Epitts, metaphors, personification, comparisons - all this means of artistic expressiveness, actively used in Russian literary language. There is a huge manifold. They are necessary in order to make a language bright and expressive, strengthen artistic images, attract the attention of the reader to the thought that the author wants to convey.

What are the means of artistic expressiveness?

Epitts, metaphors, personification, comparisons belong to various groups of artistic expressiveness.

Linguistic scientists allocate sound or phonetic visual means. Lexical are those that are associated with a certain word, that is, a lexema. If the expressive means covers a phrase or a whole sentence, then it is syntax.

Separately, phraseological means are also considered (they are based on phraseological units), trails (special speech speeds used in a figurative value).

Where are the means of artistic expressiveness?

It is worth noting that the means of artistic expressiveness are applied not only in the literature, but also in various spheres of communication.

The most often epithets, metaphors, personification, comparisons can be found, of course, in an artistic and journalistic speech. They are also present in conversational and even scientific styles. They play a huge role, as they help the author to implement their artistic intent, their image. They are useful for the reader. With their help, he can penetrate the secret world of the creator of the work, it is better to understand and delve into the author's intent.

Epithet

Epitts in verses are one of their most common literary techniques. It is surprising that the epithet can be not only adjective, but also by nashing, nouns and even numeral (common example - second Life).

Most literary criticized epithet as one of the main techniques in poetic creativity, adorning a poetic speech.

If you turn to the origins of this word, it happened from an ancient Greek concept denoting in the literal translation of the "applied". That is, which is an addition to the main word, the main function of which to make the main thought is clearer and expressive. Most often, the epithet is facing the main word or expression.

Like all means of artistic expressiveness, epithets developed from one literary era to another. So, in folklore, that is, in folk creativity, the role of epithets in the text is very large. They describe the properties of objects or phenomena. Highlight their key features, while extremely rarely refer to the emotional component.

Later, the role of epithets in the literature is changing. It expands significantly. This tool of artistic expressiveness gives new properties and fill the functions that have not inherent in him. This is especially becoming noticeable at the poets of the Silver Age.

Nowadays, especially in postmodern literary works, the structure of the epithet complicated even stronger. The semantic content of this trail intensified, leading to surprisingly expressive techniques. For example: diapers are golden.

Epteetov function

Definitions of epithet, metaphor, personification, comparison is reduced to one - all these are artistic means that give convexity and expressiveness of our speech. Both literary and conversational. The special feature of the epithet is also strong emotion.

These means of artistic expressiveness, and especially epithets, help readers or listeners to imagine what the author says or writes, to understand how he belongs to this subject.

Epitts serve for realistic reconstruction of the historical era, a certain social group or the people. With their help, we can imagine how these people said, what words to paint their speech.

What is a metaphor?

Translated from the ancient Greek language of the metaphor - this is a "value transfer". This is how it is impossible to better characterize this concept.

The metaphor can be both a separate word and an entire expression that is used by the author in a figurative value. The basis of this means of artistic expressiveness is a comparison of the subject, which is not yet named, with some other on the basis of their overall sign.

Unlike most other literary terms, the metaphor has a specific author. This is the famous philosopher of ancient Greece - Aristotle. The initial birth of this term is associated with the representations of Aristotle about art as a method of imitating life.

At the same time, those metaphors used by Aristotle are practically impossible to distinguish from literary exaggeration (hyperboles), normal comparison or personification. He understood the metaphor much wider than modern literary critics.

Examples of consumption of metaphor in literary speech

Epitts, metaphors, personification, comparisons are actively used in artistic works. Moreover, for many authors, the metaphor becomes aesthetic itself, sometimes completely displacing the initial meaning of the word.

As an example, literary researchers lead in an example of the famous English poet and the playwright of William Shakespeare. For him, it is often important not for the life of the initial meaning of a particular statement, but the metaphoric value purchased to them, a new unexpected meaning.

For those readers and researchers who were brought up on the Aristotelian understanding of the principles of literature, it was unusual and even incomprehensible. So, on this basis did not recognize the poetry of Shakespeare Lion Tolstoy. His points of view in Russia of the XIX century adhered to many readers of English playwright.

At the same time, with the development of the literature, the metaphor begins not only to reflect, but also the lives surrounding us. A vivid example of the classical Russian literature is the story of Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol "Nose". The nose of the College Assistor Kovalev, who went to his own journey through St. Petersburg, is not only a hyperbole, personification and comparison, but also a metaphor that gives this image a new unexpected meaning.

An example is an example of futurist poets who worked in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. Their main goal was to remove the metaphor as much as possible from its initial meaning. Such techniques were often used by Vladimir Mayakovsky. An example, title its poems "cloud in pants."

At the same time, after the October Revolution, it was much less likely to use the metaphor. Soviet poets and writers sought clarity and straightness, so the need to use words and expressions in the figurative sense disappeared.

Although completely without metaphor imagine an artistic work, even Soviet authors, it is impossible. Metaphors' words are found practically everyone. Arkady Gaidar in the "destiny of the drummer" can be found such a phrase - "So we diverged. Topot Small, and in the field is empty."

In the Soviet poetry of the 70s, Konstantin Kedrov enters into circulation the concept of "metametaphor" or as it is also called the "metaphor in a square". A new distinctive feature appears at the metaphor - it is constantly involved in the development of a literary language. As well as speech and culture itself as a whole.

For this, the metaphor is constantly used, telling about the newest sources of knowledge and information, use it to describe the modern achievements of humanity in science and technology.

Elimination

In order to figure out what personification in the literature will turn to the origin of this concept. Like most literary terms, it goes with its roots in ancient Greek language. In the literal translation means "face" and "do". With this literary reception, natural forces and phenomena, inanimate objects acquire properties and signs inherent in man. As if the author is listed. For example, they can give the properties of the human psyche.

Such techniques are often used not only in modern artistic literature, but also in mythology, and religion, in magic and cults. The personification was a key means of artistic expressiveness in testes and parables, in which an ancient person was explained how the world was arranged, which stands behind natural phenomena. They were molded, endowed with human qualities, were associated with gods or superhumans. So an ancient person was easier to accept and understand the surrounding reality.

Examples of personalities

Understand what personification in the literature will help us with examples of specific texts. So, in the Russian folk song, the author claims that "Lyko grief was preoccupied".

With the help of an impersonation, a special world appears. For him, a bad idea of \u200b\u200bnatural phenomena is characterized. When, for example, thunder grumbling like an old man, or the sun is perceived not as an inanimate space object, but as a specific God named Helios.

Comparison

In order to understand the main modern means of artistic expressiveness, it is important to understand what comparison is in the literature. Examples in this will help us. In Zabolotsky we meet: "He used to be ringing, exactly the bird"Or Pushkin: "He ran faster than horses".

Very often comparisons are used in Russian folk art. So we clearly see that this is a trail in which one object or phenomenon is like to another on the basis of any common feature for them. The purpose of comparison is to find new and important properties in the described object for the subject of the artistic statement.

This goal is metaphor, epithets, comparisons, personification. The table in which all these concepts are presented, helps to clearly figure out what they differ from each other.

Types of comparisons

Consider for a detailed understanding that such a comparison in the literature, examples and varieties of this trail.

It can be used in the form of a comparative turnover: the man is stupid like a pig.

There are comparisons non-union: my home is my castle.

Often comparisons are formed at the expense of the noun in the articulated case. Classic example: he walks Gogol.

In vocabulary, the main means of expressiveness are trails(in the lane. with Greek. - turnover, image) - Special image expressive language based on the use of words in a figurative value.

The main types of paths include: epithet, comparison, metaphor, personification, metonymium, synefico, periphas (periphrase), hyperbole, limit, irony.

Special lexical image-expressive language (trails)

Epithet(in the lane. with Greek. - appendix, Addition) This is a figurative definition that marks a similar context in the depicted phenomenon.

From simple definition, epithet is distinguished by artistic expressiveness and imagery. The epithet is based on a hidden comparison.

The epithets include all "colorful" definitions that are most often expressed by adjectives.

For example: true-orphan land(F. I. Tyutchev), gray fog, lemon light, dumb peace (I. A. Bunin).

Epitts may also be expressed:

- nouns acting as applications or fad with the sample characteristic of the subject.

For example: magician -Zima; Mother - Cheese Earth; The poet is a Lira, not just a nanny of his soul (M. Gorky);

- naschayia acting in the role of circumstances.

For example: In the north, the wilder is lonely ... (M. Yu. Lermontov); The leaves were tensely stretched in the wind(K. G. Powesty);

- tempecisia .

For example: Waves rummage and sparkling;

- pronouns expressing the excellent degree of one or another state of the human soul.

For example: After all, there were fights combat, yes, they say what else! (M. Yu. Lermontov);

- communions and involved in turns .

For example: Nightinglers of the word Crowing the forest limits (B. L. Pasternak); I also admit the appearance ... borzopisters who cannot prove where they spent the night yesterday, and who do not have other words in the language, except for words, do not remember kinship (M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin).

Creating imaging epithets is usually associated with the use of words in a figurative value.

From the point of view of the type of figurative value of the word speaking in the role of the epithet, all epithets are divided into:

metaphorical (They are based on a metaphorical figurative value.

For example: tuchka Golden, bottomless sky, lilac fog, cloud walking and tree standing.

Metaphoric epithets - Bright sign of copyright style:

You are my cornflower word
I love you forever.
How our cow lives now
Sadness straw tool?
(S.A. Jenin. "I did not see the beautiful there?");

How greedily the world soul night
He makes a story with his beloved!
(Tyutchev. "What are you doing, wind night?").

metonimical (based on the metonymic figurative value.

For example: Suede gait (V. V. Nabokov); scratching glad (M. Gorky); berezov cheerfullanguage (S. A. Yesenin).

From a genetic point of view epitts are divided into:

- general language (coffin silence, lead waves),

- people's poetic (constant) ( red Sun, Lust Wind, kind well done).

In the poetic folklore, the epithet, together with a certain word of stable phrase, performed, in addition to substantial, mnemonic function (gr. Mnemo Nicon. - the art of memorization).

Permanent epithets facilitated the singer, the observer execution of the work. Any folk text is saturated with such, for the most part "decorating", epithets.

« In Folklore, - writes literary critic V.P. Nanikin, - The girl is always red, well done - kind, father - native, deubs - small, young man - Delica, body - white, hands - white, tears - sprue, voice - loud, bow - Low, table - oak, wine - green, vodka - sweet, eagle - gray, flower - scarlet, stone - flammable, sand - loose, night - dark, forest - standing, mountains - cool, forests - dense, cloud - Grozny , winds - violent, field - clean, sun - red, onion - tight, Kabak - Tsarev, Saber - acute, wolf - gray, etc.»

Depending on the genre, the selection of epithets was somewhat modified. Recreation of style, or the stylization of folk genres involves widespread use of permanent epithets. So, they replete " Song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich, young Ochrichnik and a removed merchant Kalashnikov»Lermontova: sun Red, Tuchci Blue, Golden Crown, Terrible King, Removal Fighter, Duma Strong, Duma Black, Heart Roast, Bogatyr's Shoulders, Saber Acuteetc.

Epithet can choose the properties of many tropov . Based on metaphor or at metonimia , It can also be combined with an impersonation ... misty and quiet azure over sad or Suiter Earth (F. I. Tyutchev), hyperboloic (Already knows autumn that such a deep and dumb rest is a harbinger of long bad weather (I. A. Bunin) and other paths and figures.

The role of epithets in the text

All epithets as bright, "illuminating" definitions are aimed at strengthening the expressiveness of images of images or phenomena, to allocate their most essential features.

In addition, epithets can:

Strengthen, emphasize any characteristic signs of items.

For example: Due to the rocks of a wandering, the yellow beam in the cave wildly scratched and smooth skull Ozaril ... (M. Yu. Lermontov);

Clarify distinctive features of the subject (form, color, quantity, quality):.

For example: Forest, exactly by terring painted, lilac, gold, crimped, cheerful, Miscellaneous Wall stands over a light polar (I. A. Bunin);

Create contrasting words of the combination of words and serve as the basis of the creation of Oxymorone: Running luxury (L. N. Tolstoy), brilliant shadow (E. A. Baratsky);

Transfer the author's attitude to the depicted, express the author's assessment and author's perception of the phenomenon: ... dead words smell (N. S. Gumilev); And the word thing we appreciate, and the word Russian we honor, and the strength of the words will not change (S. N. Sergeev-Price); What does it mean smiling blessingsky, this happy, resting earth? (I. S. Turgenev)

Fine epithets Allocate the essential aspects of the depicted, not bringing a direct assessment (" in the fog of the sea blue», « on the dead sky" etc.).

In expressive (lyrical) epithets , on the contrary, the attitude to the depicted phenomenon is clearly expressed (" flashes the images of insane people», « tomnant Night Tale»).

It should be borne in mind that the specified division is sufficiently conditionally, since the visual epithets have an emotional and assessment value.

Epitts are widely used in artistic and journalistic, as well as in the conversational and popular skip-style speech styles.

Comparison- This is an embracing reception based on a comparison of one phenomenon or concept with another.

Unlike metaphor comparison is always twisted : It is called both compaable items (phenomena, feature, actions).

For example: Aules are burning, they have no protection. The enemy of the sons of the Fatherland is broken, and glow, like an eternal meteor, playing in the clouds, scares out. (M. Yu. Lermontov)

Comparisons are expressed in various ways:

Form of the cooling case of nouns.

For example: Solovy flying youth flew, wave in bad weather the joy of loose. (A. V. Koltsov) The moon slides pancake in sour cream.(B. Pasternak) Starfall flew foliage. (D. Samoilov) In the sun gold sparkles the rain flying. (V. Nabokov) Glass fringe hang icicles. (I. Shmelev) Patterned clean towel hangs rainbow with birch. (N. Rubtsov)

The form of a comparative degree of adjective or adverb.

For example: These eyes of the greener of the sea and our cypresses are darker. (A. Akhmatova) Virgin eyes brighter roses. (A. S. Pushkin) But the eyes of a blue day. (S. Yesenin) Bushes of ripper foggy depth.(S. Yesenin) Larger infancy. (A. S. Pushkin) True more precious than gold. (Proverb) Lighter sun throat hall. M. Tsvetaeva)

Comparative turns with unions how, as if, as if and etc.

For example: As a predatory beast, the winner is broken in the humble abode ... (M. Yu. Lermontov) It looks April to the bird shock through blue, like ice. (D. Samoilov) Here every village is so Lyuba, As if in her beauty of the whole universe. (A. Yashin) And stand behind double grids Like the evil forests, hemp. (S. Yesenin) Like a bird in a cage, Heart jumps. (M. Yu. Lermontov) My poems as precious winesIt will come out its turn. (M. I. Tsvetaeva) Castoon is close. Fire flares. As a Pacquer, Battle is resting. (A. S. Pushkin) The past, as the bottom of the sea, the pattern is sprinkled in Dali. (V. Bryusov)

For the river in displeased
Cherry bloomed
As if the snow is behind the river
Stitch flooded.
Like light blizzards
Rushed in the whole spirit
As if swans flew,
Dropped down. (A. Prokofiev)

With the help of words similar, similar, it.

For example: On the eyes of a cautious cat look like your eyes (A. Akhmatova);

With comparative appendages.

For example: Skilled foliage gold in pzzy water on the pond, Accurate butterflies a lot of flock with a slaughter flies on a star. (S. A. Yesenin) Rain sows, sow, sows, from midnight he dries, As if the curtain is a kinyer behind the windows hanging. (V. Tushmanova) Heavy snow, turning, closed the nonsense, As if hundreds of white wings fell silently. (V. Tushmanova) How the tree drops quiet leavesSo I drop sad words. (S. Yesenin) How the king loved the rich drawsSo I loved the ancient roads and blue eternity eyes! (N. Rubtsov)

Comparisons can be straight and Negative

Negative comparisons are especially characteristic of oral folk poetry and can serve as a way to stylize text.

For example: That is not a horse top, not a human prayer ... (A. S. Pushkin)

A special type of comparison is the detailed comparisons with which whole texts can be built.

For example, the poem of F. I. Tyutchev " How is the hot ash ...»:
How about hot ash
Scroll smoke and burns
And lights hidden and deaf
Words and rows devour -

So sad life is my life
And every day go smoke
So gradually gona i
In a monotony Nesterpim! ..

About the sky if at least once
This flame developed by the will -
And, not tomorrow, without suffering a share,
I would like - and went out!

The role of comparisons in the text

Comparisons, like epitles, are used in the text in order to strengthen its images and imagery, creating more vivid, expressive images and allocations, underscounted by any significant features of depicted objects or phenomena, as well as in order to express copyright and emotions.

For example:
Me, my friend, like,
When the word melts
And when it sings,
Heat lifting lifting
So that words from words originated,
So that they walk in the flight
Woven, beat to sang,
To eat, as if honey.
(A. A. Prokofiev);

In each soul, it seems, burns, glows, as a star in the sky, and, like a star, goes out when it, having completed his life path, flies from our lips ... It happens, the star went out for us, people on earth, burning a thousand years. (M. M. Svavin)

Comparisons as a means of language expressiveness can be used not only in artistic texts, but also in journalistic, conversational, scientific.

Metaphor(in the lane. with Greek. - transfer) - This is a word or expression that is used in a figurative value based on the similarity of two items or phenomena by any sign. Sometimes they say that the metaphor is a hidden comparison.

For example, metaphor In the garden burns the firebird red (S.Senin) contains a comparison of rowan brushes with a fire flame.

Many metaphors have become usual in everyday use and therefore do not attract attention, the imagery has lost in our perception.

For example: The bank burst, walking the dollar, the head is spinning and etc.

In contrast to the comparison, which provides something that is compared, and what is compared with, the metaphor contains only the second, which creates the compactness and image formation of the word.

The basis of the metaphor may be the similarity of objects in form, color, volume, appointment, sensations, etc.

For example: waterfall stars, avalanche letters, wall of fire, abyss of grief, pearl of poetry, spark of love and etc.

All metaphors are divided into two groups:

1) general language ("Erased")

For example: golden hands, storm in a glass of water, mountains to wait, strings of the soul, love faded ;

2) artistic (Individually copyright, poetic)

For example: And flashes stars diamond trepid in a freeze cold (M. Voloshin); Empty heaven transparent glass(A. Akhmatova); AND the eyes of blue, bottomless bloom on far shore. (A. A. Blok)

Metaphor of Sergey Yesenin: ryabina red fire, birch cheerful tongue grove, sky; or bloody Tempets September, Rounding Drops, Railflowers, Lanterns and Pyshki Roofs boris Pasternaku
The metaphor is reflected in comparison with the help of utility words as if, it seems, like, as if etc.

There are several types of metaphors: erased, deployed, implemented.

Erased - The generally accepted metaphor, the figurative meaning of which is no longer felt.

For example: stool leg, bed back, paper sheet, clock arrow etc.

On the metaphor there can be a whole work or a large excerpt from it. Such a metaphor is called "deployed", the image is "deployed" in it, that is, disclosed in detail.

So, poem A.S. Pushkin " Prophet"- an example of a deployed metaphor. The transformation of the lyrical hero in the head of the will of the Lord - the poet-prophet, thickening it " spiritual thirst", So the desire to know the meaning of being and finding your calling, depicted by the poet gradually:" six-colored seraphim", The messenger of God, transformed her hero" desnau"- Right hand, which was the allegory of power and power. God's authority, the lyrical hero was different vision, other hearing, other thinking and spiritual abilities. He could " ensure", That is, comprehend, sublime, celestial values \u200b\u200band earthly, real being, to feel the beauty of the world and his suffering. This wonderful and painful process of Pushkin depicts, " hanging»One metaphor to another: the Hero's eyes acquire eagleproof, the ears fills" noise and ringing"Life, tongue ceases to be" fellow and crap ", transferring the wisdom received as a gift," the heart is trepidate" turns into " corner" The metaphor's chain is bonded by the overall idea of \u200b\u200bthe work: the poet, how wanted to see his Pushkin, should be a bristle of the future and the exposer of human vices, as a word to inspire people, encourage good and truth.

Examples of deployed metaphors are often found in poetry and prose (italics marked the main part of the metaphor, it is emphasized by its "deployment"):
... forgive friendly
Oh youth easy!
Thank you for enjoying
For sadness, for cute torments,
For noise, for storms, for pions,
For all, for all your gifts ...
A.S. Pushkin " Eugene Onegin"

We drink from the bowl of being
With closed eyes ...
Lermontov "Bowl of Life"


... a boy captured by love
To the girl shrouded in silks ...
N.Gumilev " Eagle Sinbada"

Sorry Grove Golden
Birch cheerful tongue.
S.Senin " Sorry Grove Golden…"

Then crying and laughing
Ring the streams of my poems
At your feet,
And every verse
Runs, weave live livid,
His not knowing the shores.
A.Blok " Then crying and laughing ..."

Save my speech forever for the taste of misfortune and smoke ...
O. Madelshtam " Save my speech forever…"


... Burlyla, the kings of flushing,
Street July curve ...
O. Madelshtam " I pray as pity and mercy ..."

Here covers the wind of the flock waves to the arms strong and throws them from a swing in a wild malice on the rocks, breaking into dust and splashes emerald romance.
M.Gorky " Song about the petrel"

The sea woke up. It was playing by little waves, giving birth to them, decorating a fringe foam, confronting with each other and breaking into fine dust.
M.Gorky " Chelkash"

Realized - metaphor which again acquires a direct value. The result of this process on the household level is often comic:

For example: I went out of myself and entered the bus

The exam will not take place: all tickets are sold.

If you went to ourselves, do not come back with empty hands etc.

Simple joker-graveman in the tragedy V. Wespir " Hamlet"To the question of the chief hero about for what ground"" Lost rational "" Young Prince, answers: " On our Danish" He understands the word " the soil»Literally - the upper layer of the Earth, the territory, while the Hamlet has in mind the figurative meaning - for what reason, as a result of which.

« Oh, you so much, monoma hat! "- complains the king in the tragedy of A.S. Pushkin" Boris Godunov" The crown of Russian kings since Vladimir Monomakh had a shape of a cap. She was decorated with precious stones, so it was "heavy" in the literal sense of the word. In portable - " cap Monomakh"Personified" severity", The responsibility of the royal power, the grave responsibilities of the autocrat.

In Roman A.S. Pushkin " Eugene Onegin»An important role is played by the image of the muse, which with ancient times personified the source of poetic inspiration. The expression "poet visited Muza" has a figurative meaning. But the muse - a friend and the inspirational of the poet - appears in the novel in the image of a living woman, young, beautiful, cheerful. IN " student Pelley"It is MUSA" opened baby day journal"- pranks and serious disputes about life. It is she " selicingAll of what the young poet was striving for, earthly passion and desires: friendship, fun feast, mindless joy - " baby fun" Muza, " how the Vakhanka was frolic"And the poet was proud of his" girlfriend windy».

During the southern link, Musea appeared romantic heroine - the victim of his destructive passions, a decisive, capable of reckless rebellion. Her image helped the poet to create an atmosphere of mysteriousness and mystery in verses:

How often L. askaya muse
I was delayed the way
The magic of a secret story!..


At the turning point of creative articles of the author, it is she
Came the young ladies
With a sad dump of eyes ...

Throughout the work " affectionate muse"Was faithful" girlfriend"Poet.

The implementation of the metaphor is often found in Poetry V. Markovsky. So, in the poem " A cloud in pants"It realizes the running expression" nerves raised" or " nerves Shalyat»:
I hear:
quiet,
as a sore from the bed,
jumping the nerve.
Here, -
first walked
hardly
then ran out
excited,
clear.
Now he and new two
mock the desperate lap ...
Nerves -
big
small
many, -
rage scum
and already
nerves have legs!

It should be remembered that the border between the various types of metaphors is very conditional, unsubstantiated and accurately determine the type is difficult.

The role of metaphor in the text

The metaphor is one of their brightest and most strong means to create expressiveness and image imagery.

Through the metaphoric meaning of words and phrases, the author of the text not only strengthens the vision and visibility of the depicted, but also transfers the uniqueness, individuality of items or phenomena, while showing the depth and nature of its own associative-shaped thinking, the vision of the world, the measure of talent ("It is most important to be skillful in Metaphors. Only this can not be taken from the other - this is a sign of talent "(Aristotle).

Metaphors serve as an important means of expressing copyright assessments and emotions, copyright characteristics of objects and phenomena.

For example: I have a stuffy in this atmosphere! Cheeky! Soviet nest! Crocodiles! (A. P. Chekhov)

In addition to art and journalistic styles, metaphors are characteristic of a conversational and even scientific style (" the ozone hole », « electronic cloud " and etc.).

Elimination- This is a kind of metaphor based on the transfer of signs of a living being on the phenomena of nature, objects and concepts.

Most often wrongs are used in the description of nature.

For example:
Roll through sleepy valleys,
The fogs are sleepy legal,
And only horsepone is
Sound, losing away.
Forecast, pale, day autumn,
Rolling fragrant sheets
Feed a dream without dreams
Semi-raid flowers.
(M. Yu. Lermontov)

Less frequently identification are associated with the substantive world.

For example:
It's not true, more
We will not part? Pretty? ..
AND violin answered Yes,
But the heart of the violin was hurt.
Bow understood everything, he sat down,
And in the violin Echo all kept ...
And there was a flour for them,
That people seemed to people.
(I. F. Annensky);

Something good-natured and together cozy was in physiognomy of this house. (D. N. Mamin-Sibiryak)

Wanted- The trails are very long, their roots go to pagan antiquity and therefore occupying such an important place in mythology and folklore. Fox and wolf, hare and bear, the epic snakes Gorynych and Idolope Pogano - all these and other fantastic and zoological characters of fairy tales and epic familiar to us from early childhood.

An personification is built by one of the closest to folklore of literary genres - Basnya.

Without personification, and today it is unthinkable to present artworks, without them our daily speech is unthinkable.

The figurative speech is not only clearly represents the thought. Her dignity and that she is shorter. Instead of describing the subject in detail, we can compare it with the already known subject.

It is impossible to submit poetic speech without using this reception:
"Buru Millet Heaven Croot
Whirlwinds snowy
How the beast she will win
Then pay, like a child. " (A.S. Pushkin)

The role of personification in the text

Wrongs serve to create bright, expressive and figurative pictures of something, strengthening transmitted thoughts and feelings.

Elimination as an expressive means is used not only in artistic style, but also in publicistic and scientific.

For example: X-ray shows the device says the air treats something in the economy.

The most common metaphors formed on the principle of personification, when an inanimate subject receives the properties of an animated, as if acquires a person.

1. Usually, two components of metaphors-personification are subject to both the fault: " the blizzard was angry», « opened tuchka golden», « play waves».

« Be angry"There is, there is irritation, only a person can, but" winter storm", Blizzard, immersing peace in cold and darkness, also brings" evil". « Night", Calmly sleep at night, can only live creatures," tuchka"The young woman who finds an unexpected shelter personifies. Sea " waves"In the imagination of the poet" play", Like children.

Examples of a metaphor of this type, we often find in poetry A.S. Pushkin:
Not suddenly the delight will throw us ...
Mortal sleep flies above him ...
The days of my days were rushed ...
The life of the Spirit woke up in it ...
Fatherland caressed you ...
Awaken poetry in me ...

2. Many personification metaphors are built according to the management method: " lyra singing», « talk waves», « fashion favorite», « happiness baloven" and etc.

The musical instrument is similar to the human voice, and he also " sings", And the wave splashes reminds a quiet conversation. " Favorite», « baloveman»There are not only people, but also at the wayward" fashion"Or changing" happiness».

For example: "Winter threats", "the abyss of voice", "joy of sadness", "day of despondency", "Son of Lena", "thread ... fun", "Brother native on Muse, on destinies", "Sacrifice slander", "Cathedrals wax faces "," Joy Language "," Grief Grounds "," Hope of Young Days "," Pages of Evil and Vice "," Shrine Voice "," Willow of Passion ".

But there are metaphors formed otherwise. Criterion differences here - the principle of animation and inantence. Insistent item does not receive the properties of animate.

one). Subject and predicate: "Relineel boils", "Eyes are burning", "Heart is empty."

The desire in man can manifest themselves to a strong degree, bother and " boil" Eyes, issuing excitement, shine and " burn" Heart, soul, not warmed by feeling, can become " empty».

For example: "I've learned the sorrow early, I was drunk", "I will not suddenly fade our infinity," "noon ... dust", "the moon is swimming", "there are conversations", "the stories aroused", "love ... Ugasla", "I am a shadow "," Life fell ".

2). The phrases constructed by the method of control can also be metaphors, not to personify: " dagger treason», « the tomb of glory», « chain of clouds" and etc.

Steel arms - " dagger"- kills a man, but" treason"Like a dagger and can also destroy, break life. " Tomb"This is a crypt, grave, but not only people can be buried, but also glory, love is worldly. " Chain"It consists of metal links, but" clouds", Bizarrely intertwining, form a chain like in the sky.

For example: "Folding the necklaces", "Twilight of Freedom", "Forest ... Votes", "Tuchi arrows", "noise of poems", "Bell of Brotherhood", "Poching Poems", "Fire ... Black Eye", "Salt solemn offense", " Sparking Science, "South Blood Flame" .

Many metaphors of this kind are formed according to the principle of separation, when the definable word receives the properties of any substance, material: "Crystal windows", "Gold hair" .

On a sunny day, the window seems sparkling like " crystal", And the hair acquire the color" gold" It is especially noticeable to the hidden comparison laid in the metaphor.

For example: "In the black velvet of the Soviet night, in the velvet of the World Empty," "poems ... Grape meat", "Crystal of High Notes", "poems by rattling pearls."

Introduce students with comparison and its varieties, ways of expression, role in the text;

To form the ability to use a comparison in your speech;

Develop speech, imagination;

Considerate interest in language phenomena, to the work of M. Yu. Lermontov.

  • Equipment lesson:

Interactive board;

Explanatory dictionary edited by S. I. Ozhegova;

Reproduction of the painting I. I. Shishkin "In the north of wild";

Reproduction of landscapes M. Yu. Lermontov.

  • Epigraph to the lesson:

Everything commits in comparison. Confusion

  • During the classes:

1. The organizational part of the classes.

Greeting students;

Message by teacher theme, lesson purposes.

2. The main part of the lesson.

* a) an introductory conversation.

Teacher.

In today's lesson, we will continue to get acquainted with the features of the artistic style or style of fiction.

The language of fiction has always been considered a vertex of the literary language. All the best in the language, his capabilities, his beauty - all this is expressed in the best artwork. Artistic speech - a peculiar mirror of the literary language.

Starting from the ancient times, inquisitive and inquisitive people (philosophers, psychologists, linguists) seek to explain the miracle of turning the word to poetry, harmony. One of the possible, but far from complete and not final explanations is the existence of special expressive words (funds), language resources.

1. What is the purpose of artistic texts? (Artistic texts excite our feeling of beautiful, beauty. The scientific prose affects the mind, artistic - on feelings. The scientist thinks with the concepts, artist - images. The first arises, analyzes, proves, the second is-test, shows, shows. This is the feature. Language of fiction).

2. What expressive tools are characteristic of artistic style? (Writers, poets often use metaphors, epithets, comparisons and other techniques and means).

3.What in linguistics are called paths? ( The trail is a turnover of speech, in which the word or expression is used in a figurative value).

4. What types of trails are you known? (In addition to the metaphor, epithets, comparisons, the trails include metonimia, hyperbola, litthomus, irony, allegory, personification, periprase).

In today's lesson, we will dwell on more comparison as a means of artistic expressiveness of the text, we will get acquainted with its varieties and ways of expression, we will develop the skill of using comparisons in our speech.

How can the text can attract us? First of all, brightness and juice of paints, i.e., expressive means of language, among which one of the main places is compared.

Here are two sentences:

  • 1. The correspondent was Kazbek covered by never melting snow.
  • 2. The Caasebek, as a brink of diamond, shine snaps. (Mikhail Lermontov)

(Offers are displayed on an interactive blackboard).

Although both suggestions contain one thought, but the difference between them is huge. If only some information is reported in the first phrase, information, then in the second we see a picturesque picture drawn by words. Highly highly worth a person. And he sees far at the bottom of the extraordinary, colorful spectacle: covered with eternal snows of a blinding whiteness Mountain in the radiance of sun rays overflows, as a line of diamond, all the colors of the rainbow.

With the help of a comparison, Lermontov drew an amazing verbal picture with just a few words.

5. How do you understand the epigraph to today's lesson? (We are surrounded by the world of objects and phenomena, the world of paints and sounds, outlines. The person constantly strives to compare something with something, to catch the similarity and difference in phenomena - it helps him to know the world).

(Students are recorded in a notebook theme, epigraph, which is highlighted on an interactive blackboard).

  • b) Working with the reproduction of the painting I. I. Shishkin "In the north of the wilderness".

(On an interactive whiteboard, the reproduction of the painting of I. I. Shishkin is displayed; within 2-3 minutes, students consider it and at the same time listen to the poem of M. Yu. Lermontov in the performance of the prepared student).

In the north, the wilder is lonely

On bare top of pine

And sleeping, swinging and snowy bulk

Dressed as risa, she.

And it dreams everything in the desert is distant,

In that region, where the sun is sunrise,

One and sad on the rock stainch

Beautiful palm tree grows.

  • c) familiarity with the concept of "comparison".

1. Work with a poem "in the north wild ..."

Write the Lermontov Rows on Memory. Check yourself. Explain the orfograms and points.

What are the means of expressive present in the text? (Inversion, epithets, assembly, personification.)

2. Work with an intelligent dictionary.

Look in the sensible dictionary of the Russian language S. I. Ozhegova, what Riza is.

Riza - 1. Clothes, priest clothes for worship (Parchovaya Riza). 2. Fold on the icon.

What is the role of this comparison in the text?

How is this comparison ? (Based on similarity: pine wounded by snow, like a rhea - white color, silver, splendor ...)

Many linguists do not include a comparison of the paths, explaining this by the fact that in comparisons the values \u200b\u200bof words do not undergo changes. What is your point of view on this problem?

(During the discussions, the coarse comes to the opinion that, if this is an expressive, bright, figurative comparison, like Lermontov, then there is a "increment of meaning", therefore, this is a trail.)

Try to define a comparison as an artistic agent. (Students give different definitions of comparison, of which the main signs of comparison are extended: the original unusual comparison; the likeness of two items; the admission of artistic speech; allows you to be more bright, relief, convex to submit objects and phenomena, etc.)

Compare your definition with the definition of the textbook "Russian speech" E.I. Nikitina.

(Writing to notebook : Comparison is one of the artistic speech techniques, comparing two items or phenomena to show, depict one of them with the help of another.)

Comparison structure:

"thing" (what is compared) "Sign" (then, on the basis of what is compared) "form" (What compares).

* Hunting with a structural variety of comparisons.

Explanation of the teacher.

Compared to other paths, comparisons are distinguished by structural variety. Usually they act in the form of a comparative turnover, joined by the help of alliances as, exactly, as if, as if, and others, the same subordination unions could attach comparative proposals.

For example: Good and warm, as in the winter in the stove, and birch stands like large candles. (S. Yesenin). Heaven falls out, exactly the curtain of the fringe ... (b. Pasternak). Often comparisons are of the form of nouns in the articulated case: his beaver collar is frosty dust ... (a. Pushkin).

There are comparisons that are introduced in words like, similar to, reminds, acting in the role of the faugible: Maple leaf reminds us Yantar. (N. Zabolotsky).

Comparisons are widely used in populatory speech, in the works of oral folk creativity. People's poetic comparisons are characterized by simplicity, figurativeness and deep lyrism. Basically this is comparisons with the world of nature: the girl is compared with the birch, Swedesha; young man - with falcon; evil - with a core, etc.

In the works of oral folk creativity, negative comparisons are common. From Folklore, these comparisons moved to Russian poetry: not the wind rages over Bor, not from the mountains ran the streams - Moroz-Voivoda wagon bypassing his own. (N. Nekrasov). In negative comparisons, one item is opposed to another.

Comparisons that indicate several common features in compared subjects are called deployed. Two parallel images are included in the detailed comparison in which the author finds a lot in common. The artistic image used for the detailed comparison gives the description a special expressiveness.

The emergence of the plan, perhaps, is best explained by comparison. The idea is zipper. Many days accumulates electricity over the ground. When the atmosphere is saturated with them to the limit, white cumulus clouds turn into thunderstorm clouds and the first spark of lightning is born out of thick electrical insight.

Almost immediately after the zipper on the ground, the shower fell. For the appearance of the plan, as well as for the appearance of lightning, the insignificant push is most often needed. If zipper is plan, then the shower is the embodiment of the plan. These are slim streams of images and words. (K. POUST).

  • e) fixing the studied material.

1. The permissions structure of the comparison structure (object, sign, image), find these elements in the passage from the Petzyrian poem M. Yu. Lermontov:

A few years ago

Where, merging, noisy,

Hugging like two sisters

Jets of Aragva and chickens,

There was a monastery.

("Subject" - the River Aragva and Kura, "Image" - sisters, "sign" - kinship).

2. Why is it so important this comparison of the poems in the artistic fabric? (Mcyri is looking for a relative soul. Comparison with the world of nature enhances the motive of the loneliness of the main character).

3. What is the work of M. Yu. Lermontov widely use the reception of national poetic comparison? (In the song about the merchant Kalashnikov).

4. In the description of Alena Dmitrievna, find and write down in the notebook People's poetic comparisons:

On Saint Rus, our mother,

Not to find, not to find such beauty:

Walks smoothly - as if the Swedashka;

Looks sweet - like a balloker;

Pallows the word - nightingale sings;

The cheeks are burning her ruddy,

How to dawn in the sky of God.

5. What is the feature of the comparison in the following lines of Lermontov epigram:

Ah, Anna Alekseevna,

What a happy day!

My fate is crying,

I stand here like a stump.

(Comparison - phraseologism. No separation!)

6. In Russian, more than 140 phraseological comparisons. Recall some of them:

He is afraid of me ... (like fire);

Everything goes ... (like oil);

Beautiful ... (like God);

Know ... (like five;

Do not see ... (as your ears).

What are these phraseological comparisons based on? Why, for example, as with a goose water, and not with chicken?

7 . The basis of the comparison should always lie like a similarity. Otherwise, the comparison will be unsuccessful and not only will not be expressive, but, on the contrary, will make it funny.

Why the following comparisons are unsuccessful: (Ex. 283, 3rd. Textbook "Rus."

8. Comparisons are built on the similarity of the signs, but the formation should be based on the similarity, expressiveness. For example, a comparison "White, like snow" cannot be considered successful, here the image is losing, weakens. Interesting comparisons are new, unexpected, when the author notices something that no one noticed.

Continue deals using comparisons:

The leaves are singing on the windows windows ... (like wet butterflies);

Bright orange orange ... (as a midday sun);

Rare rain ... (like long glass filaments);

The roads were mounted in all directions ... (like raks, when they were poured out of the bag).

(In brackets are given quotations from the works of K. Powetsky, N. V. Gogol, which are used by the teacher as a sample. Students come up with their original comparisons).

9). Work with text. (Excerpts from the novel "The Hero of Our Time", which are wonderful landscape sketches, with comparisons missing, are displayed on the screen. Also on the board - the reproductions of paintings by M. Yu. Lermontov - Caucasian species).

Try to restore Lermontov comparisons in the text.

Option 1.

From all sides of the mountain of impregnable, reddish rocks, frightened by green ivy and cooked chinar, yellow cliffs, stacked by promoters, and there is a highly high gold fringe of snow, and at the bottom of Aragva, embracing with another nameless river, noisily escaped from a black full of the gorge It stretches ... (silver thread) and sparkles, ... (as a snake of his scales) ("Bal").

Option 2.

Mashuk rises to the north, ... (as a Persian hat), and closes the whole part of the skyscle. And on the edge of the horizon the silver chain of snow vertices stretches, starting Cazbeck and ending with a double-headed Elbrus ... the air is clean and fresh, ... (as a kiss of a child); Sun brightly, sky blue - what does it seem more? Why are there passions, desire, regret? ..

The restored text is displayed on the screen, students compare their work.

3. Incusional part of the lesson.

  • 1. Perform a comparison for today's lesson, write it down in the notebook.
  • 2. Is it, in your opinion, Confucius, considering that "everything is known in comparison"? (See the epigraph to the lesson). Prove your point of view.
  • 3. Maximum task ( for selection of students):

Find in the works of A. S. Pushkin Ten examples of comparisons; explain using which language tools they are created

Pick up original comparisons to the specified words, make up a small connected text: stars, morning dawn, lake, moon.

  • 4. Companized setting of estimates for work in the lesson.

Literature (real) is a true skill creation of texts, the creation of a new object with words. As in any complex craft, there are special techniques in the literature. One of them ─ "comparison." With its help, for greater expressiveness or ironic contrast, certain objects, their quality, people, their traits, are merged.

In contact with


Kettle with his headed trunk of puffs on the stove, Like a young elephant, rushing to the aquet.

─ An ironic approximation of a small inanimate object with a large animal with a comparison of the long spout of the kettle and an elephant trunk.

Comparison: Definition

There is a minimum of three definitions of comparison in the literature.

For artistic text, the first definition will be more correct. But the most talented authors of fiction successfully operate with the second and third definitions, the role of comparison in the text is so great. Examples of comparisons in the literature and folklore of the last two types:

He is stupid, like oak, but a hiter like a fox.

Not as an example of Athanasia Petrovich, Igor Dmitrievich was the physique of Hood, as if the knob from the mop, the same straight and elongated.

The growth of Pygmy Delta Congo is similar to children, their skin is not like black black, but yellowish, as if silent foliage.
In the latter case, together with the use of a "negative comparison" ("not"), a direct approach ("like") is combined.

Russian language is so rich that the authors of artistic works use a huge number of types of comparisons. Philologists can only classify them. Modern philology allocates the following two main types of comparison and four more comparisons in fiction.

  • Straight. In this case, comparative turns (alliances) "as if", "as", "exactly", "like" are used. He shouted in front of him the soul, as a nudist exposes the body on the beach.
  • Indirect. With such an approach, prepositions are not used. Hurricane giant janitor took away from the streets all the garbage.

In the second sentence, the compaable name of the noun ("hurricane") is used in the nominative case, and compared ("janitor") ─ in the hardware. Other types:

Philologist and Slavist M. Petrovsky still in the 19th century allocated from the detailed comparisons in the literature "Homerovskoye" or "Epic" likelihood. In this case, the author of the artistic text, without taking care of brevity, turns the comparison, distracting from the main storyline, from the compaable item as far as the imagination will allow him. Examples are easy to find in Iliad or in postmodernists.

Ajax rushed on the enemies, as if a overlooking lion on frightened sheepdown, lost shepherd sheep, who were left without protecting defenseless, as children unattended, and are capable of timidly wrapped and stealing in fear of Lionin's thirst for blood and death, which covers predator, as if madness, Strong when he deples the horror of doomed ...
To the epic type of comparison, the beginning of the author of artistic texts is better not to resort. You need to wait for the young writer until his literary skills and a sense of artistic harmony. Otherwise, the inexperienced newcomer himself will not notice how, winding one on another, like a thread from different balls, such "free associations" will carry him away from the fabul of its main narration, create a semantic confusion. So comparisons in the artistic text can not only simplify the understanding of the described item (Tiger ─ a huge predatory cat), but also to confuse the story.

Comparison in verse

Particularly important is the role of literary comparison in verses. The poet uses the richness of the language to create a unique and aesthetically valuable artwork, or rather convey to the reader his thought.

We often hard so bad

From tricks of Caverznous Fate,

But we are humbled by camels

His adversity carry a hollow.

Such rows of the poet explains the reader his own thought that the majority of troubles that occur in life are natural, as the hill of the camels, that sometimes they just just do not get rid of them, but you just need to "carry" for some time.

Without you, no work, no rest:

woman you or bird?

After all, you as an air creation,

"Airpapping" - Baloven!

In most poems, the authors use comparisons to create a bright, beautiful, easily memorable image. Most of all such colorful comparisons in the texts of N. Gumileva, Mayakovsky. But I. Brodsky remains an unsurpassed master of using deployed comparisons in the artistic literary poems.

Comparisons are used in spoken language. When writing any text, even school essay, do not do without comparison. So it is necessary to revenge remember several rules for punctuation of the literary Russian language. The commas are put in front of comparative turns with the words:

  • as if
  • as if
  • as if,
  • like,
  • for sure

Therefore, when you write:

  • He was higher than that teenager that she was remembered.
  • The day flared quickly and hot, like the fire, which suddenly splashed gasoline.

─ In these situations, do not doubt, the commas are necessary. Much more problems suggests you with the Union "How". The fact is that, even if the particle "how" is part of a comparative turnover, the comma in front of it is not needed if:

It can be replaced with a dash. Steppe like a sea of \u200b\u200bherbs.

This union is part of a sustainable phraseologist. Believes like a dog.

The particle is included in the lean. For me the past as a dream.

The Union, in the meaning of the proposal, is replaced by adverb or nouns. He watched as a wolf Replacements are possible: watched wolf , watched wolf .

Where do not need commas

Not needed, according to the rules of punctuation, commas before "how" and then, in the proposal it is preceded by adverbs or particles:

It's time to finish, midnight sort of struck.

Not allocated with commas "how" if there is a negative particle in front of it.

He looked at the new gate not like a ram.
So when you resort to comparisons to decorate or make your text more understandable, remember the insidious part of the particle "as" and the rules of punctuation, and everything will be fine with you!


Tools of artistic expressiveness: trails.

Trope - this is a word or expression used in a figurative value for creating artistic image and achieving greater expressiveness. The paths include such techniques like epithet, comparison, personification, metaphor, metonymy, sometimes relate to them hyperboles and lithots. No artistic work is done without paths. Artistic word - multivalued; The writer creates images, playing the values \u200b\u200band combinations of words, using the environment surroundings in the text and its sound, - all this is the artistic features of the word, which is the only tool of the writer or poet.
Note! When creating a trail, the word is always used in a figurative value.

Consider different types of trails:

EPITHET (Greek. Epitheton, applied) is one of the trails, which is an artistic, figurative definition. As an epithet can be:
adjectives: gentle LIC (S. Yesenin); these poor Seleys, this scooty Nature ... (F. Tyutchev); transparent Virgo (A. Block);
communions: edge abandoned (S. Yesenin); sophisticated dragon (A. block); takeoff sicken (M. Tsvetaeva);
nouns, sometimes together with their surrounding context: Here it is, chief without a man (M. Tsvetaeva); My youth! My dove is dark! (M. Tsvetaeva).

Every epithet reflects the uniqueness of the perception of the world by the author, therefore necessarily expresses any evaluation and has a subjective value: a wooden shelf is not an epithet, so there is no artistic definition, a wooden face - the epithet, expressing the impression of the expression of the face of the interlocutor, that is, creating an image.
Distinguish sustainable (constant) folk epithets: good lucky good good well done, clear Sun, as well as tautologic, i.e. repetition epithetes, sampled with a defined word: Oh, you, grief bitter, boredom boring, Mortal! (A. Block).

In a works of art epitheet can perform various functions:

· Figure to characterize the subject: shining Eyes, eyes diamonds;

· Create an atmosphere, mood: gloomy morning;

· Combine all previous functions in equal shares (in most cases of epithet use).

Note! Everything color notification In the artistic text are epithets.

COMPARISON - This is an artistic reception (trope), in which the image is created by comparing one object with another. Comparison differs from other artistic comparisons, for example, likes, in that it always has a strict formal sign: a comparative design or turnover with comparative unions as if, as if, for sure, as if and similar. Expressions type he looked like ... It is impossible to be compared as a trail.

Examples of comparisons:

Comparison also plays in the text specific roles: Sometimes the authors use the so-called detailed comparison Revealing various signs of the phenomenon or transferring their attitude to several phenomena. Often, the whole work is fully built on comparison, as, for example, the poem V. Brysov "Sonnet to the form":

Elimination - Artistic reception (trail), in which human properties are attached to an inanimate subject, phenomenon or concept (do not confuse, it is human!). The personification can be used narrowly, in one line, in a small fragment, but it may be a reception on which all the work is built ("the edge you are my abandoned" S. Yesenin, "Mom and the Germans killed in the evening", "violin and a little nervously" V. Mayakovsky and others). An personification is considered one of the types of metaphor (see below).

The task of personification - Create a depicted object with a person, make it closer to the reader, figuratively comprehend the inner essence of the subject, hidden from everyday life. Elimination is one of the oldest artificial art.

HYPERBOLA (Greek. HyperBole, exaggeration) is a reception at which the image is created through an artistic exaggeration. The hyperbola is not always included in the location of the trails, but by the nature of the use of the word in the portable value to create a hyperbole image is very close to the trails. Reception opposite to hyperbole in content is LITOTES (Greek. Litotes, Easy) - Artistic Dimony.

The hyperbole allows To the author to show the reader in extended form the most characteristic features of the item depicted. Often, hyperbole and litt are used by the author in an ironic key, disclosing not just characteristic, but negative, from the author's point of view, the objects of the subject.

METAPHOR (Greek. Metaphora, transfer) - the type of so-called complex trail, speech turnover, in which the properties of one phenomenon (subject, concept) are transferred to another. The metaphor contains a hidden comparison, shaped liketing the phenomena by using the portable meaning of words, which is compared with the subject, is only meant by the author. No wonder Aristotle said that "to set up good metaphors - it means to notice the similarity."

Examples of metaphor:

METONYMY (Greek Metonomadzo, rename) - view of the trail: the sample designation of the subject one of its signs.

Examples of metonimia: