Modern artillery shells. Artillery ammunition (artillery and mortar rounds) Special artillery ammunition

An artillery shot is a set of elements of an artillery ammunition required for the production of one shot.

The main elements of an artillery shot are a projectile, a fuse (tube), a powder propellant charge, a sleeve, a primer (ignition) sleeve.

Depending on the method of communication of individual elements with each other before loading, artillery shots can be unitary loading, separately - sleeve loading, cartridge loading.

In an artillery shot of a unitary loading, the projectile, the propellant charge and the capsule sleeve are combined into one. A unitary loading shot has a constant powder charge, and the sleeve is firmly connected to the projectile. Loading the weapon with it is done in one step. A mine and a rocket can be classified as unitary-charged shots.

In a shot separately - sleeve loading, the capsule sleeve and the powder charge are in the sleeve, and the projectile is separate from the sleeve. Loading the gun is done in two steps.

By appointment artillery rounds are divided into combat, practical, training and blank.

Combat shots are intended for use in live firing.

Practical shots are intended for firing practice, material tests, do not contain combat equipment.

Training shots do not contain combat elements and are used to study the device of the shot, train the gun crew in loading techniques and prepare the ammunition for firing.

Blank shots have no projectiles and are used for sound imitation.

By caliber shells are subdivided into small, medium and large caliber shells.

Shells and mines with a caliber of less than 76mm are classified as small caliber, with a caliber from 76 to 152mm - to a medium caliber, more than 152mm - to a large caliber.

By the method of ensuring stability in flight projectiles and mines are divided into stabilized by rotation and stabilized by tail.

By designation shells can be of main purpose, special and auxiliary purpose.

The main purpose shells are used to suppress, destroy and destroy various targets. These include high-explosive, armor-piercing, concrete-piercing and incendiary shells.

High-explosive fragmentation projectiles are the most common and simplest in design.

Armor-piercing projectiles are of three types: armor-piercing caliber, armor-piercing subcaliber and cumulative.

Armor-piercing caliber and sub-caliber projectiles penetrate armor due to the high kinetic energy of the shell's impact on the armor. Cumulative projectiles penetrate armor through the efficient use of energy, the explosive of the shaped charge, its cumulation (concentration) and the provision of directional action.

The effect of cumulative projectiles consists of burning through the armor and the damaging effect behind the armor. The damaging effect behind the armor is provided by the combined action of the cumulative jet, armor metal particles and detonation products of the explosive charge.

Concrete-piercing shells are intended for the destruction of reinforced concrete, especially strong stone structures, basements.

Incendiary rounds are designed to create fires at enemy locations.

Special-purpose shells are used to illuminate the terrain, set up smoke screens, and deliver propaganda material to the enemy's location. Such shells include lighting, smoke, propaganda shells and other shells.

The sleeve is part of the artillery round and is intended to contain a powder charge and ignition means. According to the material, the liners are divided into metal and liners with a combustible body.

A propellant charge is placed inside the sleeve. In artillery shots separately - case loading, the powder charge consists of separate beams, which allows you to change the mass of the charge. The main part of the charge for an artillery shot is smokeless powder. Another constituent part of the artillery shot charge is black powder, which is used to ignite the smokeless powder from the primer sleeve initiator.

Fuses and tubes are designed to activate a projectile (mines) at the required point of the trajectory or after hitting an obstacle. Fuses are applied to projectiles (mines) filled with high explosives, and tubes are applied to projectiles (mines) equipped with an expelling charge (lighting, incendiary, propaganda).

Fuses by type of action are subdivided into impact (contact), remote and non-contact. At the point of connection with the projectile, fuses are divided into head, bottom and head fuses.

According to the method of excitation of the detonation circuit, fuses are divided into mechanical and electrical.

Proximity fuses are classified into radio fuses, optical fuses, acoustic fuses, infrared fuses, etc.

Impact fuses are triggered upon encountering an obstacle.

Fuses have three settings: for fragmentation, for high-explosive action, for ricochet action, or for high-explosive action with deceleration.

Remote fuses are triggered on a trajectory after a specified time in accordance with the setting on the remote mechanism. Proximity fuses cause shells to detonate at the most advantageous distance from the target.

Proximity fuses that receive energy emitted by a target are called passive fuses: fuses that emit energy and react to it after being reflected from a target are called active fuses.

In terms of their structure and action, the tubes are close to remote fuses, but since they are intended mainly for incendiary, lighting and propaganda shells, the tubes do not have a detonator. As a result of triggering the tube, a powder firecracker is ignited, from which the flame is transferred to an expelling charge.

Mortar shots.

A mortar round consists of a mine, a fuse or a tube and a powder charge.

Mines can be of main, special and auxiliary purpose.

The main purpose mines are high-explosive, fragmentation, high-explosive fragmentation, incendiary.

Special-purpose mines include: smoke, lighting and propaganda mines.

Auxiliary mines include: educational and practical.

A mine consists of a shell, equipment and a stabilizer.

The shell of the mine is made of steel or cast iron. A fuse is screwed into the head of the mine, which ensures the action of the mine at the target.

Equipped mines are determined by their purpose.

The mine stabilizer is designed to give it stability in flight, to attach a powder charge and to center the mine in the mortar bore.

Rocket projectiles.

The rocket projectile consists of a warhead and a jet engine.

The warhead of the projectile consists of a steel shell, equipment and a fuse. According to its designation, the warhead of a rocket can be the main, special and auxiliary purpose. In accordance with this, the equipment of the warhead, like the artillery shell, can be different.

The jet engine is used to impart translational motion to the projectile. It consists of a body, an igniter and a nozzle block.

According to the method of stabilization in flight, rockets are subdivided into feathered and turbojet, which have a high angular velocity of rotation in flight.

Feathered projectiles have stabilizers in the tail section of the jet engine, which ensure the stability of the projectile in flight. Feathered rockets are given rotation upon launch. The turbojet projectiles are rotated by the engine, the nozzles of which are located at an angle to the projectile axis.

3rd tutorial question: "Classification of missiles, general structure and purpose."

Combat missile Is an unmanned aerial vehicle, guided or unguided on a trajectory, flying under the influence of reactive force and designed to deliver a warhead to a target.

Rockets are classified according to the following criteria:

· Belonging of missiles to the type of armed forces;

· Combat purpose;

· Place of start and location of the target;

· Constructive characteristics.

1. By belonging to the type of armed forces distinguish between: combat missiles of the Strategic Missile Forces, RV and Air Force, missiles of the air defense forces.

The Strategic Missile Forces are armed with medium-class missiles with a launch range of 5500 km and intercontinental missiles with a launch range of over 5500 km.

The RV SV is armed with medium-range missiles (with a launch range over 100 km) and short-range missiles.

As part of the Ground Forces, there are air defense formations, units and subunits, which are armed with missiles to destroy air targets.

In the formations, units and subdivisions of the ground forces in service are:

In missile formations and units - operational-tactical and tactical missiles on mobile launchers:

· In anti-aircraft missile formations, units and subunits - anti-aircraft missile and anti-aircraft missile-gun systems on tracked or wheeled chassis, portable anti-aircraft missile systems.

2. By the combat designation of the missile are divided into tactical, operational-tactical and strategic.

Tactical missiles include missiles designed to destroy targets located directly on the battlefield and in the tactical depth of enemy defenses.

Operational-tactical missiles are designed to perform tactical and operational tasks.

Strategic missiles are designed to solve important strategic tasks to achieve decisive goals in war.

3. Regarding the start location and target all combat missiles are divided into the following classes:

· "Earth - earth";

· "Air - earth";

· "Ship - land";

· "Earth is a ship";

· "Air - ship";

· "Ship - ship";

· "Earth - air";

· "Air - air";

· "Ship - air".

4. Design characteristics of missiles are determined by the type of engine, the number of stages, the presence of the control system.

According to the type of engine, rockets with a liquid-propellant rocket engine (LPRE), rockets with a solid-propellant rocket engine (solid propellant rocket engine), rockets with an air-jet engine (WFM) are distinguished.

According to the number of stages, the rocket is divided into single-stage and multi-stage. Combat missiles can be in two or three stages. The separation of each stage from the subsequent ones continuing the flight occurs as the fuel is consumed.

In accordance with the trajectory of flight, a distinction is made between ballistic and cruise missiles. Ballistic missiles include missiles that fly along a ballistic trajectory. Cruise missiles have a glider and outwardly resemble a fighter plane.

All combat missiles, depending on the control capability, are divided into two groups: unguided and guided.

Unguided rockets include missiles, the direction of flight of which is determined at the time of launch by the position of the launching device.

Guided missiles have a control system. Missile control system is a set of equipment and devices designed to control a missile or its warhead in flight. The missile control system includes meters - transducers (sensors), computing devices and executive (control) bodies. Depending on the method of obtaining navigation information and the adopted method of guidance, missiles with an autonomous flight control system are distinguished: missiles with a telecontrol and homing system, as well as missiles with a combined control system.

Main structural elements:

Rocket body- this is the main power structure of the rocket, designed for placement, assembly and fastening of all units, assembly and parts. The case usually has several structural connectors that divide it into compartments. The main ones are: head, instrumental, fuel, tail (propulsion), connecting (in multistage rockets).

Head compartment serves, as a rule, to accommodate a warhead with a fuse. Its design must reliably protect the devices and devices located inside from aerodynamic, thermal and other loads.

In the instrument compartment the onboard equipment of the control system is located, which performs two main tasks: provides a stabilized (stable) flight of the rocket on the trajectory, generates commands to change the trajectory of the rocket.

Fuel compartment- the largest on the rocket. The fuel reserve is up to 80% or more of the initial, launch mass of the rocket.

Tail compartment protects the engine from direct external forces. The executive bodies of the control system are attached to it.

4th tutorial question: "Purpose, composition and tactical and technical characteristics of anti-aircraft complexes of the Ground Forces."

The solution to the task of destroying the enemy's air attack means is entrusted to the anti-aircraft missile (artillery) formations, units and subunits of the air defense of the Ground Forces. Their material basis is anti-aircraft missile systems, anti-aircraft artillery systems of various types.

Modern anti-aircraft missile and artillery systems and complexes can destroy aircraft, helicopters, cruise missiles and other aircraft, tactical and operational-tactical ballistic missiles, as well as aviation weapons: guided missiles, bombs and cassettes.

The main tactical and technical characteristics of anti-aircraft missile systems.

Based on the maximum range of destruction of air targets, anti-aircraft missile systems are divided into long-range complexes (100 km or more); medium range (20-100 km); short range (10-20 km); short-range (up to 10 km)

By mobility, air defense systems are subdivided into stationary, semi-stationary and mobile. In the air defense forces of the Ground Forces, mobile air defense systems are mainly used.

Mobile air defense systems there are self-propelled, towed, transportable and portable

In self-propelled complexes, combat and technical means are located on one or more tracked (wheeled) self-propelled chassis.

In towed air defense systems they are placed on wheeled trailers or semi-trailers.

Transportable air defense systems partially or completely transported in the bodies of wheeled or tracked vehicles.

Portable air defense systems usually worn by personnel of the calculation.

Anti-aircraft missile system "Tor" provides the fight against the following targets: cruise and anti-radar missiles, gliding bombs, tactical aircraft, helicopters and remotely piloted aircraft. The basis of the complex is a combat vehicle on a tracked chassis with 8 missiles in launchers inside the BM tower in an upright position.

The complex provides detection, identification and processing of up to 25 targets in motion and at a stop, tracking up to 10 targets in a given sector, and firing at targets from a short stop with 1-2 missiles aiming at the target. The reaction time of the complex is 8-12 seconds; (speed of fired targets up to 700 m / s (up to 2500 km / h).

The boundaries of the affected area: in height 0.01-6 km, in range 1.5-12 km.

The "Thor" combat vehicle can fire up to 6 targets per minute with single missiles. An anti-aircraft missile battery consisting of 4 combat vehicles can fire up to 15 targets per minute. The time of readiness to fire from the march (when tracking a target in motion) is not less than 3 seconds.

travel speed up to 65 km / h.

Combat crew - 4 people.

Anti-aircraft missile-nushechny complex "Tunguska" ensures the destruction of air targets from the spot, short stops and in motion in various meteorological conditions, at any time of the day, as well as in the conditions of the use of radar and optical interference.

The basis of the complex is an anti-aircraft self-propelled installation on a tracked chassis with two 30-mm double-barreled machine guns and 8 anti-aircraft guided missiles placed in launchers. For each SPAAG, an anti-aircraft transport vehicle is provided on the chassis of an all-terrain vehicle.

The reaction time of the complex is 8-10 sec.

The speed of fired targets is up to 500 m / s (1800 km / h).

The border of the zone of destruction by the cannon channel -

Height 0-3 km, range 0.2-4 km missile channel;

Height 1.5-3.5 km, range 2.5-8 km

Travel speed up to 65 km / h

Combat crew - 4 people

In anti-aircraft missile batteries, motorized rifle (tank) regiments in service are portable anti-aircraft missile systems (MANPADS), which are designed to defeat low-flying enemy air targets in conditions of visual visibility. Shooting is carried out at stationary and maneuvering targets, both towards and in pursuit of the target. The rocket is launched by an anti-aircraft gunner from the shoulder from a standing position or from a knee with an open position that provides an overview of the airspace. Portable anti-aircraft missile systems are equipped with interrogators. When starting, first, there is a request for a target and if the target responds with the correct code, then the starting circuit is blocked.

Igla portable anti-aircraft missile system ensures the defeat of jet, turboprop and propeller driven aircraft and helicopters on head-on and catch-up courses in conditions of visual visibility of the target.

Time of readiness for launch no more than 5 sec.

The speed of the fired targets: towards - 360 m / s

after - 320 m / s

The boundaries of the affected area: the maximum height on a collision course - 2 km, on a catch-up course - 2.5 km, the minimum height of the defeat - 0.01 km.

Transfer time from traveling to combat position no more than 13 sec

Combat crew - 1 person.

Elements of anti-aircraft missile and anti-aircraft artillery systems. /

Anti-aircraft missile system (SAM), anti-aircraft missile system (ZRS)- a set of combat and technical means providing preparation for shooting, shooting, maintenance and the maintenance of all its elements in combat readiness. The anti-aircraft missile system (system) provides the autonomous performance of tasks for the destruction of air targets with anti-aircraft missiles.

The main elements of the air defense system are:

· System of detection and target designation;

· Missile control system;

· One or more anti-aircraft guided missiles;

· launcher;

· technical means.

The core of the detection system in most air defense systems are radar stations that produce a circular (sector) survey of the airspace and determine the coordinates of detected targets.

Target designation means are devices for processing and analyzing information about the air situation coming from the detection radar, which is used to make a decision on the destruction of air targets.

SAM control system includes launch control devices and missile targeting devices. The control devices ensure the turn of the launcher with the missile defense system towards the target and the launch at the set time of the anti-aircraft missile automatically or by pressing a button by the operator.

Means for guiding a missile to a target are a set of devices located on the ground that provide continuous determination of the coordinates of a target and missile defense systems and aiming it at a target.

Anti-aircraft guided missile (SAM) is a jet-powered unmanned aerial vehicle designed to engage air targets. The main elements of the missile defense system: a glider, onboard guidance systems, a missile warhead, a propulsion system. For aiming missiles at a target, the following methods are distinguished: tele-guidance (command and along the beam), homing (passive, semi-active, active) and combined guidance (combination of tele-guidance with homing).

Anti-aircraft missile launcher- a device designed for placement, prelaunch preparation and launch of a rocket in a given direction.

Technical means include transport, handling, inspection, assembly and repair equipment that provides inspection, repair work, transportation of missiles, loading launchers.

Military air defense units and subunits are armed with military equipment with high combat capabilities, allowing them to destroy an air enemy in conditions of electronic warfare and the use of high-precision weapons.

The combat properties of weapons are determined by the effectiveness of the combat mission. These tasks have their own specific characteristics, which is what causes the need for various types of tools. The combat properties of ground artillery guns are characterized by the following main indicators: power, range, firing accuracy, rate of fire, fire maneuverability, mobility, buoyancy and air transportability.

Power guns primarily depends on the power and effectiveness of the projectile at the target. The determining factors are the caliber and mass of the projectile, which, in turn, affect the mass and mobility of the gun, its rate of fire and other interrelated characteristics.

Range weapons reflects its ability to hit targets that are distant over long distances. For anti-tank and tank guns, the direct fire range is of the greatest importance. The range depends on the design of the gun, the shape and projectile, the size of the charge, the elevation angle of the barrel (the greatest range is achieved at an elevation angle of the barrel of about 45 °).

The most important property of an artillery gun is its firing accuracy, characterized by accuracy (dispersion) and firing accuracy. Accuracy of fire is assessed by the deviation of individual shells from the middle point of the mass of the gun, as well as the creation of special platforms and containers for the landing of material and ammunition.

The tool, as well as any machine (mechanism), is subject to the requirements of reliability in operation, the necessary survivability and strength, safety in handling, simplicity and ease of maintenance.

Reliability it is expressed in the fact that the units and mechanisms of the weapon in any operating conditions do not have failures that impede the fulfillment of firing missions for maneuvering the weapon in battle and on the march. However, with the most correct operation of the tool, after some time breakdowns or malfunctions may occur, requiring elimination by the forces of the calculation and repair departments. The average time between the elimination of one malfunction and the occurrence of another serves as an indicator of the reliability of the tool.

Under vitality guns understand the ability to withstand wear and tear and maintain combat properties for as long as possible. The number of shots and the number of kilometers that a gun can withstand before failure is a characteristic of its survivability. Correct operation and maintenance of the material part increases the survivability of the implement.

Safe handling is achieved by the use of safety devices and warning notices, as well as the constructive arrangement of the tool control mechanisms, which reduces the possibility of bruises, infringements and other injuries when servicing the tool. Rational placement of mechanisms, tools and workplaces (seats, platforms, footboards, panels, panels with devices, etc.) ensures ease of use and less fatigue of calculations (crews).

Accurate performance by personnel of gun crews, instructions, instructions and manuals governing the procedure for servicing the materiel of artillery systems is a guarantee of trouble-free operation.

Artillery ammunition. Artillery ammunition is a component of artillery systems that is directly designed to destroy manpower and equipment, destroy structures (fortifications) and perform special tasks (lighting, smoke, delivery of propaganda material, etc.).

Each projectile has several types of target actions. Some shells hit manpower, but cannot penetrate armor, others are capable of penetrating armor, but are ineffective in destroying defensive structures. Therefore, the artillery is armed with shells for various purposes and devices.

The artillery system, according to its structure (cannon, howitzer, mortar, etc.), can fire shells of various types, depending on:

• on the nature of the target (manpower, tank, dugout, etc.);
• performed fire mission (suppress, destroy, destroy, ignite, provide moral and psychological impact, etc.).

Therefore, there are several times more types of shells in artillery than in artillery systems. By the nature of the equipment, ammunition with conventional explosives and nuclear ammunition is distinguished.

Artillery ammunition is divided by purpose:

• on the main (for defeat and destruction);
• special (for lighting, smoke, radio jamming, etc.);
• auxiliary (for training personnel, testing, etc.).

The main elements of most artillery shots are a projectile with appropriate equipment, a fuse or a distance tube, a powder charge, a cartridge case or cap (bag), a means of igniting a warhead.

Artillery shells are classified:

• a) by caliber: small (20-76 mm), medium (76-152 mm), large
• (more than 152 mm) calibers;
• b) the method of stabilization (stability) in flight - rotating
• (rifled artillery shells) and non-rotating (mines and some shells);
• c) combat purpose:
  • - for combat - for combat shooting,
  • - practical - for training in the shooting of gun crews (projectile - inert equipment, fuse - hollowed out),
  • - training - for teaching loading and firing techniques, as well as handling ammunition (shot elements - inert equipment or dummies),
  • - blank - to simulate live fire and fireworks (instead of a projectile, a wad or a reinforced cover, a special charge);
• d) by the method of loading:
  • - cartridge loading - all elements are connected into one unit-unitary cartridge, loading is done in one step;
  • - separate-sleeve loading - powder charge in a sleeve not connected to the projectile, the gun is charged in two stages - projectile, charge;
  • - cartridge loading - the elements of the shot are kept separately, and the gun is loaded in several stages.

Artillery rounds are equipped with shells for various purposes: fragmentation, high-explosive, high-explosive fragmentation, concrete-piercing, armor-piercing, cumulative, incendiary, special and auxiliary shells.

General purpose shells(high-explosive, fragmentation, high-explosive fragmentation, incendiary, armor-piercing, cumulative, concrete-piercing) serve to destroy enemy manpower, military equipment and the destruction of its defensive structures.

Special-purpose shells(lighting, smoke, propaganda), although they do not directly hit the target, ensure the fulfillment of the combat mission.

Auxiliary shells are intended for educational and auxiliary purposes.

Fragmentation shells are used in small and medium-caliber guns to destroy enemy manpower located openly or behind weak shelters with shrapnel and shock waves, to suppress artillery and mortar batteries, to destroy light field shelters, and to make passages in barbed wire and minefields.

The main requirement for these projectiles is the effectiveness of fragmentation action, which consists in obtaining the maximum number of lethal fragments with the greatest possible radius of damaging action.

The maximum number of lethal fragments is obtained as a result of the correct combination of the mechanical quality of the metal of the case and the power of the explosive (explosive) of the bursting charge. The burst of fragmentation shells at the target is ensured by triggering the head fuses of shock or remote action.

High-explosive shells are used for firing large-caliber guns and are intended to destroy field defensive structures (trenches, dugouts, observation posts), stone and brick buildings turned by the enemy into strong points, bridges and other solid structures; suppression of manpower and fire weapons in shelters. The power of high-explosive projectiles depends mainly on the number and power of the explosive charge and can be increased by increasing the caliber, and within the same caliber by increasing the filling capacity and using more powerful explosives.

High-explosive action is expressed in destruction, which produces the force of a blast wave (shock wave) of a bursting charge in any medium.

The shells of high-explosive shells are made of steel, which ensures their sufficient strength when fired (with an insignificant thickness of the shell walls) and when hitting an obstacle. Therefore, in comparison with high-explosive fragmentation projectiles, they have thinner shell walls, a high filling factor, and a large mass of a bursting charge consisting of cast TNT. Explosion of high-explosive projectiles at the target is provided by head or bottom percussion fuses, which can have a high-explosive or delayed action.

High-explosive fragmentation shells are a unification of high-explosive fragmentation shells and are intended to destroy manpower, fire weapons and equipment of the enemy with fragments, shock waves and the destruction of his field defensive structures. In terms of their fragmentation effect, they are inferior to fragmentation projectiles, and in high-explosive - high-explosive projectiles of the corresponding calibers. But due to the wide range of impact, high-explosive fragmentation projectiles are widely used in medium-caliber guns. The use of high-explosive fragmentation shells simplifies the supply of ammunition to troops and reduces the cost of their production.

The shells of high-explosive fragmentation projectiles are made of steel and equipped with TNT by the screwing method. Explosion of shells at the target is provided by the head fuses of percussion or remote action, set for instant, delayed or remote action. Depending on the installation of the fuse, the projectile can have a fragmentation or high-explosive effect. With remote action of the fuse, the projectile burst in the air until it meets an obstacle.

Concrete-driving shells are intended for the destruction of reinforced concrete and concrete, especially durable stone and brick structures, buildings and basements. In some cases, these shells can be used to fire at armored targets. By the force of the impact, the projectiles penetrate into a solid barrier and destroy it with the high-explosive action of an explosive charge. The power of the shock and high-explosive action is determined by the high strength of the projectile body, the amount and power of the explosive. In addition to a strong body, concrete-piercing shells have a monolithic head made of heat-treated alloy steel and a bottom with a bottom fuse; Concrete-piercing shells are fired from guns with a caliber of more than 150 mm.

Caliber armor-piercing shells are intended to destroy armored targets (tanks, armored personnel carriers, armored vehicles, etc.) and are used for firing small and medium-caliber guns of ground artillery. The main requirement for armor-piercing projectiles is armor penetration, i.e. the thickness of the armor penetrated by the projectile at a certain firing range. It is provided by the kinetic energy of the projectile at the moment of meeting the armor and the high strength of the head of the projectile body. To increase the armor penetration, the projectile head (or the entire body) is made of special steel, and is heat-treated to make it hard and durable. The separately manufactured head part of the projectile body is called the armor-piercing tip and is attached to the main body part by welding or threaded connection.

The fuse in the armor-piercing projectile is located in the bottom of the projectile body and decelerates, providing a burst of the projectile after piercing the armor, which allows you to hit the crew and disable the internal mechanisms of armored vehicles.

An explosive charge of armor-piercing projectiles is made from a powerful blasting explosive. The damaging effect of armor-piercing shells behind the armor occurs by fragments of the shell of the armor and by the force of the explosion of an explosive charge, which destroy tanks, pipelines, cause the ignition of fuels and lubricants, war charges and detonation of ammunition in the tank (vehicle).

All-metal armor-piercing projectiles are also used - without an explosive charge, which are a steel blank, processed from the surface in the shape of a projectile.

In subcaliber armor-piercing shells, the main striking element is a hard metal or alloy core, the diameter of which is 2-2.5 times less than the caliber of the gun. The core is placed in a housing (or in two supporting elements) of a softer metal, which directs the movement of the projectile along the bore, deforms (collapses) when the projectile hits the armor and releases the core. Further, the core, while continuing to move, penetrates the armor 2-3 times thicker than a conventional armor-piercing projectile can penetrate.

AP shells are much less in mass than conventional AP shells of the same caliber, so when fired they get a higher muzzle velocity. The core, possessing significant kinetic energy and high hardness, penetrates the armor and pierces it. When passing through the armor, as a result of strong compression, large internal stresses arise in the core. When the core leaves the armor, internal stresses in it sharply decrease, and the core collapses into small fragments, which, together with fragments from the armor, affect the crew and the internal equipment of the armored vehicle.

Cumulative shells can be conditionally classified as armor-piercing, since they are also intended for direct fire at tanks and other armored targets. Cumulative projectiles are distinguished by the fact that they penetrate armor not due to the kinetic energy of the impact of a solid projectile body into the armor, but due to the concentrated directional action of the cumulative explosive charge and metal lining.

This principle allows the use of cumulative projectiles when firing from medium-caliber guns with low initial projectile velocities. The effectiveness of the armor-piercing action depends on the design of the cumulative projectile and the power of the explosive. Shells are divided into rotating around the longitudinal axis and non-rotating, while the cumulative effect of rotating shells is somewhat lower than that of non-rotating shells.

The body of the cumulative projectile is made of steel. The walls of the hull have a small thickness, increasing towards the bottom, to provide the necessary strength when firing.

The shaped charge is the main part of the projectile that ensures the destruction of the target. It consists of a bursting charge, a metal lining, a central tube, a detonator cap and a detonator. An explosive charge is a powerful explosive with a cumulative recess in the warhead, which provides the concentration of the explosion energy. The most common is the conical shape of the cumulative notch. Along the axis, the charge has a through hole connecting the head fuse with a detonator cap located in the bottom of the charge.

The metal facing of the cumulative recess is made of mild steel or copper and upon explosion forms a thin, heated to 200-600 ° C, metal jet moving towards the obstacle at a speed of 12-15 km / s. Having a high concentration of energy (the jet pressure reaches 10 GPa (100,000 kg / cm), the cumulative jet destroys the armor. The damaging effect behind the armor is provided by the combined action of the metal cumulative jet, armor metal particles and detonation products of the explosive charge.

Incendiary shells belong to the main-purpose shells and are used for firing at flammable objects (wooden buildings, warehouses for fuels and lubricants, ammunition, etc.) at the enemy's location in order to cause fires. The strength of the incendiary action of these projectiles is determined by the number and composition of the incendiary elements, which must have good incendiary ability, sufficient burning time and resistance to extinguishing. Shooting is carried out from medium-caliber guns.

TO shells special and auxiliary designations include lighting, smoke, propaganda, sighting, training, practical, test carts and other artillery shells that are not included in the main group.

The projectiles intended to be ejected on the trajectory of incendiary, lighting, propaganda and other elements or materials are equipped with spacer tubes resembling remote detonators in structure. The difference from fuses is that their fire chain does not have either a detonator cap or a detonator, since there is no explosive charge in such projectiles. The firing chain of the spacer tube ends with a powder firecracker, which ignites a black powder expelling charge, which ejects the contents of the projectile body.

Sleeve is an element of an artillery round of ammunition and separate loading and is intended:

• for placing in it a combat charge, auxiliary elements to it and means of ignition;
• protection of the warhead from the influence of the external environment and mechanical damage during service calls;
• obturation of powder gases when fired; connection of a warhead with a projectile in cartridge loading shots.

Sleeves are metal and with a combustible body. For the manufacture of metal sleeves, brass and mild steels are used.

The elements of the shot, designed to ignite the warhead, are called ignition means. According to the method of actuation, they are divided into shock, electric and galvanic shock.

Impact ignition means are actuated by the impact of the striker of the impact mechanism and are in the form of capsule sleeves and shock tubes. The former are used in single-case loading shots, the latter in cap-loading shots.

The electrical ignition means operate from an electrical impulse that is supplied with a voltage of 20 V.

Electroplating means combine electric and shock modes of action in one design. They are more reliable, allow you to reduce the time for firing a shot, eliminate cases of delays, which is especially important when firing from tanks on the move.

Reducing collateral damage, simplifying logistics, and reducing the time it takes to strike a target are just three of the many benefits of guided munitions.

Ceremony of presentation by Nammo of its 155-mm Extreme Range projectile equipped with a ramjet engine that increases the flight range to 100 km. This shell could be a game-changing factor in artillery

If we add a long range here, then it is clear how valuable this type of projectile is for gunners and commanders. The main disadvantage is the cost of guided ammunition compared to unguided ammunition. However, it is not entirely correct to make a comparative assessment of individual shells. It is necessary to calculate the total cost of impact on the target, since in some situations it may be necessary to fire significantly more shots with standard projectiles, not to mention the fact that the firing task may, in principle, not be feasible with unguided projectiles or shorter-range projectiles.

The Excalibur IB guided projectile is widely used in modern military operations. To date, more than 14,000 of these shells have been shot.

Increasing accuracy

Currently, the main consumer of guided munitions is the US military. In combat operations, the army fired thousands of such shells, in turn, the fleet also seeks to obtain such opportunities. Although some programs were closed due to cost problems, for example, the 155-mm LRLAP (Long Range Land Attack Projectile) projectile, designed specifically for firing from the Mk51 AGS (Advanced Gun System) gun mount, installed on the DDG 1000 destroyer of the Zumwalt class , the American fleet, nevertheless, did not give up trying to find a guided projectile for the AGS itself, as well as for its 127-mm Mk45 cannons.

BAE Systems is working on numerous artillery programs. Among them is the High Velocity Projectile, which can be fired from rail cannons and standard guns.

The US Marine Corps is ready to begin the Moving Target Artillery Round (MTAR) program, which may begin in 2019 with the aim of deploying ammunition capable of hitting moving targets in the absence of a GPS signal at ranges from 65 to 95 km. In the future, the extended-range guided projectiles will also remain in the sphere of interests of the US Army, which is starting the ERCA (Extended Range Cannon Artillery) program to replace 39-caliber barrels in existing systems with 52-caliber barrels, which, in combination with extended-range projectiles, will double their current range.

Meanwhile, Europe is also following these trends, and while numerous companies are developing guided and extended-range projectiles, European armies are eyeing these ammunition with interest, and some expect to adopt them in the near future.

It would be correct to start with the most widespread 155-mm Excalibur projectile, as more than 14,000 of them were shot in combat. According to Raytheon, the Excalibur IB, currently in series production, retained the characteristics of the original projectile while reducing the number of components and cost and showed reliability over 96%, even in difficult urban conditions, providing an accuracy of 4 meters at maximum ranges of almost 40 km when firing from guns with a length of 39 calibers. In the 2019 budget, the army requested money to purchase 1,150 Excalibur rounds.

Precision Guidance Kit PGK (Precision Guidance Kit) developed by Orbital ATK is screwed onto a 155-mm artillery projectile instead of a fuse, the GPS system and nose rudders allow it to be guided with high accuracy

Dual-mode seeker

While the current version is a bestseller, Raytheon is far from resting on its laurels. By improving its systems, the company is close to identifying new solutions that can cope with more complex scenarios and new threats. Jamming the GPS signal was tested in several directions, resulting in a new version of the projectile with improved anti-jamming capabilities and dual-mode guidance. The new Excalibur S ammunition will be guided both by GPS signals and using a homing head (GOS) with laser semi-active homing. The company is discussing its final configuration with potential customers, but no specific dates have yet been announced.

Another dual-mode option is being developed with guidance at the end of the trajectory. It doesn't have a name yet, but according to Raytheon, it's not far behind the "S" variant in terms of development. An option with a multi-mode seeker is also being considered. Guidance is not the only component that can evolve. The army has set itself the goal of dramatically increasing the range of its barrel artillery, in connection with which Raytheon is working on advanced propulsion systems, including bottom gas generators; in addition, new combat units, for example, anti-tank units, are on the agenda. This may be a response to the already mentioned project of the MTAR Marine Corps. As for the US Navy, in the summer of 2018, another demonstration firing was carried out with a 127-mm version of the Excalibur N5, compatible with the Mk45 gun. The fleet requires a range of 26 nautical miles (48 km), but the company is confident that it can reach or even exceed this figure.

Raytheon is looking at the export market with interest, although the potential orders here will be significantly less than in the United States. The Excalibur is currently being tested with several 155mm artillery systems: PzH200, Arthur, G6, M109L47 and K9. In addition, Raytheon is working on its compatibility with the Caesar and Krab ACS.

Nexter's Spacido Programmable Air Brake Qualification has recently been completed to significantly improve accuracy

There is no data available on the number of 155-mm ammunition equipped with the M1156 PGK (Precision Guidance Kit) developed by Orbital ATK (currently Northrop Grumman) and used in combat. Although the first production batch was produced in February of this year, over 25,000 of these GPS-guided screw-on systems have been manufactured. Two months later, the Department of Defense awarded Orbital ATK a $ 146 million contract to rework the projectiles, which allows PGK production to be extended until April 2021.

The PGK is screwed onto the projectile instead of the standard fuse, a GPS antenna (SAASM - Selectively Available Anti-Spoofing Module) is built into the nose, four small fixed inclined bow stabilizers are installed behind it and a remote fuse behind them. Programming is done using a manual fuse installer EPIAFS (Enhanced Portable Inductive Artillery Fuse-Setter), the same device is connected to a computer when programming the Excalibur projectile.

Using its experience in the development of PGK and sniper ammunition, Orbital ATK is developing a 127-mm PGK-Aft marine projectile, since the guidance element is installed in its tail section (eng., Aft)

The shells are bigger and better

Drawing on its experience with the PGK kit, Orbital ATK is currently developing a 127 mm projectile aimed at the fleet's guided munitions program for the Mk45 gun. The company proactively wants to demonstrate to the fleet the capabilities of the new PKG-Aft projectile in terms of accuracy and range.

Few details are known about this device, but the name, for example, suggests that it is installed not in the nose, but in the tail (aft-tail) of the projectile, while the technology for overcoming overloads in the gun barrel is taken directly from the PGK system. This solution with a tail guidance device is based on a study carried out by ATK in conjunction with the DARPA Administration on the 12.7 x 99 mm EXASTO cartridge (Extreme Accuracy Tasked Ordnance - cartridge of extreme accuracy). The tail element will also have a rocket engine, which will increase the range to the required 26 nautical miles, and the target-guided seeker will provide an accuracy of less than one meter. There is no information on the type of seeker, but the company said that "PGK-Aft supports various advanced seeker and fire missions of direct and indirect fire with all calibers without major modifications to the gun system." The new projectile is also equipped with an advanced warhead with ready-made striking elements. In December 2017, Orbital ATK conducted successful live firing of 155 mm PGK-Aft prototypes and is currently developing a 127 mm high-precision projectile with the PGK-Aft kit.

BAE Systems is working on the PGK-M (Precision Guidance Kit-Modernized), aiming to improve maneuverability while improving anti-interference capabilities. The latter is achieved through GPS-based navigation in combination with a rotationally stabilized guidance unit and antenna system. According to the company, the circular probable deviation (CEP) is less than 10 meters, the projectile can hit targets at high angles of attack. After over 200 tests have been completed, the projectile is at the stage of subsystem development. In January 2018, BAE Systems received a contract to refine this kit to a production sample. The PGK-M kit is fully compatible with 155 mm M795 and M549A1 ammunition and the M109A7 and M777A2 artillery systems.

Going forward, Nexter's Katana family will have a second member, the Katana Mk2a, equipped with wings that will double its range; at the same time, the laser-guided option will be developed only after the military has filed an application

Aboard American cruisers

After the decision to close the project on the LRLAP (Long Range Land Attack Projectile) projectile, created for the 155-mm AGS (Advanced Gun System) gun mount, it turned out that not a single projectile was suitable for this gun without modification. In June 2017, BAE Systems and Leonardo announced cooperation in the field of new high-precision systems based on new modifications of the Vulcano family for various weapon systems, including the AGS and Mk45 naval guns. The Memorandum of Understanding between the two companies provides for the development of all artillery systems, but each under a separate agreement. At the moment, an agreement has been signed on two naval guns, but in the future, ground-based systems, for example, M109 and M777, may become part of the agreement. The BAE-Leonardo group fired the Mk45 gun with a Vulcano GLR GPS / IMU projectile this summer in order to demonstrate their compatibility. The US Navy has a need for high-precision ammunition and is very interested in extended-range projectiles, and the Vulcano family of projectiles satisfy both of these requirements.

The Vulcano family is close to completing a qualification process in parallel for shipborne and ground munitions, respectively, 127 mm and 155 mm. In accordance with the intergovernmental agreement between Germany and Italy on the controlled option and the decision to integrate a semi-active laser seeker from Diehl Defense, the qualification process for the GLR (Guided Long Range) option is funded equally by two companies, while the unmanaged BER (Ballistic Extended Range) option is funded entirely by Italy. All operational tests have been successfully completed and the Vulcano ammunition is currently undergoing safety testing, which should be completed by the end of 2018. Meanwhile, Leonardo has begun production of a pilot batch, which will prepare for serial production and accept the final configuration of the shells. Full-scale production is scheduled to start in early 2019.

Leonardo has developed the Vulcano family of extended-range guided munitions for the 127-mm and 155-mm guns, which are in the final stage of qualification.

In 2017, live firing of a 127-mm Vulcano GLR projectile from a modified 127/54 gun was carried out on board the Italian ship; and at the beginning of 2018, the shell was fired from the new 127/64 LW gun mounted on the FREMM frigate. For the first time, this projectile was fed into a gun mount from a ship's magazine of a revolving type, programmed by an induction coil built into the gun, to which data was fed from the ship's battle control system; thus, complete system integration was demonstrated. As for the ground version, these shells were fired from a PzH2000 self-propelled howitzer, programming was carried out using a portable unit. At the moment, Germany is not seeking to integrate this system into the PzH2000 howitzer, since some refinement of the semi-automatic loading system will be required. In Italy, the shells were also tested with the FH-70 155/39 towed howitzer.

The increase in the range of Vulcano projectiles is realized due to the sub-caliber solution, a pallet was used to seal the projectile in the barrel. The fuse can be set in four modes: shock, delayed, temporary and air detonation. BER shells can be fired at a range of more than 60 km, while GLR shells can fly 85 km when fired from a 127 mm cannon and 70 km when fired from 155 mm / 52 caliber guns (55 km from 155/39). A fuse is installed in the bow of the GLR projectile, then four steering surfaces that correct the trajectory of the projectile, and behind them the GPS / IMU unit. Shells for naval guns can be equipped with an infrared seeker, while shells fired at ground targets can be equipped with a semi-active laser seeker. These heads slightly increase aerodynamic drag, minimizing the range. Although at the moment the configuration is actually accepted and the tests have confirmed the predicted range and accuracy, Leonardo is working on reducing the KBO of the laser-guided version under an additional contract and is confident that it will cope with the new requirements.This revision will be adopted for all Vulcano projectiles; the company expects to produce one version of the projectile with a semi-active seeker.

In addition to Italy and Germany, the Netherlands has observer status in the program for the Vulcano family of projectiles, and the possibility of purchasing them is also being considered by several other potential customers, including South Korea and Australia. Recently, the Slovak company Konstrukta-Defense signed a cooperation agreement with Leonardo to promote Vulcano ammunition and integrate them with its artillery systems, for example, the Zuzana 2 155/52.

TopGun high-precision artillery fuse developed by Israel Aerospace Industries

Nexter goes into 3D world

Nexter Ammunition has embarked on an evolutionary 155mm ammunition program that includes the development of 3D printed ammunition elements. The first step was the Bonus high-precision projectile. The Spacido trajectory correction kit was the next step. In the summer of this year, the company announced that all the shooting was successful, the qualification was completed and it remained to issue certification documents.

Spacido, screwed on instead of a fuse, is an aerodynamic brake that reduces range error. A small Doppler radar checks the initial speed and monitors the first part of the trajectory, the radio frequency channel provides data transmission to Spacido, whose computer decides when the brake should turn, reducing the dispersion by three times. In fact, while the anti-jamming device Spacido costs twice as much, it can significantly reduce the consumption of projectiles and fire at targets in the immediate vicinity of its forces.

At Eurosatory 2018, Nexter announced a new family of high-precision 155mm long-range artillery shells called the Katana. The development of new projectiles was carried out as part of the Menhir program, which was announced in June 2016. It was launched in response to the needs of customers for increased accuracy and range. Above all, the French army needs precision for what it calls "urban artillery." The projectile, designated Katana Mk1, has four rigidly fixed wings in the bow, followed by four corrective rudders connected to the IMU-GPS guidance unit. All wings, including tail rudders, unfold after the projectile leaves the barrel. The projectile is currently at the stage of technological development. The first shootings were carried out under the supervision of the Office of Defense Purchases. The purpose of this program is to provide the army with a guided projectile with a CEP of less than 10 meters and a range of 30 km when fired from a 52-caliber barrel. According to the schedule, the Katana Mk1 projectile should appear on the market in two years. The second step will be to increase the range to 60 km, this will be achieved by adding a set of folding wings, the location of which could be seen on the layout displayed at Eurosatory. They will provide lift in the descent phase, which will double the flight range. Nexter intends to surpass the capabilities of other competitors' projectiles in terms of the combination of range and warhead, but at a lower cost, set at 60 thousand euros. The shell, designated Katana Mk2a, will be available around 2022. In two years, if the need arises, Nexter will be able to develop a 155-mm Katana Mk2b laser-guided projectile with a meter KVO.

In addition to increasing range and guidance, Nexter is also developing new warheads using new materials and 3D printing.

Nexter is also working on warhead technology using 3D printing and an aluminide material, consisting of nylon filled with aluminum dust. This will allow you to control the radius of destruction in the event of shelling a target in the immediate vicinity of your forces. The company today began researching opto-pyrotechnic technologies in order to control the initiation of an explosion by means of optical fiber; all these studies are still at an early stage and will not be included in the Katana projectile program.

Israel Aerospace Industries is ready to complete the development of its TopGun artillery fuse. The screw-on system, which performs trajectory correction in two coordinates, reduces the CEP of a conventional projectile to less than 20 meters. The range with such a fuse is 40 km when firing from a gun with a barrel length of 52 caliber, guidance is carried out by the INS-GPS unit. The program is currently at the qualification stage.

Nammo has qualified its extended family of ammunition. The first customer was Finland, which will soon begin testing them on its K9 Thunder 155/52 self-propelled guns.

On the Norwegian side

The Norwegian company Nammo recently awarded the first contract for its 155mm long-range artillery ammunition. Based on their rich experience, they have developed a special bottom gas generator module. At the same time, processes for the production of small-caliber high-precision ammunition were used in order to minimize deviations in material and shape, which, as a result, entails minimizing changes in air flow and mass distribution.

The program was partially funded by the Norwegian Directorate of Defense Property, but Finland was the first customer, which signed a contract in August 2017, the result of which will be firing tests scheduled for 2019. Compared to standard 155-mm projectiles, the low-sensitivity high-explosive fragmentation projectile with an increased range can fly 40 km when fired from a 52-caliber barrel. Nammo is awaiting an order from the Norwegian army.

Close-up of Nammo's 155-mm Extreme Range ramjet projectile. The key component in it is the aerodynamic propulsion system and therefore not a single sensor is installed in the nose of the projectile.

Nammo decided to use a radical new technology by integrating a ramjet engine into a 155-mm Extreme Range projectile. A ramjet engine, or ramjet engine, is the simplest air jet engine because it uses forward motion to compress the incoming air without using an axial or centrifugal compressor, there are no moving parts in this engine. The required minimum muzzle velocity is Mach 2.5-2.6, and a standard 155mm projectile exits a 52 caliber barrel at approximately Mach 3. A ramjet engine is by nature a self-regulating engine, maintaining a constant speed regardless of flight altitude. The speed of Mach 3 is maintained for about 50 seconds, while the thrust is provided by the fuel НТР3 (concentrated hydrogen peroxide) with additives. Thus, the range of a projectile with a ramjet is increased to more than 100 km, which turns the artillery gun into a much more flexible and versatile system. Nammo plans to conduct the first ballistic tests in late 2019 and early 2020. Since the consequence of the increase in the range is an increase in the CEP by 10 times, the Nammo company, together with a partner company, is working in parallel on a guidance system for this projectile based on the GPS / INS module. In this case, no GOS can be installed in the bow, the principle of operation of a ramjet engine is aerodynamic, and therefore an air intake device is simply necessary for its operation. The projectile is compatible with the JBMOU L52 155-mm projectile protocol (Joint Ballistic Memorandum of Understanding). It defines a typical air intake in the bow with a central cone, four front stabilizers and four curved tail wings that deploy when the projectile leaves the barrel. The warhead of the projectile is high-explosive, the amount of explosives will be reduced compared to the standard 155-mm projectile. The company Nammo said that the mass of the explosive "will be about the same as in the 120-mm projectile." The projectile will be used against stationary targets, air defense ground targets, radars, command posts, etc., the flight time will be on the order of several minutes. In accordance with the requirements of the Norwegian Armed Forces, Nammo plans to begin mass production of this projectile in 2024-2025.

Expal's 155 ER02A1 round was adopted by the Spanish army. It can be equipped with either a tapered tail section or a bottom gas generator, providing a flight range of 30 and 40 km, respectively, when firing from a 52-caliber barrel

At the Eurosatory exhibition, Expal Systems confirmed the signing of an agreement for the supply of 155-mm extended-range ammunition. The 155-mm ER02A1 projectile can be equipped with either a module with a tapering tail section or a bottom gas generator, which provide a flight range of 30 and 40 km, respectively, when fired from a 52-caliber barrel. The high-explosive fragmentation variant, developed in conjunction with the Spanish army, was qualified, in contrast to the lighting and smoke variants, which still have this process. The agreement also includes the newly developed EC-102 electronic fuse with three modes: shock, timer and delay. In accordance with the operational needs of the Spanish army, Expal will supply new shells and fuses for them in the next five years.

Based on materials from sites:
www.nationaldefensemagazine.org
www.baesystems.com
www.raytheon.com
www.leonardocompany.com
www.nexter-group.fr
www.nammo.com
www.imisystems.com
www.orbitalatk.com
www.maxam.net
www.milmag.pl
www.doppeladler.com
pinterest.com
fas.org
аrmyman.info

Artillery ammunition is an integral part of artillery systems designed to destroy manpower and equipment, destroy structures (fortifications) and perform special tasks (lighting, smoke, delivery of propaganda material, etc.). These include artillery rounds, mortar rounds, and ground-based MLRS rockets. By the nature of the equipment, artillery ammunition with conventional explosives, chemical and biological (bacteriological) ammunition is distinguished. By appointment: basic (for defeat and destruction), special (for lighting, smoke, radio jamming, etc.) and auxiliary (for training personnel, testing, etc.).

Artillery shot- ammunition for shooting from an artillery gun. It was a set of elements for one shot: a projectile with a fuse, a propellant charge in a sleeve or cap, a charge igniter and auxiliary elements (phlegmatizers, mediators, flame arresters, wads, etc.).

By designation, artillery shots are divided into combat (for combat firing; make up ammunition for guns), blank (for sound imitation; instead of a projectile, a wad or a reinforced cover; a special charge), practical (for training gun crews shooting; an inert equipment projectile; fuse - hollowed out) , training (for studying the device and teaching the methods of handling ammunition, loading and firing; shot elements - inert equipment or dummies) and systemic (for testing artillery pieces).

An artillery shot is called complete if it has all the elements, but is not assembled, and ready when it is assembled. A finished artillery shot is finally and incompletely equipped (respectively with a screwed-in or with an unscrewed fuse).

By the method of loading, they are distinguished:

Artillery shot carton loading- a projectile, a propelling charge in a charging cap (a shell made of dense fabric for placing propellant charges of artillery and mortar rounds) and an ignition means are not interconnected; used in large-caliber guns loaded in three steps (by elements). The use of caps has become widespread since the first half of the 17th century, which significantly reduced the time required for loading. Prior to that, gunpowder was manually poured into the barrel of the gun.

Artillery shot separate-sleeve loading- a sleeve with a projectile and an ignition means are not connected to the projectile; used mainly in medium-caliber guns, charged in two steps. Created in 1870-1871 by the Frenchman Reffi.

Artillery shot unitary loading- the projectile, the propellant charge and the means of ignition are combined into one whole; It is used in all automatic and semi-automatic cannons, as well as in some non-automatic guns of various types of artillery, loaded in one step. An artillery round of a unitary loading caliber is sometimes called an artillery cartridge.

One of the main components of an artillery shot was projectile- means of destruction of manpower, materiel and fortifications of the enemy, fired from an artillery gun. Most types of projectiles were an axisymmetric metal body with a flat bottom, on which the propellant gases formed during the combustion of the propellant charge press. This body can be solid or hollow, streamlined or arrow-shaped, carrying a payload or not. All these factors, together with the internal structure, determined the purpose of the projectile. The classification of the shells was carried out according to the following criteria. According to their purpose, the shells were divided into:

- armor-piercing shells designed to combat enemy armored vehicles. According to their design, they were subdivided into caliber, sub-caliber with a constant or detachable pallet, and arrow-shaped feathered projectiles.

- concrete-piercing shells designed to destroy long-term reinforced concrete fortifications.

- high-explosive shells designed to destroy field and long-term fortifications, barbed wire, buildings.

- cumulative projectiles designed to destroy armored vehicles and garrisons of long-term fortifications by creating a narrowly directed stream of explosion products with a high penetrating ability.

- fragmentation projectiles designed to destroy enemy manpower by fragments generated when a projectile bursts. The rupture occurs when hitting an obstacle or remotely in the air.

- buckshot - ammunition designed to destroy openly located enemy personnel in self-defense weapons. Represents bullets packed in a highly combustible frame, when fired they fly in a certain sector from the gun barrel.

- shrapnel - ammunition designed to destroy openly located enemy manpower with bullets inside his body. The rupture of the hull and the ejection of bullets from it occurs in flight.

- chemical projectiles containing a potent poisonous substance to destroy enemy manpower. Some types of chemical projectiles may contain a non-lethal chemical element that deprives enemy soldiers of combat capability (tear, psychotropic, etc. substances).

- biological projectiles containing a potent biological toxin or a culture of infectious microorganisms. Intended for the destruction or non-lethal incapacitation of enemy manpower.

- incendiary projectiles containing a recipe for igniting flammable materials and objects, such as city buildings, fuel depots, etc.

- smoke projectiles containing a recipe for generating large quantities of smoke. They were used to create smoke screens, to blind the enemy command and observation posts.

- lighting projectiles containing a formulation to create a long-lasting and brightly burning flame. It is used to illuminate the battlefield at night. As a rule, they are equipped with a parachute for longer duration of illumination.

- tracer projectiles, leaving behind a bright trail during its flight, visible to the naked eye.

- propaganda shells containing leaflets inside them for agitating enemy soldiers or spreading propaganda among the civilian population in the front-line settlements of the enemy.

- training shells designed to train personnel of artillery units. They can be both a dummy or a weight and size model, unsuitable for shooting, and ammunition suitable for firing practice.

Some of these classifications may overlap. For example, high-explosive fragmentation, armor-piercing tracer shells, etc. are widely known.

The projectile consisted of a body, equipment (or tracer) and a fuse. Some shells had a stabilizer. The body or the core of the projectile was made of alloy steel, or steel cast iron, tungsten, etc. It consisted of a head, cylindrical and zip-belt parts. The body of the projectile had a sharp-headed or blunt-headed shape. For correct guidance of the projectile along the barrel bore when fired, on its cylindrical part there is a centering thickening (one or two) and a leading belt pressed into the groove (made of copper, bimetal, iron-ceramics, nylon), which, when fired, prevents the breakthrough of powder gases and rotational movement of the projectile, necessary for its stable flight on the trajectory. To detonate the projectile, a shock, proximity, remote or combined fuse was used. The length of the shells usually ranged from 2.3 to 5.6 of its caliber.

By caliber, the shells are divided into small (20-70 mm), medium (70-155 mm in ground artillery and up to 100 mm in anti-aircraft artillery) and large (over 155 mm in ground and over 100 mm in anti-aircraft artillery) calibers. The power of the projectile depends on the type and mass of its charge and is determined by the projectile filling ratio (the ratio of the mass of the explosive charge of the explosive to the mass of the finally loaded projectile), constituting up to 25% for high-explosive projectiles, high-explosive and cumulative fragmentation up to 15%, armor-piercing up to 2.5 %. For fragmentation projectiles, the power is also determined by the number of lethal fragments and the radius of the affected area. The shells are characterized by range (high-range), accuracy of fire, safety during handling and durability (during storage).

Mortar shot- ammunition for firing mortars. Consists of a mine, the main (igniting) and additional (propelling) powder charges with means of ignition. By designation, mortar shots are subdivided in the same way as artillery shots. Mines are feathered (most) and rotating. The finally equipped feathered mine includes a body made of steel or steel cast iron, equipment, a fuse, a stabilizer or empennage, which unfolds after the mine leaves the bore. Rotating mines usually have protrusions on the leading belt that fit into the rifling of the barrel when loaded. To increase the firing range, active-jet mines with a jet engine are used. The length of the mines was usually up to 8 calibers.

Rocket projectiles are described in the Missiles and Missile Weapons chapter.

During the war years, the USSR produced about 7.5 million tons of ammunition, incl. field and naval artillery rounds - 333.3 million pieces, mortar mines - 257.8 million (of which 50-mm - 41.6 million pieces, 82-mm - 126.6 million pieces), shells MLRS - 14.5 million. In addition, 2.3 million tons of artillery ammunition was at the disposal of the Soviet troops at the beginning of the war.

In 1941-1942. Germany seized about 1 million tons of USSR ammunition, incl. 0.6 million tons of artillery.

It should be noted that during the war, Germany spent about 1.5 times (and at the beginning of the war 2 times) less artillery ammunition in comparison with the USSR, since the German artillery fired at targets, and the USSR - at the squares. So on the Eastern Front, German troops spent 5.6 million tons. ammunition, against 8 million tons. Soviet troops.

In Germany, during the war years, about 9 million tons were produced. ammunition of all kinds.

In the United States, during the war years, 11 million tons of artillery ammunition and 1.2 million tons of artillery ammunition were produced. reactive. Including 55 million shells for howitzers, anti-tank and field artillery.

Below are the most common artillery ammunition by caliber and country.

Concrete shell- a type of projectile, which has a high-explosive and impact effect, is used as striking targets from large-caliber guns, targets consist of reinforced concrete structures and structures of a long-term construction method, it is also possible to use it to destroy armored targets.

The action produced by the projectile consists in breaking through or penetrating into a solid reinforced concrete barrier to destroy it using the force of the gases obtained from the explosion of the explosive charge. This type of projectile must have powerful shock and high-explosive properties, high accuracy of combat, and good range.

Blasting shell... The name comes from the French word brisant - "crushing". It is a fragmentation or high-explosive fragmentation projectile, which contains a remote fuse, used as a projectile fuse in the air at a given height.

The high explosive shells were filled with melinite, an explosive created by the French engineer Türnin, the developer patented it in 1877.

Armor-piercing sub-caliber projectile- an impact projectile with an active part, called a core, the diameter of which differs from the caliber of the gun by three times. Possesses the property of penetrating armor several times exceeding the caliber of the projectile itself.

High-explosive armor-piercing projectile- a high-explosive projectile, used to destroy armored targets, it is characterized by the production of an explosion with spalling of armor from the rear side, which hit an armored object with the application of destructive power to equipment and crew.

Armor-piercing projectile- percussion projectile, used as striking armored targets from small and medium caliber guns. The first such projectile was made of hardened cast iron, created by the method of D.K. Over time, they switched to the manufacture of such shells from puddling steel.

In 1897, a shell from a 152-mm cannon pierced a plate 254 mm thick. At the end of the XIX century. armor-piercing shells with Makarov tips were put into service with the armies of all European states. Initially, they were made solid, then explosives and an explosive charge were put into the armor-piercing shells. When bursting, armor-piercing caliber shells create punctures, breaks, knocking out plugs from the armor, shifts, tearing off armor plates, jamming hatches and towers.

Behind the armor, projectiles and armor are detonated with fragments, and this also creates a detonation of ammunition, fuels and lubricants located in the target or at a close distance from it.

Smoke shells intended for setting smoke screens and as a means of indicating the location of the target.

Incendiary projectile... It is used to create lesions from medium-caliber guns, with the aim of destroying manpower and military equipment, such as tractors and motor vehicles. During hostilities, armor-piercing ignition-tracer shells were widely used.

Caliber projectile has a diameter of the centering nubs or a body that matches the caliber of the gun.

Cluster projectile. The name comes from the French cassete, which translates as "box"; is a thin-walled projectile filled with mines or other combat elements.

Cumulative projectile- a projectile with the characteristics of a main-purpose projectile, with a cumulative action charge.

A shaped-charge projectile penetrates armor by the directed action of the explosion energy of an explosive charge and produces a damaging effect behind the armor.

The effect of such a charge is as follows. When the projectile meets the armor, an instant fuse is triggered, an explosive impulse is transmitted from the fuse using the central tube to the detonator cap and the detonator installed in the bottom of the shaped charge. The explosion of the detonator leads to the detonation of the explosive charge, the movement of which is directed from the bottom to the cumulative recess, along with this, the destruction of the head of the projectile is created. A cumulative recess with its base approaches the armor, and a thin cumulative jet is formed from the lining material during sharp compression with the help of a recess in the explosive, in which 10-20% of the lining metal is collected. The rest of the cladding metal, crimping, forms a pestle. The trajectory of the jet is directed along the axis of the recess, due to the very high speed of compression, the metal is heated to a temperature of 200-600 ° C, preserving all the properties of the lining metal.

When an obstacle meets a jet moving at a speed of 10-15 m / s at the apex, the jet generates a great pressure - up to 2,000,000 kg / cm2, thereby the head of the cumulative jet is destroyed, destroying the armor of the obstacle and squeezing the metal of the armor to the side and outward , with the penetration of subsequent particles into the armor, the penetration of the obstacle is ensured.

Behind the armor, the damaging effect is accompanied by the general action of a cumulative jet, elements of the armor metal, and detonation products of an explosive charge. The properties of a cumulative projectile depend on the explosive, its quality and quantity, on the shape of the cumulative recess, and on the material of its lining. They are used to defeat armored targets from medium-caliber guns, capable of penetrating an armored target 2-4 times the caliber of the gun. Rotating HEAT shells penetrate armor up to 2 caliber, non-rotating HEAT shells - up to 4 caliber.

Cumulative projectiles for the first time supplied to ammunition for regimental guns of 76-mm caliber of the 1927 model, then for the guns of the 1943 model, also by them in the 1930s. manned howitzers of 122 mm caliber. In 1940, the world's first multiple-launch rocket launcher M-132, used in shaped-charge projectiles, was tested. The M-132 was put into service as the BM-13-16; 16 rockets of 132 mm caliber were located on the guide mounts.

Cumulative fragmentation, or a multipurpose projectile. Refers to artillery shells that produce fragmentation and cumulative actions, used to destroy manpower and armored obstacles.

Lighting projectile. These shells are used to illuminate the intended location of the target to be hit, to illuminate the enemy's terrain, to monitor his activities, to carry out zeroing and to track the results of shooting to kill, to blind the enemy observation posts.

High-explosive fragmentation projectile. Refers to shells of the main type of purpose used to defeat manpower, military equipment of the enemy, field defenses, as well as to create passages in minefields and in barrage structures, from medium-caliber guns. The type of fuse installed determines the action of the projectile. A contact fuse is installed for high-explosive action in the destruction of light field structures, a fragmentation fuse - for hitting manpower, for the delayed production of destructive force on buried field structures.

The inclusion of a diverse type of action reduced its qualitative characteristics in front of projectiles only with a clearly directed action, only fragmentation and only high-explosive.

Shrapnel projectile- a projectile used as a damaging factor of manpower, unarmored and lightly armored military equipment, the damaging effect is caused by the fragments produced during the explosion, formed when the shell of the grenade is ruptured.

A subcaliber projectile. A characteristic feature of such a projectile is the diameter of the active part, which is less than the caliber of the weapon intended for it.
The difference between the mass of a sub-caliber projectile and a caliber projectile, when considering one caliber, made it possible to obtain high initial velocities of a sub-caliber projectile. Introduced into ammunition for 45 mm guns in 1942, and in 1943 for 57 mm and 76 mm guns. The muzzle velocity of a sub-caliber projectile for the 57-mm cannon was 1270 m / s, which was a record speed for projectiles of that time. To increase the power of anti-tank fire in 1944, an 85-mm sub-caliber projectile was developed.

Projectiles of this type act by piercing the armor, as a result of the release of the core from the armor, with a sharp release of voltage, the core is destroyed into fragments. Behind the armor, the damaging effect is created by fragments from the core and armor.
Over-caliber projectile - a projectile in which the diameter of the active part of the
given a larger size than the caliber of the weapon used, this ratio increases the power of these ammunition.

Explosive shells. They were subdivided according to the weight category into bombs, they were shells exceeding the weight of 16.38 kg, and grenades - shells weighing less than 16.38 kg. These types of shells have been developed for equipping howitzers with ammunition. Explosive shells were used to fire shots that hit openly located living targets and defensive structures.

The result of the explosion of this projectile is fragments, which are scattered in large quantities for an approximately laid down radius of the destructive effect.

Explosive shells are perfect for use as a damaging factor for enemy guns. However, the failure of the projectile tubes led to the incapacitation of a number of explosive projectiles, so it was noted that only four out of five projectiles exploded. For about three centuries, such shells dominated among the artillery shells in service with almost all the armies of the world.

Missile equipped with a warhead and a propulsion system. In the 40s. XX century, during the Second World War, various types of rockets were developed: in the German troops, turbojet high-explosive fragmentation shells were put into service, in the Soviet troops rocket and turbojet high-explosive fragmentation shells.

In 1940, the world's first M-132 multiple launch rocket launcher was tested. It was put into service as BM-13-16, 16 rockets of 132 mm caliber were located on the guide mounts, the firing range was 8470 m. The BM-82-43 was also put into service, on the guide mounts of which 48 rockets of 82-mm caliber were installed. , firing range - 5500 m in 1942

The developed powerful rocket projectiles M-20 132-mm caliber, the firing range with the help of these projectiles 5000 m, and M-30 are supplied for service. M-30s were projectiles with a very powerful high-explosive effect, they were used on special frame-type machines, in which four M-30 projectiles were installed in a special cork. In 1944, the BM-31-12 was put into service, 12 305-mm M-31 rockets were installed on the guides, the firing range was determined at 2800 m.The introduction of this weapon made it possible to solve the problem of maneuvering by fire from units and subunits of heavy rocket artillery.

In the operation of this design, the salvo time was reduced from 1.5-2 hours to 10-15 minutes. M-13 UK and M-31 UK are reactive projectiles with improved accuracy, which had the ability to rotate in flight, carrying out a firing range of up to 7900 and 4000 m, respectively, the density of fire in one salvo increased 3 and 6 times.

The firing capabilities with a projectile of improved accuracy made it possible to replace the regimental or brigade salvo with the production of a salvo from one division. For the M-13 UK, the BM-13 rocket artillery combat vehicle equipped with screw guides was developed in 1944.

Guided projectile- a projectile equipped with flight controls, firing such projectiles is carried out in the usual mode, during the flight trajectory in the projectiles there is a reaction to energy that is reflected or emitted from the target, autonomous on-board devices begin to generate signals that are transmitted to the control bodies making adjustments and direction trajectory for effective target destruction. It is used to engage mobile small strategic targets.

High-explosive shell. Such a projectile is characterized by a powerful explosive charge, a contact fuse, head or bottom, with a high-explosive action setting, with one or two decelerations, a very strong body that perfectly penetrates an obstacle. It is used as a damaging factor for sheltered manpower, capable of destroying non-concreted structures.

Shrapnel shells are used to destroy openly located enemy personnel and equipment with shrapnel and bullets.

Chemical and chemical fragmentation projectiles. This type of shells hit the enemy's manpower, contaminated areas of the terrain and engineering structures.

For the first time, chemical artillery shells were used by the German army on October 27, 1914 in the battles of the First World War, these shells were equipped with shrapnel mixed with irritating powder.

In 1917, gas cannons were developed, firing mainly phosgene, liquid diphosgene, and chloropicrin; represented the type of mortars firing shells, which included 9-28 kg of a toxic substance.

In 1916, artillery means based on toxic substances were actively created, it was noted that on June 22, 1916, within seven hours, the artillery of the German army fired 125,000 shells, the total number of asphyxiating toxic substances in them was 100,000 liters.

The duration of the projectile. The amount of time spent, calculated from the moment a projectile collides with an obstacle to its explosion.

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