Coniferous-broad-leaved forests of the Russian Plain is a natural zone of the temperate zone, characterized by a relatively mild, humid climate, coniferous-broad-leaved forests growing along watersheds on soddy-podzolic soils. It is also called the zone of mixed forests, which is not entirely accurate, since taiga forests are often mixed in terms of rock composition. These two names seem to be synonymous.

In the north, the zone borders on the taiga, in the south - on the forest-steppe, in the west, outside the USSR, it passes into the zone of broad-leaved forests of Western Europe. The position of the zone in the southwest of the forest zone of the USSR, in relative proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, plays a leading role in the formation of the landscape. Compared to the taiga, the climate of mixed forests is warmer and more humid, and in its extreme northwest (Kaliningrad region) it is transitional from maritime to continental.

During the year, about 50-55 cyclones pass through the Kaliningrad region; in winter here almost every second day with the passage of the front. The sum of temperatures for the period with a stable temperature above 10° in the north of the zone is about 1800°, in the south - 2400°. The average duration of the frost-free period increases from 120 days in the northeast of the zone to 165 days in the west of the Kaliningrad region and near Kiev. There is more precipitation in the zone than in the taiga. Their annual amount fluctuates between 600-700 mm, and on the western slopes of the hills it reaches 800 mm. The moisture balance is positive; in the south it approaches neutral: the evaporation rate here is almost equal to the annual precipitation. The moisture coefficient of the Vysotsky-Ivanov, as in the taiga, is more than one, the Budyko dryness index slightly increases and ranges from 2/3 to 1. There is enough heat and moisture for the cultivation of various crops: gray bread, wheat, potatoes, flax, sugar beet (southwest), hemp (south of the zone), forage grasses.

Under conditions of a positive moisture balance, the surface runoff in coniferous-deciduous forests is large (350-150 mm), the river network is well developed, and the rivers themselves are characterized by high water. The most significant rivers, the basin of which lies entirely within the zone, are the Western Dvina and the Neman. The Western Dvina, despite the small basin area (85100 km 2), has an average long-term water discharge at the mouth of 680 m 3 / sec. Due to the positive balance of moisture, groundwater occurs close to the surface (from 0 to 10 m) and is quite widely used for various household needs. The waters of finite moraine ridges are characterized by variability in distribution and depth of occurrence. As in the taiga, the mineralization of groundwater in the zone is weak, the salt concentration varies from 100 to 500 mg/l.

The proximity of groundwater in a humid climate causes widespread development of waterlogging processes. Raised and lowland bogs cover most of the lowlands and basins, they are often found on high, but insufficiently drained watersheds. Among the swamps in the north of the zone, upland sphagnum peatlands, sometimes covered with stunted pine, predominate. South of Moscow and Minsk, transitional and low-lying bogs predominate, containing peat of a lower quality compared to the sphagnum peat of raised bogs. Peat from raised and transitional bogs in the zone of coniferous-deciduous forests is widely used for fuel and for fertilizing fields. Large swamp areas, after being drained, have been turned into fertile arable and hay lands. The most expedient is the drainage of transitional and low-lying marshes, relatively rich in mineral salts. The agricultural development of raised bogs, poor in mineral salts, requires large expenditures of labor and material resources and does not always bring the desired economic effect. When developing peat in quarries, it is recommended to leave an agricultural protective layer (the lower layer of the peat deposit) with a thickness of 30 cm, which is then used as organic matter for the newly created soil.

Physical and geographical characteristics of Russia.

1.Geographic location.
1. Russia is the largest state on the globe, with an area of
17.1 million km 2. Our country is located in the northern part of Eurasia, occupying about a third of it
territory. Russia is located in two parts of the world: about 1/3 of the country lies in Europe,
about 2/3 - in Asia.

2. The whole country is in the northern hemisphere. The extreme northern mainland point of Russia - Cape Chelyuskin (77 ° 43 "N) - is located on the Taimyr Peninsula. The island is located on Rudolf Island in the Franz Josef Land archipelago, this is Cape Fligeli (81 ° 49'N).

The extreme southern point of Russia is located in the North Caucasus, on the border of the Republic of Dagestan with Azerbaijan, 10 km from the peak of Bazardyuzyu (41 ° 12 'N).

The extreme eastern point on the mainland is Cape Dezhnev in Chukotka (169° 40' W). The eastern island point is located on Ratmanov Island in the Bering Strait (169°

The extreme western point lies on the gerbils spit of the Gdansk Bay of the Baltic
seas in the Kaliningrad region (19° 38 ’E)

3. Due to the large extent of the territory of Russia from north to south (about 4

thousand km) and from west to east (about 10 thousand km) the natural conditions of our country

are exceptionally diverse. Russia is located in the arctic, subarctic, mostly in temperate climatic zones. And only

an insignificant part of the Black Sea coast of Russia is located in the subtropics.

Russian borders

The length of Russia's borders is about 60 thousand km. Of these, more than 40 thousand fall on the sea borders, especially in the north and east of the country. The sea borders of Russia, as well as other states, pass at a distance of 12 nautical miles from the coast (nautical mile = 1.8 km), followed by a 200-mile economic zone where free movement of ships is allowed, but the use of any types of natural resources of water, bottom and subsoil carried out only by Russia.

In the north, Russia is washed by the waters of the seas of the Arctic Ocean: the Barents, White, Kara, Laptev, East Siberian and Chukchi. Within this ocean, from the shores of the country to the North Pole, is the Russian sector of the Arctic. It is located between the meridians 32 ° 45 'E. and 168° 40'W.

The western border does not have clearly defined natural boundaries, starting from the Barents Sea, and then along the western margin of the Kola Peninsula. Here passes the border with Norway, to the south with Finland, which follows to the Gulf of Finland of the Baltic Sea. Then follows the border with Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Belarus (Kaliningrad region) and Ukraine.

The southern border first runs along the Black Sea, connecting our country with Ukraine, Georgia, Turkey, Bulgaria and Romania. The sea border with Ukraine runs along the Sea of ​​Azov.

The land border along the watershed ridge of the Greater Caucasus separates

Russia from Georgia and Azerbaijan The Caspian Sea connects the country with Turkmenistan, Iran, Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan. From the Volga Delta to Altai passes

land border with Kazakhstan; a small section of the border with China runs along the southern border with the Altai Republic. Then the border with Mongolia passes through the mountains of southern Siberia. To the east, along the rivers Argun, Amur and Ussuri, Russia borders on China. In the extreme southeast, within the Primorsky Territory, there is a border with the DPRK.

The eastern border of our country runs along the seas of the Pacific Ocean. Here

Japan and the United States are its closest neighbors. Straits separate us from Japan

Laperouse and Kunoshirsky. The border with the United States runs along the Bering Strait, between

Ratmanov Islands (Russia) and Kruzenshtern Islands (USA). Due to the large length from West to East, there is a great difference in time in Russia: the country lies in 11 time zones.

Climate of Russia

The climate of Russia, like other regions of the Earth, is formed under the influence of a large number of different factors. But in the first place among all the climate-forming factors, one should put the geographical location, one of the elements of which is the latitude of the place, on which the amount of incoming solar heat (total solar radiation) depends. Due to the huge length from North to South, the amount of total solar radiation varies from 251.2 kJ/cm 2 per year in the Arctic to 670 kJ/cm 2 per year in the subtropics.

If the total solar radiation is the incoming part of the radiation balance, then its expenditure part is the effective radiation of the earth's surface and the reflected radiation. In summer, on the territory of Russia, the radiation balance is everywhere positive, in winter, with the exception of the south of the country, it is negative. In general, for the year the radiation balance of the underlying surface within our country is positive, only in the Arctic it is close to zero.

The prevailing winds and the surrounding oceans have a huge influence on the climate. In temperate latitudes, in which most of the country is located, the western transfer of air masses predominates. With the western transport, the sea air of temperate latitudes, which is formed in the North Atlantic, spreads. Its spread far to the east of the country is facilitated by the absence of high mountains. Therefore, the influence of the Atlantic can affect up to the regions of Eastern Siberia. In summer, the arrival of Atlantic air causes cooling and precipitation, in winter in the western part of the country it leads to thaws, and in the east - to a significant mitigation of frost

The influence of air formed over the Arctic Ocean is more pronounced in summer, when relatively low atmospheric pressure is established over the mainland. The impact of the Arctic air is most pronounced within the East European and West Siberian plains. In winter, it causes a sharp cooling, in spring and autumn - frosts. In summer, moving south and warming up, it forms cloudless and partly cloudy weather, and in the Volga region and in the south of Western Siberia it can cause drought.

The influence of the Pacific Ocean and the air masses formed above it is limited to the coastal zone and occurs mainly in the summer, during the summer monsoon.

The general nature of the relief is also of great climate-forming importance: the absence of high mountains in the west does not prevent the penetration of Atlantic and Arctic air into the interior of the country, and, conversely, the presence of mountain ranges in the east weakens the impact of the Pacific Ocean on the climate of the Far East and Eastern Siberia. Due to the great length of Russia from North to South and from West to East, the climate is very diverse. Russia is located in the arctic, mostly in temperate climatic zones, and the Black Sea coast is in the subtropics. The vast territory of our country and location in several climatic zones leads to large differences in t ° January and July, annual precipitation in its various parts. The change in July t° occurs in the latitudinal direction, which is determined by the amount of incoming solar radiation at different latitudes.

Winter isotherms over the European part change from West to East from 8 to -18°C, which is determined by the influence of the Atlantic and the western transfer of air masses. In Eastern and Northeastern Siberia, the January isotherms have a closed annular character, reflecting the continentality of the climate of this territory. In winter, an area of ​​high pressure is established above the land and a strong cooling of the surface layers of air occurs. Especially low t° are observed in Verkhoyansk and Oymyakon, where the average t° drops to -50°С, and the absolute min of Verkhoyansk (-68°С) is considered one of the lowest t° of the Earth, with the exception of Antarctica. The occurrence of this "pole of cold" is also facilitated by the hollow nature of the relief: heavier cold air stagnates in the basins and they turn out to be much colder than the mountain slopes surrounding them (the phenomenon of temperature inversion).

In the Far East, the January isotherms are elongated in the Northeast direction, parallel to the coastline, under the influence of the Pacific Ocean.

The distribution of precipitation over the territory of Russia is extremely uneven and is associated with the circulation of air masses, the features of the relief and air temperature. The greatest amount of precipitation falls in the mountains of the Caucasus and Altai (more than 2000 mm per year) and in the South of the Far East (up to 1000 mm per year). The plains receive moderate rainfall. Their annual amount decreases from 600-700 mm in the west of the East European Plain to 200-300 mm in Eastern Siberia.

The minimum amount of precipitation falls on the semi-desert regions of the Caspian lowland (about 150 mm per year).

In most parts of Russia, precipitation falls in winter in the form of snow. The summer season has the maximum amount of precipitation.

Features of the distribution of temperature and precipitation has a huge impact
on the development of plants, soil-forming processes, types of agricultural

activities.
Seas of Russia.

Our country is the largest maritime power in the world. General

the length of its maritime borders is over 40,000 km.

Russia is washed by the waters of twelve moraines belonging to three oceans. These

seas are very diverse in terms of natural conditions, resources and the degree of their

learning and mastery.
1. The seas of the Arctic Ocean are the most numerous, there are six of them:

Barents, Beloe, Kara, Laptev, East Siberian and Chukchi. All of them
belong to the marginal type of seas, with the exception of the White Sea (it is

internal). The boundaries with the ocean are not clearly defined, and water exchange with the ocean is completely

free. The shelf position of these seas determined their insignificant depth,

which rarely exceeds 200 m. The salinity of the seas is below oceanic, since
rivers flowing into them have a desalination effect.

The seas are separated from each other by islands (Novaya and Severnaya Zemlya, Novosibirsk Islands, Wrangel Island), and the straits separating them (Kara Gate Strait, Vilkitsky Strait, Dmitry Laptev Strait, Long Strait) connect all the seas through which the Northern Sea path. It began operating in 1935 and connected European and Far Eastern ports, as well as the mouths of navigable rivers in Siberia. The distance from St. Petersburg to Vladivostok along it is 14,280 km, while the route through the Suez Canal is 23,200 km. The development of the Northern Sea Route, which is 4,500 km long, is of great importance for the development of the regions of the Far North.

Almost all seas are within the Arctic zone. The only exception is the Barents Sea, into which the warm Norwegian Current enters. Favorable temperature conditions make this sea extremely important for transport (non-freezing water area of ​​the port of Murmansk) and for fishing, the rest of the seas are bound by a thick ice cover for 8-10 months a year, which is the main obstacle to navigation. The seas of the Asian sector are characterized by more severe climatic conditions, which reduces their biological productivity. To the east, the number of fish species decreases and their species composition changes, cod, haddock, sea bass, herring, flounder, halibut prevail in the western seas, and smelt and whitefish prevail in the eastern seas. In some seas, sea animals are also hunted: seals, white whales, seals.

2. Seas of the Pacific Ocean:

Bering (the largest and deepest in Russia), the Sea of ​​Okhotsk and the Sea of ​​Japan. They wash the east coast of the country. From the outer oceanic side, they are limited by the islands: Aleutian (USA), Kuril (Russia) and Japanese (Japan). The basins of the seas are formed in the zone of transition of the earth's crust from continental to oceanic. They have almost no shelf zone and the seas are distinguished by significant depths (2500-4000 m). The eastern shores of Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands are washed by the waters of the Pacific Ocean. Here is one of the deepest oceanic depressions - the Kuril-Kamchatskaya with depths of up to 9717 m. This area is tectonically active here, earthquakes, volcanism are frequent and, as a result, the occurrence of a tsunami

The Bering and Okhotsk Seas are distinguished by a harsh climate in winter, a significant part of them is covered with ice, and the temperature of surface waters does not rise above +5 + 12 ° C even in summer. Thick fogs, storms, hurricanes often form here, which impede navigation.

The Sea of ​​Japan is warmer, in summer the surface water temperature reaches +20°C. But in winter, the northern coastal part is still covered with ice.

The salinity of these seas is close to oceanic.

All seas experience high tides. They are especially large in the Penzhina Bay of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, where the water rises to 11 m.

Due to low temperatures, the waters of the sea are rich in oxygen, and numerous rivers bring a large amount of minerals. All this creates favorable conditions for the habitat of marine organisms. The Far Eastern seas are of great commercial importance. Herring, cod, flounder are caught here. The value of salmon fish (pink salmon, chum salmon, chinook salmon, sockeye salmon) is especially high. In addition to fish, crabs, trepangs, oysters, shrimps, scallops, and squids are mined in the seas. Algae are also used (especially seaweed).

Mineral resources are being mined on the shelf of the Far Eastern seas. close
Sakhalin developed oil fields. It is difficult to overestimate the transport
the meaning of these seas.

3. Seas of the Atlantic Ocean wash the western and southwestern outskirts of Russia. These are the Baltic, Black and Azov seas. They belong to the inland seas and are connected to the ocean by narrow straits through neighboring seas. Therefore, they have a number of similar features of nature: there are practically no tides, the warm waters of the Atlantic almost do not penetrate into them, low salinity due to the fresh waters of the flowing rivers (from 17-18 0 / 00 in the central part to 2-3 0 / 00 off the coast) .

But the seas of the Atlantic also have a number of distinctive features. In the Baltic Sea, depths reach several hundred meters, in the Sea of ​​Azov, no more than 12 m. The Black Sea, on the other hand, has significant depths (over 2200 m), since it arose in connection with tectonic faults and subsidence of sections of the earth's crust. In deep-sea basins at a depth of more than 100-150 m, the water is saturated with hydrogen sulfide and there is no life here. The seas also differ in temperature regime. The temperature difference is especially great in summer. In the Baltic Sea it is +15+18°C, while in the Black and Azov Seas the temperature is much higher than +22+25°C and +25+30°C respectively.

All the seas of the Atlantic Ocean have a large fishing industry,
transport and recreational value.

4. To the largest domestic The closed basin of Russia includes the Caspian Sea-lake, which has no connection with the World Ocean. In the past, it was part of the ancient unified Caspian-Black Sea basin. The Caspian is also a warm sea, although its northern part is covered with ice in winter. The salinity of its waters varies from 0.40/00 at the mouth of the Volga to 140/00 in the southern part.

The Caspian Sea-Lake plays a very important role: important transport routes pass through it, valuable sturgeon fish are caught here - beluga, sturgeon, stellate sturgeon (80% of world reserves), there are large offshore oil fields.

There are a number of problems associated with the Caspian. First of all, these are significant long-term fluctuations in the water level, on the order of several meters. As well as environmental problems that have arisen as a result of active human economic activity, mainly related to oil production.

Internal waters of Russia.

Rivers.

Rivers are one of the important parts of the landscape and affect all of its components. In addition, the importance of rivers in human economic activity is also great. Russia has large reserves of fresh water, including river water. In terms of total runoff, our country occupies one of the leading places in the world. The density of the river network depends on the relief and climate, as well as on the history of the formation of a particular territory, for example, on the legacy of the Ice Age. The bulk of water bodies and fresh water reserves are concentrated in the zone of excessive moisture. The water content of rivers is related to the size of surface and underground runoff, which is determined by the ratio of precipitation and evaporation. Therefore, the flow of rivers in the northern part is greater than in the south. All the rivers of Russia belong to the basins of three oceans, the seas of which wash the shores of the country. The basin of the internal flow of the Caspian, which occupies more than half of the European part of Russia, includes the largest river in Europe - the Volga.


More than half of the territory of Russia belongs to the rivers of the Arctic Ocean basin, which flow through the North of the European part and almost all of Siberia. The Pacific and Atlantic Ocean basins account for less than 1/4 of the country's area. Over 20 rivers of our country have a length of more than 1000 km. The largest rivers of Russia are.

R. Lena- 4400 km,

R. Irtysh (a tributary of the Ob), including Ch. Irtysh- 4248 km,

R. Yenisei (with B. Yenisei) -4102 km,

R. Ob (from the confluence of the Biya and Katun)- 3676 km,

R. Volga- 3531 km,

R. Amur (from the confluence of Shelka and Argun)- 2846 km,

R. Kolyma- 2600 km,

R. Angara (tributary of the Yenisei)- 1780 km.

The most full-flowing river is the Yenisei (annual flow is 624 km). For most Russian rivers, a common feature is the presence of seasonal ice cover. The freeze-up time lasts from 220-240 days in the North-East of the country, up to 2 months on the rivers of the southern part of Russia.

The variety of climatic conditions characteristic of our country affects the features of the river regime. In addition, rivers of different climatic regions differ in their food sources.

Within the East European Plain and in Western Siberia, most of the rivers are predominantly snow-fed with spring floods. It is the spring period that accounts for most of the annual runoff. Flash floods are possible in summer and autumn. In winter, during the freeze-up, the rivers switch to groundwater, so their level and flow are low.

For rivers originating from the mountains, for example, in the Caucasus (Kuban, Terek), floods are characteristic in the warm season. The higher the summer temperatures, the more intense the melting of snow and glaciers.

Rivers of monsoon climate regions with summer floods are common in the Amur basin.

In those places where the spread of permafrost takes place (in the east and northeast of Siberia), there is a peculiar type of rivers. With the melting of an insignificant snow cover, the spring flood is weakly expressed, and in the summer during the rains, strong floods are observed.

The importance of rivers in human economic activity cannot be overestimated. Rivers are a powerful source of cheap water energy. Potential hydropower resources account for approximately 11% of the world's hydropower resources. Powerful hydroelectric power plants have been built on the largest rivers. The flow of these rivers is regulated by reservoirs, S of which reaches several thousand km2. Many rivers are used for navigation and timber rafting. In the arid regions of the country, river water is used to irrigate agricultural land. Rivers are an important source of water supply for industrial centers.

Lakes.

A significant part of the water reserves is concentrated in lakes. There are about two million lakes in Russia. But they are distributed extremely unevenly. This is due to two main factors: climate and topography. Most of the lakes are concentrated in the northern part of the country. In the southern strip they are much less.

Lakes differ in their origin. In troughs and dips of the earth's crust in mountainous areas, less often on the plains, lakes with basins of tectonic origin are common. They are of great depth. A striking example of such lakes is Baikal - the deepest lake not only in Russia, but also in the world. Its depth is 1637 m!

In areas of active tectonic activity (in the Kuriles and Kamchatka), volcanic lakes (Kronotskoye, Kurilskoye) formed in the craters of extinct volcanoes.

A common group is formed by a mixed glacial-tectonic origin. Their tectonic basins were processed and deepened by the glacier. This is how the Ladoga, Onega lakes and the lakes of the Kola Peninsula and Karelia arose. Between moraine hills and ridges (traces of accumulative activity of glaciers), in the North and North-West of the East European Plain, groups of lakes of glacial origin (Seliger and Valdai lakes) formed.

In karst regions, there are failures and other karst lakes, which, with a small area, have a significant depth. In the south of Western Siberia, there are many saucer-shaped lakes that arose as a result of subsidence of loose rocks.

In the floodplains of flat rivers there are oxbow lakes. And along the shores of the Azov and Black Seas there are lakes-estuaries. Each such lake is the result of the interaction of the river and the sea; the mouth of the river flooded by the sea is separated from the sea by a spit that rises between the sea and the river.

The regime of lakes largely depends on whether it is flowing or not. Most often, large lakes in Russia are flowing. The stagnant lakes are typical mainly for the southern part of the country. Usually they are located in a drainless depression, collecting atmospheric and groundwater. Due to the high evaporation and the abundance of salinity sources, stagnant lakes in the southern regions are often saline. The largest such sea-lake is the Caspian Sea. The salinity of the waters of most of it is about 13 0 / 00, the maximum depth is 1025 m. The largest salt lake in Russia is Lake Chany in Western Siberia. Salt lakes are subdivided into brackish and salt lakes (in the event that salinity increases to full saturation, and salts precipitate). Salt lakes are lakes Baskunchak, Kuchuk (precipitation of Glauber's salt).

Lakes in the Caspian lowlands Elton and Baskunchak are world famous, which are the place where table salt is mined.

Economic importance of lakes. All large lakes in Russia are used in the economy. Navigation is carried out along them, fresh water is used for water supply of settlements, for irrigation of fields. The commercial value of the lakes, where valuable species of fish are found, is great. In some lakes there are large reserves of salts, sometimes healing mud is also found. Lake shores are places of recreation and tourism.

Groundwater is an important component of inland waters. This is one of the sources of water supply, since they are much cleaner than surface water and their level is less subject to seasonal fluctuations.

In addition to fresh water, groundwater with a high content of salts and gases is of great value. These are mineral waters that are used for medicinal purposes. They are found in Ciscaucasia, Karelia, Transbaikalia, etc.

Swamps. These unique natural landscapes occupy more than 10% of the territory of our country. Wetlands are common where precipitation exceeds evaporation. The formation of swamps completes the evolution of small lakes. The northwest of the East European Plain is heavily swamped (up to 20-30%); West Siberian lowland (mainly south of the Ob) - up to 70%, the center and northeast of Yakutia, the Amur basin (10-12%). Wetlands are an important source of river nutrition. Many of them are rich in peat. This is the place of growth of many useful berries and medicinal herbs. Therefore, the conservation of swamps is important for the protection and rational use of natural resources.

Thus, Russia is very rich in water resources, but they are distributed extremely unevenly.

natural areas.

Due to the vast extent of the territory from north to south, within Russia, natural zonality is pronounced, manifested in the soil cover, vegetation and wildlife and is represented by a rich range of zones from arctic deserts in the north to semi-deserts and deserts in the Caspian Sea. Altitude zonality is expressed in mountainous regions.

Arctic desert zone. It is located in the Far North of Russia, covers the northern part of the Taimyr Peninsula and the islands of the Arctic Ocean. The climate of this zone is very severe. Long and frosty winters with strong winds. The temperature drops below -40°C. Summers are cold and short, with temperatures not exceeding 0°...+4°C Due to such climatic conditions, 85% of the territory of the zone is covered with glaciers. Soils of the Arctic deserts are formed under a strongly sparse vegetation cover in ice-free spaces. They are thin, often with a thin (1-3 cm) layer of peat. Significant evaporation during the long polar day (about 150 days) and dry air leads to the formation of solonchak varieties of polar desert soils. The vegetation is represented by mosses, lichens (mainly scale), algae and a few species of flowering plants and arctic-alpine grasses (polar poppy, bluegrass, fippsia, etc.). The animal world is also poor. The islands are inhabited by arctic fox, polar bear, lemming. Reptiles and amphibians are completely absent here. On the rocky shores of the islands there are large colonies of birds, the so-called "bird markets" where thousands of auks, gulls, guillemots, puffins, guillemots, Mayevok and other birds nest.

tundra zone occupies the coasts of the seas of the Arctic Ocean from the Kola Peninsula to Chukotka. In the north of Kamchatka it reaches the latitude of St. Petersburg. This zone has a short cool summer with temperatures ranging from +4°C in the north to -+11°C in the south. Winter is harsh, like in the Arctic deserts. Precipitation is low - 200 -

300 mm per year, but with a lack of heat, evaporation is small. Permafrost is widespread here, which prevents moisture from seeping inward. This contributes to the wide distribution of marsh landscapes and the formation of numerous shallow lakes. Soils in the tundra in the north are arctic tundra, to the south they are replaced by tundra typical and podzolized. They are characterized by low thickness, low humus content, high acidity and gley content.

The flora of the tundra is heterogeneous: in the north, in the Arctic tundra, moss-lichen groups predominate. Among herbaceous plants there are many sedges, cotton grass, polar poppy. To the south, a typical tundra is common with moss, lichen and shrub groups, located east of the Kolyma sedge-cotton grass hummocky tundra. The southern part of the zone is dominated by shrub tundra with undersized birch and willow species. Among the plants there are many perennials, including evergreen berry plants (lingonberries, cranberries, blueberries, blueberries), cloudberries, shrub heather, mushrooms grow here.

The animal world is very poor, in terms of living conditions it has much in common with the Arctic: a harsh climate, lack of food and shelters. Many animals, especially birds, leave the tundra for the winter. Only arctic fox, lemmings, snowy owl, tundra partridge remain here, and in the mountains of North-Eastern Siberia - ground squirrel, marmot, pika. Numerous herds of deer roam the tundra in search of reindeer moss (bushy lichen). In summer, a lot of birds arrive: geese, ducks, swans, waders and loons. Due to low temperatures and the poverty of soils with minerals, agriculture is impossible here.

Forest-tundra.

It is a transition zone from tundra to taiga. It is already much warmer here than in the tundra. The average July temperature reaches +14°С. Annual rainfall reaches 400 mm, which is much higher than evaporation, so the forest-tundra is the most waterlogged natural zone. It is characterized by a combination of plants, tundra and taiga zones. The most productive reindeer pastures are located here, since reindeer moss grows here much faster than in the tundra.

Forest zone.

Forest zone Occupies the largest area of ​​Russia (60%). But the forested part is 45% of the country's area. This zone includes three subzones: taiga, mixed and broad-leaved forests.

In different regions of the vast taiga zone, many natural conditions are not the same - the general severity of the climate, the degree of moisture, mountainous or flat relief. number of sunny days, variety of soils. Therefore, the coniferous trees that form the taiga are also different, which changes its appearance in certain areas. Summer here is cool, the average July temperature is not higher than +18°C. The amount of precipitation varies from west to east from 600 to 300 mm, but for the most part slightly exceeds evaporation. The snow cover is stable and lasts all winter. Coniferous species predominate in the taiga: pine, spruce, fir, larch. There are also small-leaved tree species: birch, aspen, mountain ash. On the East European Plain, taiga forests are represented by spruce, fir and pine, in Western Siberia - spruce, fir, Siberian pine and Siberian larch. To the east of the Yenisei, larch forests are most widespread, with a predominance of Daurian larch, the horizontal root system of which allows it to grow on permafrost

Year coniferous forests form different types of podzolic soils. As a result of the decomposition of coniferous litter, acids are formed, which, under conditions of high humidity, contribute to the breakdown of mineral and organic soil particles. The leaching regime leads to the leaching of substances from the upper humus layer into the lower soil horizons, as a result of which the upper part of the soil acquires a whitish ash color (hence "podzols"). In areas of excessive moisture, gleying of soils occurs and gley-podzolic soils are formed. In Eastern Siberia, slightly podzolized permafrost-taiga soils are developed under larch forests due to less precipitation and the spread of permafrost. In areas where deciduous trees are mixed with conifers, soddy-podzolic soils are formed. All these soils are infertile and have high acidity, but with the application of mineral fertilizers and liming, they can produce good yields of vegetable crops, flax, rye, oats, barley and forage grasses.

The animal world is more diverse than in the tundra. This is the kingdom of fur-bearing animals. Here live: squirrel, sable, chipmunk, brown bear, lynx, pine marten, fox, wolf, elk. Many birds: capercaillie, hazel grouse, woodpecker, nutcracker, owl and others.

Coniferous forests are used for timber harvesting, fur trade, picking of berries, mushrooms and medicinal plants. Subzones of mixed and broad-leaved forests are located south of the taiga on the Russian Plain, are absent in the inland regions and reappear in the south of the Far East. Soils and vegetation change as you move from north to south.

In the subzone of mixed forests to coniferous and small-leaved species
broad-leaved trees join: oak, linden, sharp-leaved maple, ash, elm, hornbeam and
other. But all of them are found only within the East European Plain. Per
The Ural Range crosses only linden, meeting occasionally in the south of the forest zone
Western Siberia. They grow on sod-podzolic soils. In the south of the forest
zones of the East European Plain, broad-leaved species are common in
gray and brown forest soils. ,"

The forests of the south of the Far East are peculiar. The already named tree species are mixed with species of East Asian origin: Korean cedar, Mongolian oak, Amur velvet, Manchurian walnut, aralia, hazel, honeysuckle and creepers (Amur grapes, actinidia, lemongrass).

The fauna of the subzone is very rich. Roe deer are added to the taiga species,
marten, red deer, wild boar, beaver. In the Far East live the kharza, the Amur tiger,
badger, otter, Amur snake, Far Eastern tortoise, blue magpie, duck-
tangerine.

Forest-steppe zone.

This is a transitional zone from the forest to the steppe, so it alternates between areas of forest and steppe vegetation. The soils of the forest-steppes are very fertile, therefore the nature of this zone has been greatly changed by human economic activity. The steppe zone of Russia is small in area. It occupies the south of the European part of the country and Western Siberia. Steppe areas are also found in Transbaikalia and in the basins of the mountains of Southern Siberia. Since the territory of the steppe zone is located south of the paths of cyclones, there is little precipitation here (up to 300-450 mm per year). The moisture coefficient varies from 0.6-0.8 near the northern border to 0.3 in the south. Winter is cold, the average temperature is below 0°C. Summer is moderately hot +21°+23°C.

A small amount of precipitation and high evaporation create conditions for the accumulation of humus in the upper soil horizon. Chernozems are distributed here - the most fertile soils, with a very dark color and with a granular structure.

In the driest parts of the zone, chestnut soils are common. Salt soils are found.

Most of the steppe zone has been plowed up. Cereals, vegetables and industrial crops are grown here. The remains of natural steppes have been preserved only in the reserves of the Central Black Earth Zone ("Talichya Gora" on the Central Russian Upland)

Semi-desert and desert zones. Located in the Caspian Sea and on the border with Kazakhstan. They have a dry, sharply continental climate. In summer, the average July temperature rises to +23°+25°C, and in January it drops to -10°-15°C. The annual precipitation does not exceed 250 mm.

Semi-deserts are characterized by transitional features from steppes to deserts. Here, on chestnut and brown desert-steppe soils, wormwood-cereal vegetation grows. The herbage is dominated by feather grass, fescue, and tyrsa. From semi-shrubs - white wormwood, prutnyak, bugorgun and others.

In deserts, summer is even hotter, the snow cover is thin and unstable. Wormwood and saltwort grow on gray-brown soils. Salt accumulates due to strong evaporation in the upper soil horizons, so solonchaks and solonetzes are widespread in these areas.

The main animals are rodents gophers, jerboas, voles, mice. There are steppe wolf, polecat, corsac fox, eared hedgehog, sand cat, goitered gazelle. There are many reptiles.

In the southern part of Russia, on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus, there is a small area of ​​humid subtropics.

The change of natural zones in the mountains is determined by altitudinal zonality, which is often traced even within low mountains.

Ecological problems of landscapes of natural zones of Russia(according to Petrov K.M.)

In the last few decades, the influence has been especially strong.

human economic activity on natural landscapes, which

intensively transformed into anthropogenic.

Tundra zone: until the second half of the 20th century, everywhere in this zone

dominated by indigenous natural ecosystems. The local population was

nomadic reindeer breeding, fur trade, hunting for sea animals. So
the second half of the 20th century, economic activity in the harsh conditions of the North
has been especially developed. It is associated with exploration, production
oil and gas, construction of roads, oil and gas pipelines, cities and towns. 1The presence of permafrost is the most important factor influencing the technogenic development of the territory.
Vegetation, moss layer and peat are good natural
. heat insulator. Its destruction contributes to the melting of underground ice,
the formation of drawdowns and dips.

1) It is necessary to preserve the soil and vegetation cover. A cleared dirt area in a few years can turn into a sinking lake, and the track of the tractor caterpillars into a ditch, and then a deep ravine.

Oil products falling into the soil decompose very poorly, and low t °
and min of oxygen retains oil pollution for a long time. => Self-cleaning in
the permafrost zone almost does not occur.

Geological exploration damages deer pastures, area
which has been greatly reduced. => Herds concentrate on limited
area. => Overgrazing. => Destruction of the soil and vegetation cover. Reindeer moss
grows very slowly (for 50 years - 6 - 8 cm). Now disturbed reindeer mosses
pastures are almost never restored. => At this level of exposure
the indigenous natural ecosystems of the tundra will move into the category of relic ones.

Taiga zone: characteristic landscapes of the most extensive

areas of the taiga zone are coniferous forests and swamps. The territory of the middle and especially the northern part of the taiga began to be settled in Russia relatively recently. Features of economic activity: forestry - logging, gathering herbs, berries, mushrooms, hunting. In the first half of the 19th century, the population was insignificant, the settlement was focal and concentrated mainly in the river valleys. => Cattle breeding and agriculture, because floodplain soils are max fertile. In place of clearings - pastures and arable land.

Particularly strong changes in the structure of the taiga zone - the second half of the 20th century, because. IV timber blanks. Large areas of development covered almost the entire European part of the taiga zone, a significant part of the Urals, vast areas of Western Siberia, Eastern Siberia and the Far East.

1) Due to exploration, production and development p / and even in
hard-to-reach places, taiga landscapes began to suffer from economic

development.

2) Fires cause great damage to the taiga.

3. Near large cities, forests are being replaced by agricultural land.

I. Forests play an important soil and water protection role: where they
are destroyed, 1 surface runoff, soil erosion increases, ravines appear,
IV groundwater, shallow rivers.

Taiga plays an important role in O2 saturation and absorption. CO2 (for 1 year »
1 thousand m 3 Og). .

The bogs of the taiga are a unique natural complex. These are sources of peat, agricultural land (after
dehumidification). Recently there has been a mass attack on the swamps. But
the economic benefits are minimal, and the consequences are enormous. => Natural swamp vegetation dies, the peat layer is quickly used up (from 1-2 to 12 cm is used up per year). Dust storms occur in the Belarusian Polissya, black clouds of overdried peat rise into the air. The filtering role of swamps is great: sphagnum is sterile, it purifies water from various substances, including heavy metals (Pb, mercury, etc.). Swamp water is a huge ecological and economic potential. Drainage of swamps leads to a violation of the diet of rivers, because. they are the sources of many rivers and streams; forests dry up; the diversity of marsh plants and animals is declining.

Conclusion: it is necessary to restore the potential of taiga landscapes.

Zone of mixed and deciduous forests: has a mild

climate and fertile soils => the zone has been inhabited for a long time and has a high population density. At the beginning of the 19th century, arable lands and pastures occupied a larger area than forests. In the 20th century, the development and destruction of natural landscapes increased, and relics of natural ecosystems were preserved only in reserves. In the near future, the main place will be occupied by anthropogenic landscapes, which perform the functions of resource-reproducing and environmental regulation. It takes 1 share of economic costs in the economy to maintain a favorable ecological regime in these anthropogenic landscapes.

> Forest-steppe and steppe zones: this zone of old agricultural development =>

the main areas of pastures and arable lands (up to 70%). => The area of ​​primary forests has been greatly reduced => negative consequences: soil depletion, loss of humus from the arable layer; droughts, dry winds and dust storms; natural phenomena are characteristic: the intensive development of the ravine-beam network.

Relief of Russia

Features:

Great diversity due to the complex tectonic structure: the maximum height is Mount Elbrus (5642 m), the minimum is the Caspian lowland (-28 m).

2/3 of the territory is occupied by plains of different heights; 1/3 - adjacent mountains.

The Yenisei River is the boundary between the lower west and the elevated east.

Most of the territory has a slope to the north, as evidenced by the direction of the currents.

large rivers.

The tectonic structure is very diverse:

1. The main territory is made up of platform structures.

A) Ancient platforms with a foundation of the Precambrian age: East European is located at the base of the European territory of Russia. In its northwestern part there is the Baltic Shield, which corresponds to the elevated relief of the Kola Peninsula and Karelia and the residual mountains of the Khibiny. The East European Platform corresponds to the East European Plain with average heights of up to 200 meters, the surface of which is represented by an alternation of uplands and lowlands of various origins. The Valdai, Smolensk-Moscow, Northern Uvaly uplands are the result of Quaternary glaciations; Privolzhskaya, Pridneprovskaya correspond to uplifts of the platform foundations.

The second ancient platform is the Siberian, within which there is an elevated (above 500 m), strongly dissected Central Siberian Plateau.
The Precambrian foundation of the platform is broken by numerous cracks, along which magma erupted in the Cenozoic, and traps formed. The Anabar and Aldan shields are located in the northeast and southeast of the platform, which correspond to the Anabar and Aldan highlands.

B) Between the ancient platforms is the young West Siberian plate,

the foundation of which was formed in the Paleozoic. It is overlain by a thick cover of sedimentary rocks of marine origin, up to 10 - 12 km thick. It corresponds to a flat, heavily swampy West Siberian lowland with heights up to 100 m.

2 . The platforms are adjacent to areas of folding, which correspond to mountains that differ in height, appearance and origin.

A) Within Russia is the ancient Ural-Okhotsk geosynclinal belt of Paleozoic age, which includes the mountains of Novaya Zemlya, the Urals, Altai, Sayan Mountains, the Baikal region, Transbaikalia, and the mountains of the coast of the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bOkhotsk. These are mountains of fold-block and block structures, which were formed in the Baikal, Caledonian and Hercynian orogenies and subsequently strongly destroyed. In the Cenozoic, they experienced a secondary uplift (revival) to a height of 2000 - 3000 m.

B) The highest mountains belong to the Alpine geosynclinal belt, which was formed in the Cenozoic due to the interaction of the Arabian and Eurasian lithospheric plates. It includes the Caucasus Mountains, which were formed as a result of the collapse of sedimentary rocks into folds and active volcanism. The presence of mineral springs and extinct volcanoes Elbrus and Kazbek indicate the attenuation of tectonic activity in this area.

V) The third geosynclinal belt (Pacific) is located in the east of Russia in the subduction zone of the Pacific and Eurasian lithospheric plates (5 - 7 cm per year). This is the most tectonically active region of our country, where mountain building processes continue, there is a zone of active volcanism and earthquakes. Includes: Koryak Highlands, mountains of Kamchatka. Sakhalin, Kuriles, coastal zone of Sikhote-Alin.

G) In the northeast of the country there is a vast area of ​​the Mesozoic

folding, which includes the Verkhoyansky, Chersky, Kolyma and Chukotsky ridges

highlands, the Dzhugdzhur ridge and most of the Sikhote-Alin. In a relatively short time, the mountains did not have time to collapse and have heights in the range of 1000 - 2000 m. Conclusion: the main forms of the relief of Russia were formed due to endogenous processes, but the modern relief was also affected by external forces.

1) The action of flowing waters: the formation of a ravine-gully network (Central Russian, Volga Uplands), river valleys (modern hydrographic network).

2) The advance and retreat of the sea - the Caspian, Azov, Pechora, West Siberian lowlands.

3) Quaternary glaciations: moraine landforms (Northern ridges, Valdai, Smolensk-Moscow Uplands); activity of warm glacial waters: hills and sandy plains.

6) Permafrost: heaving mounds, soil subsidence (north of the European part,
territory to the east of the Yenisei).
Minerals

Russia is exceptionally rich in minerals, the distribution of which is associated with the morphological structure of the territory.

Ore minerals are confined to the crystalline basement of platforms and folding areas. Non-metallic minerals - to a powerful thickness of sedimentary rocks.

Oil and gas fields are concentrated in the sedimentary cover of the West Siberian Plate (60% oil and 80% gas); in the Cis-Ural foredeep between the Volga and the Urals in Bashkiria and Tataria; in the northeast of the European part in the Pechora basin; in the Lena basin; in the north of Sakhalin.

The zone of mixed and broad-leaved forests is located in the western part of the plain between the taiga and the forest-steppe and extends from the western borders of Russia to the confluence of the Oka into the Volga. The territory of the zone is open to the Atlantic Ocean and its impact on the climate is decisive.

The zone is characterized by a mild, moderately warm climate. The relief shows a combination of uplands (200 m or more) and lowlands. Stratum plains are overlain by moraine, lacustrine-alluvial, fluvioglacial and loess rocks. Soddy-podzolic and gray forest soils are formed within the zone under conditions of a moderately humid and moderately warm Atlantic-continental climate.

Here the large high-water rivers of the East European Plain begin - the Volga, the Dnieper, the Western Dvina, and others. Underground waters lie close to the surface. This contributes to the development of swamps and lakes with a dissected relief, clay-sand deposits and sufficient moisture.

The climate of the zone favors the growth of coniferous tree species together with broad-leaved trees. Depending on the relief conditions and the degree of moisture, meadows and swamps are also formed. European coniferous-broad-leaved forests are heterogeneous. Of the broad-leaved species in the zone, linden, ash, elm, and oak are common. As one moves eastward, due to the increase in the continentality of the climate, the southern boundary of the zone shifts significantly to the north, the role of spruce and fir increases, while the role of broad-leaved species decreases.

The widest distribution of broad-leaved species in the zone is linden, which forms the second tier in mixed forests. They have a well-developed undergrowth with a predominance of hazel, honeysuckle, and euonymus. In the grass cover, taiga representatives - oxalis, mainik - are combined with elements of oak forests, among which the role of goutweed, hoof, woodruff, etc. is significant.

The natural complexes of the zone change to the south, as the climate becomes warmer, the amount of precipitation approaches evaporation, dominance passes to broad-leaved species, conifers become rare. In these forests, the main role belongs to linden and oak.

Here, as well as in the taiga, upland and floodplain meadows on alluvial soils are developed. Among the swamps, transitional and lowland ones predominate. There are few sphagnum bogs.

In the zone of mixed and broad-leaved forests in historical times there were many wild animals and birds. At present, they are pushed back to the least populated places or completely exterminated and are only preserved and restored in reserves. Now typical animals of the zone are wild boar, elk, bison, black or forest polecat, badger, etc. In recent decades, the number of wild boar, river beaver and elk has increased significantly.


The boundary of the range of the wild boar has moved to the northeast and southeast in some places up to 600 km or more. Coniferous-deciduous forests are characterized by species of animals characteristic of Eurasia, but mostly close in origin to species of western broad-leaved and mixed forests, for example, European roe deer, European red deer, European mink, marten, dormouse, European forest cat, muskrat. Maral, spotted deer, muskrat are acclimatized. Of the reptiles in mixed forests, the agile lizard and snake are common.

Rice. 7. Geological structure of the Valdai Upland

The zone of coniferous-deciduous forests has long been densely populated and developed, so its nature has been greatly changed by human activity. For example, forests occupy only 30% of the territory of the zone, the most convenient areas are plowed up or occupied by pastures; in the animal world, there was a change in the species composition - the tarpans and European aurochs that once lived in the forests completely disappeared. Marten, wolverine, muskrat, golden eagle, osprey, white-tailed eagle, white and gray partridges have become rare.

Great work has been carried out to restore the river beaver, bison, red deer, increase the number of elk, acclimatize the raccoon dog, American mink and muskrat. Many species of animals and plants have been taken under protection. Reserves have been created in the zone that protect the most typical natural complexes and especially rare animals and plants. Among them is the Prioksko-Terrasny Biosphere Reserve, which protects the natural complexes of the center of the zone, which played an important role in the restoration of bison brought from Belovezhskaya Pushcha and the Caucasus in dense coniferous-deciduous forests.

The Valdai province extends from the upper reaches of the Lovat and Zapadnaya Dvina rivers in the north-northeast to Lake Onega. It consists of the Valdai (341 m), Tikhvin (280 m) and Vepsov (304 m) uplands, separated by depressions about 100 m above sea level. In the west, the hills abruptly end with the picturesque Valdai-Onega ledge (up to 150-200 m) to the Priilmenskaya lowland. In the east, the uplands gradually merge into the adjacent low-lying plains.

The province is located on the western flank of the Moscow syneclise; therefore, the sequence of sedimentary rocks that make up the cover is monoclinal. The Valdai-Onega ledge is usually considered as a carboniferous glint (cuest ledge), which fixes the boundary of the distribution of Carboniferous rocks represented by limestones, dolomites and marls.

The province is located in the marginal part of the Valdai glaciation, therefore, a well-preserved glacier-accumulative hilly-morainic relief with terminal moraine ridges (Torzhokskaya, Vyshnevolotskaya, Lesnaya, etc.) and numerous moraine lakes along the basins (Seliger, Volgo, Valdai, Velio, etc.). This strip of young picturesque landscapes is called Poozerye. The thickness of the moraine that covered the pre-glacial relief varies from 1–2 m to 100 m or more.

The carbonate rocks underlying the moraine determine the development of karst landforms where the thickness of the Quaternary deposits is small, within the limits of the Carboniferous scarp itself and in the valleys of the rivers cutting through it. Karst forms are represented by saucers, ponors, basins, as well as cavities, caverns, and caves.

The sources of the Volga, Dnieper and Western Dvina lie on the Valdai Upland. Many rivers flow in the hollows of the glacial melt waters, and their valleys are not yet fully formed. Short rivers connect numerous lakes, forming single water systems.

The climate of the province is humid with cool summers. The average July temperature is only 16°C, and the average daily temperature rarely rises above 20°C. Winter is moderately cold. The average January temperature is -9...-10°С. Often coming here cyclones cause thaws. The annual amount of precipitation is more than 800 mm, which is the maximum for the Russian Plain. The maximum is in the summer.

The province is characterized by an extraordinary variety of soil and vegetation cover, which is due to the frequent change of soil-forming rocks and landforms. Moraine hills and ridges are covered with broad-leaved spruce forests on soddy-podzolic and podzolic soils. Pine forests predominate on outwash plains, lakeside sands and sandy hills. On limestones, dolomites and carbonate moraine, dark-colored humus-carbonate soils are common, on which spruce-broad-leaved forests grow with dominance of oak, with linden, ash and elm in the second tier.

Scattered among the forests are damp meadows and pine-sphagnum low-lying grassy and convex ridge-hollow bogs with cloudberries and cranberries. They are confined to the bottoms of wide valleys, the shores of lakes, and sometimes flat watersheds.

A significant part of the area of ​​the province has long been heavily modified by man, but in some places there are still slightly modified areas. Here, in 1931, the Central Forest Reserve was created, which now has the status of a biosphere reserve. Its territory is covered with spruce and spruce-broad-leaved forests, typical for this province.

The Meshchera province is located between the Klyazma and Oka rivers. In the north it is bounded by the slopes of the Smolensk-Moscow Upland, in the east by the Oka-Tsninsky swell. The typical landscape of Meshchera is a gently undulating alluvial outwash forest plain 80-150 m above sea level with lakes and swamps. Along the edges of Meshchera, moraine-erosion uplifts are common with average heights of 150-200 m.

This type of landscape is called woodland. Woodland landscapes were formed at the edge of the Pleistocene ice sheet, in depressions of the pre-glacial relief, through which the runoff of glacial melt waters occurred. Elevated remnants or "loess islands" - opolyas - have also been preserved here. On the East European Plain within Russia, the woodland type of landscapes forms a whole belt consisting of the Bryansk-Zhizdrinsky, Meshchersky, Mokshinsky, Balakhna, Vetluzhsky, Kamsko-Vyatsky and other woodlands.

Meshchera is confined to the pre-glacial tectonic trough. At its base lie Carboniferous limestones overlain by Jurassic and Cretaceous sandy-argillaceous deposits. The Quaternary deposits consist of eroded moraine, preserved in the highest parts of the pre-glacial relief (the Yegoryevskoye Plateau, the Oksko-Tsninsky swell, etc.), and large strata of sands and loams of water-glacial and alluvial origin. In the central part of Meshchera, a lowland stretches with peat bogs and lakes (Holy, Great, etc.). Around it stretch wide strips of sandy plains with dunes. Rivers flow slowly in flat swampy lowlands and drain them poorly.

The climate of Meshchera is moderately humid with cold, snowy and long winters. The average January temperature is -11...-12°C. Snow lies up to 150-160 days with a maximum snow cover height of 50-55 cm. Winter types of weather are unstable - with frosts and thaws. Due to the significant amount of snow, the high water on the Meshchera rivers is long. Summers are warm with maximum precipitation. The average July temperature is 18.5-19°C. The annual amount of precipitation (about 600 mm) exceeds evaporation, so the territory is excessively humidified.

The main area of ​​Meshchera is covered with pine forests, places with an admixture of oak and swamps. Spruce and birch forests are less common. Soddy-podzolic and soddy-podzolic-gley soils were formed under the forests on sands and sandy-clay deposits. Light lichen forests are widespread on sandy shafts, hills and dunes; spruce-pine forests with an admixture of oak, maple and linden dominate in the interfluves along the slopes of the valleys; on moraine remnants, mixed forests of spruce, oak and linden grow, with an undergrowth of hazel and a dense grass cover of goutweed, hoof, lily of the valley; wet oak forests are found on the floodplains.

Bogs occupy about 35% of Meshchera's surface. The main types of bogs are low-lying and transitional, among which are sphagnum-sedge, hypnum-sedge, sedge and birch-sedge. Raised bogs are less common, but they form large massifs and contain thick peat beds (up to 8 m) of high quality. The Shatura thermal power plant operates on the Meshchersky peat.

A variety of landscapes are located in the south of Meshchera in the wide Oka valley and the strongly meandering valley of the Pra River, as well as in their interfluve. There, in 1935, the Oksky Reserve was created.

A mixed forest is a territory in which deciduous and coniferous trees harmoniously coexist. If the admixture of tree species is more than 5% of the total volume of flora, we can already speak of a mixed type of forest.

The mixed forest forms a zone of coniferous-deciduous forests, and this is already a whole natural zone characteristic of forests in the temperate zone. There are also coniferous-small-leaved forests that are formed in the taiga as a result of the restoration of previously cut down pines or spruces, which begin to displace different types of birch and aspen.

Main characteristic

(Typical mixed forest)

Mixed forests almost always coexist with broad-leaved forests in the south. In the northern hemisphere, they also border the taiga.

There are the following types of mixed forests in the temperate zone:

  • coniferous-broad-leaved;
  • secondary small-leaved with the addition of coniferous and broad-leaved species;
  • mixed, which is a combination of deciduous and evergreen species.

Subtropical mixed fox is distinguished by a combination of laurel and coniferous species. Any mixed forest is distinguished by a pronounced layering, as well as the presence of areas without a forest: the so-called opolye and woodlands.

Location of zones

Mixed forests as a combination of coniferous and broad-leaved species are found in the East European and West Siberian plains, as well as in the Carpathians, the Caucasus and the Far East.

In general, both mixed and broad-leaved forests do not occupy such a large share of the forest territory of the Russian Federation as coniferous taiga. The fact is that such ecosystems do not take root in Siberia. They are traditional only for the European and Far Eastern regions and at the same time grow in broken lines. Pure mixed forests are found south of the taiga, as well as beyond the Urals to the Amur region.

Climate

Forest plantations of mixed type are characterized by cold, but not very long winters and hot summers. Climatic conditions are such that precipitation does not exceed 700 mm per year. The moisture coefficient is increased, but may change during the summer. In our country, mixed forests stand on soddy-podzolic soil, and in the west - on brown forest soil. As a rule, winter temperatures do not fall below -10˚C.

Broad-leaved forest plantations are distinguished by a humid and moderately humid climate, where precipitation is distributed evenly throughout the year. At the same time, temperatures are quite high, and even in January it is never colder than -8˚C. High humidity and abundant heat stimulate the work of bacteria and fungi, due to which the leaves quickly decompose, and the soil retains maximum fertility.

Features of the plant world

Features of biochemical and biological processes cause the density of species diversity as you move towards broad-leaved species. European mixed forests are distinguished by the obligatory presence of pine, spruce, maple, oak, linden, ash, elm, and viburnum, hazel, honeysuckle are in the lead among shrubs. Ferns are very common as herbs. Caucasian mixed forests in large volumes contain beech, fir, and Far Eastern - birch, walnut, hornbeam, larch. These same forests are distinguished by a variety of lianas.

Fauna representatives

Mixed forests are inhabited by those animals and birds that are generally considered typical for forest conditions. These are moose, foxes, wolves, bears, wild boars, hedgehogs, hares, badgers. If we talk about individual broad-leaved forests, then here the species diversity of birds, rodents and ungulates is especially striking. Roe deer, fallow deer, deer, beavers, muskrats and nutrias are found in such forests.

Economic activity

The temperate natural zone, including mixed forests, has long been mastered by local residents and is densely populated. An impressive part of the forest plantations was cut down several centuries ago, because of which the composition of the forest has changed and the proportion of small-leaved species has increased. In place of many forests, agricultural territories and settlements appeared.

Broad-leaved forests can generally be considered rare forest ecosystems. After the 17th century, they were cut down on a large scale, largely because wood was needed for the sailing fleet. Broad-leaved forests were also actively cut down for arable land and meadows. Oak plantations have been especially hard hit by such human activities, and it is unlikely that they will ever be restored.

The zone of deciduous forests is located on the territory of Manchuria, the Far East, within Europe, the eastern part of China, and North America. It also affects the southern part of South America and some parts of Central Asia.

Broad-leaved forests are most common where there is a moderately warm climate, and the ratio of moisture and heat is optimal. All this provides favorable conditions during the growing season. The leaf plates of the trees growing there are wide, hence the name of these forests. What other features does this natural area have? The broadleaf forests are home to numerous animals, reptiles, birds and insects.

Specific traits

Features of broad-leaved forests are that two distinct tiers can be distinguished in them. One of them is higher, the other is lower. These forests are shrubby, the available grasses grow in three tiers, the ground cover is represented by lichens and mosses.

Another characteristic feature is the light mode. In such forests, two light maxima are distinguished. The first is observed in the spring, when the trees are not yet covered with foliage. The second - in the fall, when the foliage is thinning. In summer, light penetration is minimal. The above regime explains the peculiarity of the grass cover.

The soil of deciduous forests is rich in organo-mineral compounds. They appear as a result of the decomposition of plant litter. Broadleaf forest trees contain ash. Especially a lot of it in the leaves - about five percent. Ash, in turn, is rich in calcium (twenty percent of the total volume). It also contains potassium (about two percent) and silicon (up to three percent).

Broadleaf forest trees

Forests of this type are characterized by the richest variety of tree species. The latter can be counted here about ten. The broad-leaved forests of the taiga, for example, are not so rich in this regard. The reason is that the conditions of the harsh taiga climate are not so conducive to the growth and development of flora. Many tree species that are demanding on soil composition and climate simply will not survive in adverse conditions.

In the southern part of the Tula region there is a well-known forest. It gives a great idea of ​​what broadleaf forests can be like. The soil of this area is favorable for the growth of such trees as small-leaved lindens, holly and field maples, ordinary ash-trees, elms, elms, wild apple-trees and pears. Oaks and ash trees are the tallest, followed by holly maples, elms and lindens. The lowest are field maples, wild pears and apple trees. As a rule, the dominant position is occupied by an oak, and the remaining trees act as satellites.

Let us consider in more detail the above representatives of the dendroflora.


Herbs

Plants of deciduous forests are characterized by large and wide leaf blades. For this reason, they are called broad-grass oak forests. Some herbs grow in single specimens, they never form impenetrable thickets. Others, on the contrary, form a kind of carpet covering large spaces. Such herbs are dominant. Among them, common goutweed, hairy sedge and yellow Zelenchuk are distinguished.

Most of the herbaceous plants found in broadleaf forests are perennials. They live up to several decades. As a rule, their existence is supported by vegetative propagation. They do not reproduce well by seed. A characteristic feature of these plants is long underground and above-ground shoots, rapidly growing in different directions and actively capturing new plots of land.

The above-ground parts of the majority of representatives of oak broad grasses die off in the autumn. Only roots and rhizomes located in the soil hibernate. They have special buds, from which new shoots are formed in the spring.

An exception

Rare representatives of broad grasses remain green both in winter and in summer. Such plants include the following: hoof, greenfinch, hairy sedge.

shrubs

As for these representatives of the flora, it is very difficult to meet them in deciduous forests. They are simply not characteristic of oak forests, which cannot be said about coniferous forests, where shrubs grow everywhere. Blueberries and lingonberries are the most widespread.

"Hurry" oak ephemeroids

These plants are of the greatest interest to specialists studying forest flora. Among them are spring chistyak, corydalis of various species and goose onions. These plants are usually small in size, but they develop very quickly. Ephemeroids rush to be born immediately after the snow cover melts. Some particularly frisky sprouts make their way even through the snow. After a week, a maximum of two, their buds are already blooming. After a few more weeks, the fruits and seeds ripen. After that, the plants lie down on the ground, turn yellow, after which that part of them that is above the ground dies off. Moreover, this process occurs at the very beginning of the summer period, when, as it may seem, the conditions for growth and development are as favorable as possible. The secret is simple. Ephemeroids have their own rhythm of life, which differs from the peculiar development schedule of other plants. They bloom luxuriantly only in spring, and summer for them is the time of wilting.

The period most conducive to their development is early spring. At this time of the year, the maximum amount of light is observed in the forest, since the shrubs and trees have not yet found their dense green cover. In addition, during this period, the soil is optimally saturated with moisture. As for the high summer temperature, the ephemeroids do not need it at all. All these plants are perennials. They do not die after their above-ground part dries up. Live underground roots are represented by tubers, bulbs or rhizomes. These organs act as repositories of nutrients, mainly starch. This is why stems, leaves and flowers appear so early and grow so rapidly.

Ephemeroids are widespread plants in broad-leaved oak forests. In total there are about ten species. Their flowers are painted in bright purple, blue, yellow colors. During flowering, ephemeroids form a thick beautiful carpet.

mosses

The broad-leaved forests of Russia are home to various types of mosses. In contrast to the taiga forests, in which these plants form a dense green soil cover, in oak forests, mosses do not cover the soil so widely. The role of mosses in deciduous forests is rather modest. The main reason is the fact that the leaf litter of the broad-leaved forest has a detrimental effect on these plants.

Fauna

Animals of the broad-leaved forests of Russia are ungulates, predators, insectivores, rodents and bats. The greatest diversity is observed in those territories that are not touched by man. So, in broad-leaved forests you can see roe deer, wild boars, fallow deer, spotted and red deer, elks. The squad of predators is represented by foxes, wolves, martens, ermines and weasels. The broad-leaved forests, with a rich and varied wildlife, are home to beavers, squirrels, muskrats and nutrias. In addition, these territories are inhabited by mice, rats, moles, hedgehogs, shrews, snakes, lizards and marsh turtles.

Birds of deciduous forests - larks, finches, warblers, tits, flycatchers, swallows, starlings. Crows, rooks, black grouse, woodpeckers, crossbills, jackdaws, hazel grouses also live there. Birds of prey are represented by hawks, owls, owls, owls and harriers. The swamps are home to waders, cranes, herons, gulls, ducks and geese.

In the past, broad-leaved forests were inhabited by bison. Now, unfortunately, there are only a few dozen left. These animals are protected by law. They live in Belovezhskaya Pushcha (in the Republic of Belarus), in the Prioksko-Terrasny Reserve (Russian Federation), in some states of Western Europe and in Poland. Several animals were transported to the Caucasus. There they coexist with bison.

The number of red deer has also changed. They have become much smaller due to the barbaric actions of man. Mass and plowing fields have become disastrous for these beautiful animals. Deer can reach two and a half meters in length and three hundred and forty kilograms of weight. They tend to live in small herds of up to ten animals. In most cases, the female is dominant. Her offspring lives with her.

In autumn sometimes males gather a kind of harem. Reminiscent of the sound of a trumpet, their roar spreads three to four kilometers around. The most successful deer, having won the fights of their rivals, can gather up to twenty females around them. This is how another type of reindeer herd is formed. At the beginning of the summer season, deer cubs are born. They are born weighing eight to eleven kilograms. Up to six months, they have intensive growth. One-year-old males acquire horns.

Deer feed on grass, leaves and shoots of trees, mushrooms, lichens, reeds, bitter wormwood. But the needles are not suitable for them to eat. In the wild, deer live for about fifteen years. In captivity, this figure doubles.

Beavers are another inhabitants of deciduous forests. The most favorable conditions for them are observed in Europe, North America, Asia. The maximum recorded weight of this animal is thirty kilograms, and the body length is one meter. Beavers are distinguished by a massive body and a flattened tail. The webbing between the toes of the hind legs helps to maintain an aquatic lifestyle. Fur color can vary from light brown to black. Lubricating their wool with a special secret, beavers are protected from getting wet. When immersed in water, the auricles of this animal fold and the nostrils close. The economical use of air helps him stay under water for up to fifteen minutes.

Beavers prefer to settle on the banks of lakes and oxbow lakes, as well as slow-flowing rivers. They are attracted by abundant coastal and aquatic vegetation. represents a hole or a kind of hut, the entrance to which is under the water surface. These animals build dams if the water level is unstable. Thanks to these structures, the flow is regulated, which allows it to enter the dwelling from the water. Gnawing branches and even large trees is easy for beavers. So, an aspen of five to seven centimeters in diameter lends itself to these animals in two minutes. Their favorite food is cane. In addition, they are not averse to eating iris, water lily, egg capsule. Beavers live in families. The young go in search of a mate in their third year of life.

Wild pigs are another typical inhabitants of deciduous forests. They have a huge head and a very strong long snout. The most powerful weapons of these animals are sharp trihedral fangs that are bent up and back. The vision of wild boars is not very good, but this is compensated by excellent hearing and a keen sense of smell. Large individuals reach a weight of three hundred kilograms. The body of this animal is protected by dark brown bristles. She is very durable.

Boars are excellent runners and swimmers. These animals are able to swim through a reservoir, the width of which is several kilometers. The basis of their diet is plants, but it can be said that wild boars are omnivores. Their favorite delicacy is acorns and beech nuts, they will not refuse frogs, mice, chicks, insects and snakes.

Representatives of reptiles

Broad-leaved forests are inhabited by snakes, vipers, copperheads, spindles, green and viviparous lizards. Only vipers are dangerous to humans. Many mistakenly believe that copperheads are also poisonous, but this is not so. The most numerous reptiles of deciduous forests are snakes.

Relief features

The zone of deciduous forests (and mixed) in the European part of Russia forms a kind of triangle, the base of which is located at the western borders of the country, and the top rests on the Ural Mountains. Since this territory was more than once covered with continental ice, its relief is mostly hilly. The most obvious traces of the presence of the Valdai glacier have been preserved in the northwest. There, the zone of broad-leaved and mixed forests is characterized by chaotic heaps of hills, steep ridges, closed lakes and hollows. The southern part of the described territory is represented by secondary moraine plains, which were formed as a result of a decrease in the sloping surface of hilly areas. The relief is characterized by the presence of sandy plains of different areas. Their origin is water-glacial. They have ripples, sometimes you can find pronounced sand dunes.

Russian plain

This zone is located in the temperate climate zone. The climate there is relatively mild and humid. The soil of these territories is soddy-podzolic. The close location of the Atlantic Ocean determined the features of the relief. The river network in coniferous-deciduous forests is well developed. Reservoirs are large.

The activity of the swamping process is determined by the proximity of groundwater and a humid climate. The plants that dominate the grass cover have broad leaf blades.

Conclusion

Broad-leaved forests located on the territory of Europe are classified as endangered ecosystems. But two or three centuries ago they were one of the most diverse on the planet and were located in most of Europe. So, in the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries, they occupied an area equal to several million hectares. Today there are no more than one hundred thousand hectares.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, only fragments of the former extensive broad-leaved belt remained unscathed. At the dawn of this century, attempts were made to grow oaks in the deserted territories. However, this turned out to be a rather complicated matter: the death of young oak groves was caused by constant droughts. At that time, studies were carried out, which were led by the famous Russian geographer Dokuchaev. As a result, it was found that failures in the cultivation of new trees are associated with large-scale deforestation, since this forever changed the hydrological regime and climate of the area.

Today, in areas previously occupied by broad-leaved forests, secondary forests grow, as well as artificial plantations. They are dominated by coniferous trees. Unfortunately, as experts note, the dynamics and structure of natural oak forests cannot be restored.