondence between social phenomena and spheres of society.
1. Adoption of antitrust laws
2. Furniture production
3. Formation of the working class
1 political sphere
2 economic sphere
3 social sphere
TASK N 2 report an error
Theme: Culture, civilization, formations
Establish a correspondence between the worlds identified by G. Hegel in history and their features.
1. Despotic forms of government
Albert Camus was born on November 7, 1913. in the small town of Mondovi (North Africa), in a French family who moved from Alsace. His father was an agricultural worker. After the death of his father - moving to Algeria, where in 1923-1930. Albert studied at the gymnasium. In 1930 he contracted tuberculosis, which thwarted his plans for an academic career. In 1932-1936. Camus studied philosophy at the University of Algiers, where after graduation he wrote the work "Christian Metaphysics and Neoplatonism". In 1934 - at a time when many Western intellectuals were inspired by the ideas of Marxism and socialism - Camus joined the French Communist Party, from which he left in 1937 in protest against its policy on the Arab question. Camus had a difficult fate: he was an employee in the export bureau, sold spare parts for cars, and was a home teacher. From 1938 he worked as a journalist.
It is characteristic of Camus's work that he expressed many of his innermost thoughts and ideas through topical journalism. From 1938 until the beginning of the Second World War, he worked for the newspaper "Republican Algiers". The main theme of his newspaper essays is the lack of rights of the Arab population of Algeria, its disasters, which, as Camus presciently foresaw, should have led to deep social protest. During the Second World War, Camus (who returned to France in 1942) participated as a member of an underground group united around the Combat newspaper in the resistance movement. From the end of August 1944, this newspaper emerged from the underground and became one of the most important organs of the left movement in France. Camus wrote editorials for her. Like many in post-war France, where a broad temporary alliance of anti-fascists was formed, where the ideas of socialism became popular again, Camus called for a transition "from resistance to revolution." But soon temporary alliances began to disintegrate. The Komba newspaper turned into a weekly. The cycles of materials published by Camus (for example, the series of articles of 1946 "Neither Victims, nor Executioners") still attracted the interest of readers.
During the war and after it, remarkable artistic and philosophical works by Camus appeared: the story "The Outsider" (1942), the philosophical essay "The Myth of Sisyphus" (1942), the novel "The Plague" (1947); essay "Rebellious Man" (1951) and other works. Albert Camus was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for 1957. The writer also expressed philosophical ideas in his dramatic works - in the plays "Caligula" (it was staged immediately after the war and was very popular in France), "State of Siege" and "The Righteous" . Camus staged dramatizations based on W. Faulkner's "Requiem for a Nun" and on "Demons" by F. Dostoevsky at the theater. In the 1950s, in Camus' publicistic work, a special theme was the call for the abolition of the death penalty (a cycle of essays "Reflections on the Guillotine"). His struggle against the colonial policy of France in Algeria continued. January 4, 1960 Camus died in a car accident. Camus, like other French existentialists, was not an armchair philosopher, a follower of any philosophical school. Possessing, according to the testimony of people who knew him, solid philosophical knowledge, he was not inclined to write systematic philosophical works. In an interview, Camus said that he did not believe in the mind enough to believe in the system. At the same time, what researchers rightly pay attention to, Camus's philosophical writings are distinguished by clarity of thought, clarity of structure and rationality of argumentation.
At the center of Camus's philosophizing is the problem of the main antinomies of human existence. (The word "antinomy" is used in a broad sense - as a contradiction, split). These antinomies express the tension and contradiction between the positivity and the absurdity of life, between the world of rebellion and the world of goodness. How are they analyzed in Camus' philosophy?
The main problems and ideas of the philosophy of Camus.
The philosophical ideas of Camus - to an even greater extent than those of Sartre - are woven into the fabric of characters, images, situations of works of art. The writings of Camus, which can be considered properly philosophical ("The Myth of Sisyphus" or "The Rebellious Man"), however, bear little resemblance to ordinary philosophical treatises, with their systematic theoretical constructions, definitions, quotations, etc. To a large extent, the specificity of Camus's philosophizing was due to the main object of his interest. And they became the world of experiences and thoughts of that person, whom Camus himself called "an absurd person." An absurd person, absurd reasoning (philosophy that caught the absurdity of existence and tried to comprehend it), absurd creativity (literature and art, whose hero becomes an absurd person) - these are the themes of Camus' work "The Myth of Sisyphus".
Absurd person.
"What is an absurd person?" - this is the main question, on the discussion of which the solution of other problems of Camus's philosophy depends. The absurd man, writes Camus, "does nothing for the sake of eternity and does not deny it. Not that nostalgia is alien to him at all. But he prefers his courage and his ability to judge. The first teaches him to lead an unappealable life, to be content with what is; the second gives him an idea of his limits. Convinced of the finiteness of his freedom, the absence of a future for his rebellion and the frailty of consciousness, he is ready to continue his deeds in the time that life allots him. Here is his field, the place of his actions, freed from any court but his own. A longer life means no other life for him."
Camus contrasts his image of an absurd person with traditional and modern philosophical and anthropological, moral, religious constructions, ideas about human essence. In the philosophy and work of Camus, there is a bold claim that he will be able to approach the real essence of man closer than other researchers have been able to. Nevertheless, the "absurd man" is also a specific philosophical construct. Its creation in the works of Camus is a continuous controversy. First of all, it is waged against a religious approach to a person, as well as against teachings that impose moral norms on a person from the outside - in accordance with the prescriptions of society, the commandments of religion, etc. “An absurd person is ready to admit that there is only one morality that does not separate from God: this is morality imposed on him from above. But an absurd person lives just without this God. As for other moral teachings (including moralism), he sees in them only excuses, while he himself has nothing to justify. I proceed here from the principle of his innocence.
Camus outlines the position of an absurd person with the words of Ivan Karamazov: "Everything is allowed." However, "absurdity is not the permission of any actions." Karamazov's words only mean that nothing is forbidden. Why? According to Camus, the absurd person does not accept the traditional concept that establishes a connection between the causes and effects of actions. And although the mind of an absurd person is "ready for retribution," he does this not because he feels behind him any guilt or sinfulness imputed to every person by Christianity. For him, an absurd man, "there is responsibility, but there is no guilt." The formal rules and teachings of ethics, the calculations of the scientific mind lose their essential meaning for an absurd person. Only living examples are instructive, bringing to us the breath of human lives. “I have chosen only those heroes,” writes Camus, “who set as their goal the exhaustion of life (or those whom I consider as such). I do not go further than this. I am talking about a world in which both thought and life are devoid of a future. For everything "What induces a person to work and movement stands hope. Thus, the only unfalse thought turns out to be fruitless. In an absurd world, the value of a concept or life is measured by fruitfulness."
The heroes, on the example of which Camus highlights the concept of "absurd man", are Don Juan (and Don Juanism), Actor (and acting), Conqueror, Writer-creator. At the end of the chapter on the absurd man, Camus remarks: “The above images do not contain moral teachings and do not entail judgments. These are sketches, they outline a lifestyle. A lover, a comedian or an adventurer play an absurd game. and a virgin, and a functionary, and the president of the republic. It is enough to know and not hide anything from oneself ... I have chosen extreme cases when the absurdity gives truly royal power. True, this is the power of principles devoid of kingdom. But their advantage over others is that what do they know about the illusory nature of all the kingdoms... Be that as it may, the absurd reasoning had to be restored to its full Brightness of colors Imagination can add many other guises of it - exiles chained to their time; people who, not knowing weakness, know how to live in proportion to the universe without a future. This absurd and godless world is inhabited by hopeless and clear-minded people."
The world of the absurd man in Camus is written out harshly and strongly. This is a person who does not believe in God, God's providence and God's grace. He does not believe in the future, is devoid of hopes and illusions. "A sense of absurdity awaits us at every corner." The reason is that the world of nature and the other person always contain something irreducible to our knowledge, eluding him."It happens that the usual scenery collapses. Rise, tram, four hours in an office or factory, lunch, four hours of work, tram, dinner, sleep; Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, all in the same rhythm - this is the path that is easy to follow day after day. But one day the question arises "why?" It all starts with this puzzled boredom."
Boredom takes a person out of the rut of a routine, monotonous life. She pushes him to understand that he has to shoulder the burden of a bleak life on his own shoulders. Boredom is the result of a mechanical life, but it also sets the mind in motion. Boredom awakens him and provokes further: either an unconscious return to the usual track, or a final awakening. And sooner or later, awakening is followed by consequences: either suicide or the restoration of the course of life. " Boredom becomes almost a character in Camus's works of art. It is depicted so vividly, so masterfully that the path from truly "metaphysical" boredom to suicide is not The writer-philosopher reveals a deep, from his point of view, existentially inseparable connection between the "alienness" of the world, its "primitive hostility", between the alienation of other people from us, the loss of faith in God and moral values, between the threat of death, let's say, between the whole set of absurd (especially for a person) circumstances of life and "absurd feelings" - and the painful desire of a person to end the intolerance of life, to break out of the circle of absurdity. Thus, the question of suicide comes to the fore in Camus's philosophy. "There is only one truly a serious philosophical problem is the problem of suicide. To decide whether or not life is worth living is to answer the fundamental question of philosophy. Everything else - whether the world has three dimensions, whether the mind is guided by nine or twelve categories - is secondary."
Suicide, Camus notes, is most often seen as a social phenomenon. "We, on the contrary, from the very beginning raise the question of the connection between suicide and the thinking of the individual. Suicide is prepared in the silence of the heart ...". The main aspiration of Camus just turns out to be a truthful, devoid of moralism description of that phenomenon of intellect and feelings, which could be called a craving for suicide. It is generated, as is clear from what has been said, by absurdity, hopelessness as the hallmarks of the human lot. The world outside of man is not absurd . "If absurdity exists, it is only in the human universe." However, Camus insists, man's vocation is to find the strength to live in a state of absurdity. "So I take out out of absurdity, three consequences, which are my rebellion, my freedom and my passion. With a mere play of consciousness, I turn into a rule of life that which was an invitation to death, and reject suicide. "" All the reasoning and sketches of this essay are summarized by the "myth of Sisyphus." If Nietzsche proposed the myth of the "eternal return" to mankind that had lost the Christian faith, then Camus offers the myth of the affirmation of oneself - with maximum clarity of mind, with an understanding of the fallen lot, a person must bear the burden of life, not resigning himself to it - self-giving and the fullness of existence are more important than all peaks . The absurd man chooses to rebel against all gods."
Philosophy of Camus in the context of existentialist thought.
The construction and description of the world of an absurd person forces Camus to more carefully and thoroughly analyze those closest to him, i.e. existentialist, concept. Camus admits that the main antinomy that permeates the life of an absurd person - "the clash between irrationality and a frenzied desire for clarity" - in the 19th and 20th centuries. was the subject of deep interest of philosophers and writers, who became "defenders of the rights of the irrational." "From Jaspers to Heidegger, from Kierkegaard to Shestov, from phenomenologists to Scheler, on a logical and moral plane, a whole family of minds related in their nostalgia, opposing each other in goals and methods, fiercely blocks the royal path of reason and tries to find the true path of truth. I proceed here from the fact that the main ideas of this circle are known and experienced. Whatever their claims were (or could be), they all repelled from an ineffable universe where contradiction, antinomy, anxiety and impotence reign."
It deserves to be noted that revealing the origins, prerequisites, main lines of development of existential thought, Camus pays tribute to Russian philosophy and culture. So, he analyzes in sufficient detail one of the earliest forms of existentialism in Europe - the philosophy of L. Shestov, which he often analyzes in a certain typological unity with the work of S. Kierkegaard. From noting Shestov's merits in the criticism of reason, Camus gives his approach a contradictory assessment: "Shestov draws a legitimate conclusion about the futility of reason ... The laws of nature are significant within certain limits, beyond which they turn against themselves and give rise to absurdity. Descriptively, regardless of assessments of their truth as explanations, they are also quite legitimate. Shestov sacrifices all this to the irrational. The elimination of the requirement of clarity leads to the disappearance of absurdity - along with one of the terms of comparison. The absurd person, on the contrary, does not resort to such equations. He recognizes the struggle, does not feel the slightest contempt for reason and admits the irrational. His eye embraces all the data of experience, and he is not disposed to contemplate a leap without knowing in advance its direction. He knows one thing: there is no more room for hope in his mind."
Camus paid special attention to the analysis of images, concepts, ideas of Dostoevsky. Perhaps, among the writers whom Camus calls novelists-philosophers (these are Balzac, Sade, Stendhal, Proust, Malraux, Kafka), he puts Dostoevsky in the first place. His works of art, says Camus, "completely stand under the sign of the absurd," i.e. most clearly and transparently outline the antinomies of the consciousness and actions of an absurd person. “So, in the novels, as in the Diary, an absurd question is posed. They affirm logic that goes right up to death, exaltation, “strange” freedom, royal glory that has become human. Everything is good, everything is permitted, and there is nothing hated: such are the postulates of the absurd. But how amazing is the creativity that made these creatures of ice and fire so understandable to us! The world of passions and indifference that rages in their hearts does not seem monstrous to us at all. We find everyday anxiety in this world. Undoubtedly no one, except Dostoevsky, was able to convey all the intimacy and all the torture of the absurd world.
However, Camus does not accept that main path, which (albeit in different ways) is indicated by Russian philosophers like Shestov and "existentialist writers" like Dostoevsky. Calling on God, seriously promising the kingdom of God and the immortality of the soul, Shestov, Dostoevsky and their other followers artificially remove the tension that they themselves so skillfully, and in the case of Dostoevsky - brilliantly, managed to reproduce. And then it becomes clear that before us is not an absurd writer, that his works are not absurd: they only pose the problem of absurdity. "Dostoevsky's answer is humility or, according to Stavrogin, "baseness". An absurd work, on the other hand, does not provide an answer. That's all the difference." Similar accusations are directed at Kierkegaard, despite the fact that he is recognized as one of the best writers on the absurd. "Christianity, by which he was so intimidated as a child, returns in the end in its most severe form." Kierkegaard, according to Camus, demands "the sacrifice of the intellect". Therefore, all the listed writers and philosophers commit "philosophical suicide": they know about the world of the absurd, about the absurd man, they describe him magnificently, but in the end, by their search for the future, hope, consolation in God, and thanks to them, they seem to cross out the antinomies of the absurd. In this regard, Camus gives a peculiar assessment of Husserl's phenomenology. Camus sees the merit of the latter in the fact that the transcendent power of reason was rejected. Thanks to the phenomena, "the universe of the spirit ... has become unheard of enriched. A rose petal, a boundary post or a human hand has acquired the same significance as love, desire or the laws of gravity. Now thinking does not mean unifying, reducing phenomena to some great principle. Thinking means to learn to see again, to become attentive; it means to control one's own consciousness, to give, in the manner of Proust, a privileged position to every idea or every image. Phenomenology "...opens the whole field of phenomena to the intuition and heart...". Using the example of Husserl, Camus nevertheless wants to clarify that the requirement of clarity, distinctness in relation to the knowledge and development of the world is impossible. Hence the great tragedy of the man who believed in reason. "What I am unable to know is unreasonable. The world is inhabited by such irrationalities."
A serious problem for Camus was the disengagement from the existentialists - Jaspers, Heidegger, Sartre. Camus objected to being considered a philosopher and existentialist writer. True, he could not deny that he had much in common with the existential thought of Germany, France, and Russia. In fact, the concepts of "existence", "existence", "boundary situation" "work" in the writings of Camus. The novel "The Plague", which was already discussed in the first part of the section, essentially vividly illustrates the existentialist categories of a borderline situation, fear, guilt, and responsibility. In many respects, the "exemplary" existentialist work was the story of Camus "Outsider".
The lonely bachelor Meursault, an office worker and a resident of the Algerian suburbs, is an ordinary man, overwhelmed by boredom and indifference. The mother dies in the orphanage, Meursault goes to the funeral. The next day, life seemed to return to normal. But here Meursault - largely unexpectedly for himself, under the influence of some kind of stupefaction caused by the heat - kills a man. The story is a simple, at first glance, Meursault's story. This short story is written in simple language, brilliantly stylized as the notes of a sincere person who is faced with the threat of death and does not want to hide anything either from himself or from the investigators. Camus contrasts this sincerity with the hypocrisy of the investigation, the ritualism of the actions and judgments of officials. The story "The Outsider" and its author's interpretation (Mursault is convicted because he does not play the game of the people around him, refuses to lie) caused a stormy reaction from readers, gave rise to a whole mountain of responses and interpretations. “Everything looks as if there weren’t an absurd breakdown on the seashore, an “outsider”, you look, and would decide the squaring of the circle of life: how and why to live, if life is an approximation to death. In any case, Camus, who saw in Meursault " a person who, without claiming to be heroic, agrees to die for the truth, "does a lot to inspire faith in the path of decision chosen in the Outsider. And does not achieve what he wants." For we must not forget that the price paid for the unhypocritical, but dangerous following of random impulses and mindsets, for existential insights in a borderline situation is a human life, even two lives, if we count the victim and the "stranger" himself. However, after all, Camus’s intention could be that, having sketched the antinomy between the looseness of human behavior and the need to adhere to the rules of morality and the laws of law external to the individual, showing what tragedy the aggravation of the antinomy can lead to, not offer a solution, leave the question open.
In polemics with other existentialists, Camus raises the issue of his fundamental disagreements with them. The reproach against Jaspers is similar to those directed against Shestov and Kierkegaard. On the one hand, Jaspers "realized that the universe was shaken to its very foundations." On the other hand, having found nothing in experience but the recognition of his own impotence, "Jaspers at once affirms the transcendent being of experience and the superhuman meaning of life ... This reasoning is completely illogical. It can be called a leap."
The dispute between Camus and Sartre is no less important. Sartre, as we have seen, believed that in human existence, existence precedes essence, and that man is entirely responsible for how he formulates his essence. Unlike Sartre, who portrays the human essence as a pure possibility, Camus believes that human existence is initially determined by human nature and contains a set of possibilities that limit human freedom.
As for the dispute with Heidegger, its meaning is deeper than can be judged from direct anti-Heideggerian statements. The point is not only that Camus preferred a transparent, almost classical, sincere, devoid of ambiguity, albeit constantly paradoxical style of writing and reasoning to the abstract and abstruse style of Heidegger's Works. The main thing is in those conclusions and grounds that Camus's "philosophy of the absurd" could afford. Perhaps the meaning of this delimitation was expressed most sharply in "Letters to a German friend"Of course, there is no direct polemic with Heidegger. But what is meant is that type of existential philosophizing that deeply and eloquently reveals the drama of the human condition, and then leaves a person alone with despair, so that the path to nationalistic or any other intoxication is left open Camus wrote about his position as follows: “On the contrary, I chose justice for myself in order to remain faithful to the earth. I keep thinking that this world has no higher meaning. But I also know that there is something in him that has meaning, and this is man, for man is the only creature that claims to comprehend the meaning of life. This world is decorated, at least, and our task is to equip it with convincing arguments so that with their help it can fight fate itself ". Thus, sharing the judgment about the inconsistency of traditional humanism, Camus is far from sacrificing humanism as such, to take a nihilistic stance on man and human culture.This brings us to the themes of Camus' deep writing "Rebellious Man".
Philosophical anatomy of rebellion.
"The Rebellious Man" is a multi-layered work, difficult to understand and interpret. Briefly, we can say this: Camus seeks to understand how a person and humanity become capable of murders, wars, through what ideas and concepts their justification is carried out.
Camus recalls the results he achieved in the philosophy of the absurd. Since humanity has become adept at both condemning and defending ("when necessary, inevitable", etc.) wars and murders, it should be recognized that the existing ethics do not provide an unambiguous logically sound solution to the problem. The rejection of suicide in the philosophy of the absurd indirectly testified that arguments could also be made against murder. But the question still remained unanswered. Now, in The Rebel Man, he was on the agenda. Starting from the philosophy of the absurd, Camus argues, we have come to the conclusion that "the first and only evidence" that is given in the experience of the absurd is rebellion.
"The Rebellious Man" is the first theme of Camus' work under consideration. "This is the man who says no. But, denying, he does not renounce: this is a man who already says "yes" with his first action. "The rebellion of a Roman slave who suddenly refused to obey his master, the suicide of Russian terrorists in hard labor out of protest against mockery of comrades in the struggle - examples from the analysis of which Camus concludes: "In the experience of the absurd, suffering is individual. In a rebellious breakthrough, it acquires the character of a collective existence. It becomes a common undertaking... The evil experienced by one person becomes a plague that infects everyone. In our daily trials, rebellion plays the same role that the "cogito" plays in the order of thought: rebellion is the first evidence. But this evidence draws the individual out of his loneliness, it is the common thing that underlies the first value for all people. I rebel, therefore we exist.
Camus analyzes the question of "metaphysical rebellion". "A metaphysical rebellion is a man's rebellion against his destiny and the entire universe. This rebellion is metaphysical, since it disputes the ultimate goals of man and the universe." The meaning of metaphysical rebellion is great. At first, rebellion does not encroach on the elimination of God. It's just a "talk on an equal footing". "But this is not about courtly conversation. This is about controversy, inspired by the desire to prevail." Camus traces the stages of metaphysical rebellion - the tendencies gradually emerging in philosophy to "equate" man with God. Then Camus follows an analysis of those forms of rebellion and those "research" of rebellion, which are analyzed on the examples of the work of the Marquis de Sade, Dostoevsky (he is recognized as one of the best researchers of the "rebellious spirit"), Nietzsche, surrealist poetry. The main content of the book is an analysis of those forms of rebellion that in the 19th and 20th centuries. turned into devastating revolutions. Camus approaches the "historical revolt" neither as a historian nor as a philosopher of history. He is most interested in what mindsets and ideas pushed (and are pushing) people to regicide, revolutionary unrest, terror, wars, mass destruction of foreigners and fellow tribesmen. Philosophical and socio-political ideas are credited with a truly decisive role in these processes. The philosophy of Hegel and the Hegelians, in a word, varieties of "German ideology" both on German and "Germanized" Russian soil of the 19th century. are carefully studied as the ideological prerequisites for destructive revolutionary uprisings. Special attention is paid to Belinsky, Herzen, Russian nihilists of the 60s, anarchist theorist Bakunin, Narodnik Nechaev. The chapter "Pickling Killers" dissects the history and ideology of Russian terrorism in the 19th and 20th centuries. Marxism is also analyzed, including its perception on Russian soil. "Rebellion and Revolution" - this theme remains for Camus pivotal throughout his analysis. The connection between the overthrow of principles, the revolutionary upheaval of foundations and the destruction of people seems to the author of The Rebellious Man undoubted. "The revolution in the realm of principles kills God in the person of his vicar. The revolution of the 20th century kills what remains of the divine in the principles themselves, and thus sanctifies historical nihilism."
Camus sees similarities between fascism and communism, although he takes into account the differences between them. But there is a similarity, and it stems ultimately from a false philosophy of history, from a call to revolt. "Fascism wanted to institute the advent of the Nietzschean superman. And immediately realized that if God exists, he can be anyone and anything, but above all - the master of death. If a person wants to become God, he must appropriate to himself the right to life and death of others "But, having become a supplier of corpses and subhumans, he himself turned not into God, but into a subhuman, into a vile servant of death. The rational revolution, in turn, seeks to realize the all-man predicted by Marx. But it is worth accepting the logic of history in all its totality, as it will lead the revolution against her own lofty passion, will begin to cripple a person more and more, and in the end she herself will turn into an objective crime.
Despite the harsh criticism of rebellion and revolution, Camus pays tribute to rebellion and revolutionism, since they are generated by the human lot. And therefore, despite the greatest risk and danger, rebelliousness must go through self-criticism and self-restraint. "... The revolutionary spirit of Europe can, for the first and last time, reflect on its principles, ask itself what kind of deviation pushes it towards terrorism and war, and together with the goals of rebellion, gain loyalty to itself." The closing pages of The Rebel Man are hardly convincing. Having brilliantly debunked the rebellious, revolutionary, nihilistic consciousness and action, Camus tried to convince his reader that "true rebellion" and "new revolutionaryism" are possible, free from destructive consequences. And yet, faith in a person who has taken upon himself "the risk and difficulties of freedom", more precisely, faith in millions of singles, "whose creations and works daily deny the boundaries and former mirages of history" - this is what the outstanding writer and outstanding philosopher Albert Camus.
Search
We may notify you of new articles,