The beginning of the Middle Ages in China is considered to be the era of the "Three Kingdoms" (220-265), when the Han Empire was divided by generals into the kingdom of Wei - the north, Shu - the southwest, and Wu - the southeast of the country. During this period, the Chinese ethnos was formed, a new Middle Chinese language emerged. "Strong houses" - large owners of land receive "guests" - ke, fugitives from the war as land holders. For about 50 years, the kingdoms are at war with each other, Wei wins. In 265, the Northern Wei commander Sima Yan proclaims himself emperor of the new Jin dynasty (265-419). The long-term unification of the country was prevented by two circumstances: the desolation of the country and nomadic tribes: the Xianbei and the Rourans. They took away from the Chinese the north of the country and the Yellow River basin, only the southern regions of China remained under the control of the Jin. The era of the "Northern and Southern Dynasties" (420-581) begins. Northern dynasties are assimilated barbarians who created states according to the Chinese model. Their struggle with the south in a short period of time lost its ethnic and acquired a dynastic character. The northern commander Yang Jian, the founder of the Sui dynasty (581-618), restores the unity of the country. He was succeeded by Yang Guang, who began the construction of the Great Canal between the Yellow River and the Yangtze and the reconstruction of the Great Wall of China. Tax increases and heavy labor conscription caused riots and uprisings. The miscalculation of the emperor in foreign policy was that he failed to establish peaceful relations with the new nomads of the north - the Turks. The commander Li Yuan (half-Turk) in 618 overthrows the emperor and establishes a new Tang dynasty (618-906).

The Tang era is divided into two periods. The first period: VII - the middle of VIII is characterized by internal progress and external power of the empire. At that time there was no state in the world equal to the Tang Empire. She controlled the space from the Pacific Ocean to the Aral Sea. Almost the entire Great Silk Road was under its control. The second period: the middle of the VIII - the beginning of the X century. marked by gradual political decline and decentralization. The power of the Tang was based on a monopoly on all the economic resources of the country, a powerful army and an excellent state apparatus. The country was divided into 10 provinces, provinces - into districts, districts - into counties. The counties consisted of peasant communities - five-dvorok, which performed control and fiscal functions. At the head of the administration were officials appointed by the emperor and who passed the exams. The power of the emperor - the "Son of Heaven" was unlimited. He was assisted by a Council of three chambers and several departments: tax, military, judicial, public works, which selected officials, was in charge of accounting for land and population, and monitored the observance of rituals. A special place was occupied by independent supervisory supervision, he could file a complaint against any official convicted of corruption. Confucian inspectors observed loyalty to the emperor as long as he did not sin against the principles of "good government". Such a system of power organization existed in China until the beginning of the 20th century. Agriculture experienced an upsurge based on the allotment system of land tenure, crafts and trade developed, book printing appeared, gunpowder began to be used in military affairs, classical poetry dominated literature, and the way of life was based on Confucian ethics.

The uprising of the governor of the northeastern province of An Lushan in 755 became a milestone beyond which the weakening of the empire began. At the same time, she lost control of the western part of the Great Silk Road to the Arabs. The reforms of the first minister Yang Yan, which followed the rebellion, allowed the sale and purchase of land and meant recognition of the decline of the allotment system and the victory of private land ownership, which the Chinese peasants did not agree with. A drought in 873 triggered a peasant war led by Haung Chao (881-901). It ended only with the death of the leader, but the Tang empire also perished. 901-960 is marked by the division of the empire between military leaders and provincial governors and their enmity among themselves. The army, fighting against the Khitan - the new barbarians, proclaimed its commander Zhao Kuanin emperor. Weakened by civil strife, the “strong houses” could not resist this. The Song Dynasty begins (960-1279)

In Soviet historical literature (Konrad, Nikiforov), the point of view was expressed that the III-X centuries. were an era of transition from slavery to feudalism. Stabilization of the 10th century meant that the new formation was established. The position of modern science (L. S. Vasiliev) is that this concept distorts the meaning of the historical process in the medieval East and, in particular, in China, and it should be refrained from. From an economic and cultural point of view, the life of society in the Song era was rich and active, state-owned manufactories appeared, merchant shipping developed. However, the dynasty controlled only the south of the country. In the north, the Khitans created the state of Liao following the Chinese model; in the northwest, the Tanguts united in the state of Xia; in the northeast, the Jurchens called their state the Jin Empire. The Sung government paid tribute to them annually in silver and silk. The end of the empire was put by the Mongol conquest. The destruction in the south was moderate, as Khubilai had already embraced Yelü Chucai's state-building ideas. The Mongolian Yuan dynasty (1271-1368) united the north and south of the country under its rule and gradually returned Chinese officials to the apparatus of power. Not loyal to the Mongols were the merchants, who suffered from inflation, and the peasants. The Red Turban Rebellion of 1351-1356 expelled the Mongols from the country, and its leader, the former shepherd Zhu Yuanzhang, declared himself emperor of the new Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). The Ming era practically did not know social upheavals. But since the 16th century the process of concentration of land in private hands and the dispossession of the peasantry assumed enormous proportions. This led to the longest and most powerful peasant war of 1628-1644, one of the leaders of which was Li Zicheng. The commander-in-chief of the imperial army did not recognize him as emperor and invited the Manchus to help recapture Beijing, occupied by the rebels. Here the new Manchurian Qing Dynasty (1644-1912) was proclaimed.

A review of the political history of medieval China shows that the state system of the country proved to be capable of recovery after the most severe catastrophes. The development of Chinese statehood was cyclical in nature, replacing centralism with decentralization and restoring control over the country by a new ruling dynasty. This cyclicity is explained by the peculiarities of the socio-economic organization of Chinese society.

Economic practice in China.
Allotment system of land use and its evolution

The dynastic cycles were based on the processes associated with the evolution of the Chinese system of land tenure. This system is called allotment, its approval began in the Jin era. The state, the supreme landowner in China, divided the main land mass into allotments. Each man received 100 mu (6 hectares) and performed a grain duty for this, i.e. he gave to the treasury the twentieth, and sometimes most of the crop, paid a tax on domestic industry products, mainly yarn, worked on public works for several days a year. Women, old people and children also received plots, but smaller than men. In the Tang era, this system finally supplanted individual landownership. Officials and elders kept records and redistribution of land. At the age of 70, the peasant gave the allotment to the community, leaving behind a farmstead plot, a garden and a kitchen garden, as well as the virgin lands he mastered over the allotment. These plots could be sold. Officials, like the titled nobility, also received allotments. They did not transfer taxes from the peasants to the state, but kept them for themselves. Over time, the practice of inheritance and alienation of land resumed, the strong seized allotments and struck the peasants off the tax lists. Privatization began, the treasury became thinner. The state could not cope with the peasant unrest. Order in the country was brought about by the peasants themselves and the metropolitan bureaucracy. The new dynasty carried out a new division, a new dynastic cycle began.

During the Ming Dynasty, there were two categories of land : state and private. Government lands (gongtian) were included in the state land fund back in the times of Song and Yuan. They were joined by lands confiscated by the government by court order, school lands, imperial estates, horse pastures, suburban lands, clover meadows, cattle pastures , land at the imperial tombs and cemeteries. The lands of estates (zhuang tian) of princes, princesses, honored officials and relatives of the emperor, nobles, eunuchs, monasteries, official lands of officials, lands of settlements: military, peasant and merchant were also considered state lands. Everything else is private land.

Intensive agriculture in China was based on artificial irrigation. The urban craft was oriented towards export and the needs of the elite (paper, silk fabrics, fine embroidery, porcelain, gunpowder). The Chinese were active in trade both within the country and with their neighbors. Along with the Great Silk Road, there were trade routes to Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Burma, and Siberia. The revival of domestic trade begins in the 9th century. Annual fairs are complemented by chains of local markets. 2-3 times a week, not only merchants and usurers, but hired scribes, acrobats, magicians and storytellers gathered in the towns. Pyatidvorka sent to the market, usually one person at a time. The early and active development of commodity-money relations, however, did not lead to the formation of capitalism. This required a whole range of conditions. The huge and sparsely populated inland territories slowed down capitalist evolution, where the intensity of exchange decreased, and the profits of merchants also decreased. The Chinese state has become a political obstacle in the path of capitalism. It controlled all types of economic activity, prices and profits of merchants, loan interest. Nor did the social structure of medieval society favor capitalism.

The social structure of medieval China.
The specifics of the ruling class:
shenshi and their role in society

Medieval Chinese peasantry (liangmin) did not know serfdom in the form of personal dependence, it was allotment, i.e. state. The state did not attach him to the land, mutual responsibility within the framework of the five-yard community was the controller that prevented the peasant from leaving. However, if there was a replacement for someone who wanted to leave, the community did not put up any obstacles. The peasant wars, which took place under the motto "renewal of names", exterminated officials and nobles who had lost their measure in the matter of profit. Thus, they performed the function of social regulation and stabilization of the social system.

The problem of the peculiarities of the development of Chinese cities and townspeople has not been studied enough. It is known that about 10% of the population lived in them, but unlike European cities, they did not try to establish themselves as an independent political force. Officials, warriors, students of Confucian schools, merchants and artisans lived in them. Merchants were the most disenfranchised, since trade and the accumulation of money were considered unworthy occupations in traditional China. In fact, with the help of money, they established tacit alliances with the bureaucracy, sought appointments and removals in governments at various levels. The position of artisans was also not high. Their associations - khans were not guild organizations, but specialized trading rows. Craft and petty trade were not separated. The foreman of the Khan followed the mood of the people, collected taxes, suppressed discontent, in a word he was included in the system of centralized statehood.

The specificity of the ruling class of medieval China was that there was no aristocracy here. Titled nobility are members of the imperial family and his favorites. The composition of this group changed along with the change of dynasty. Children did not inherit the title of their parents, their degree of nobility went down by a step. The real Chinese elite are the shenshi or tangerines (advisers). Their high position in society was associated not with power or wealth, but with the possession of knowledge. In China, an examination system for filling positions was practiced. The first exam gave the degree of shutsai - teacher; the second is a juren, an official in the county and provincial governments. The highest government posts were occupied by jingshi who passed the third exam. Any person who graduated from a Confucian school and had a certificate stating that there were no people of shameful professions in his family could be admitted to the exams. This method of forming the elite of society is called meritocracy. It should be recognized as democratic. In medieval China, there were no rigid social barriers, and social mobility was quite high. The Chinese ruling class could not accumulate and pass on what they had accumulated from generation to generation, which complicated the fate of capitalism in the country. Nor did he have the ideological prerequisites that the Reformation had created in Europe. Confucian ideology does not honor wealth or sanction gain. Education and knowledge are more significant in the system of values.

In the II century. AD as a result of internal contradictions, one of the greatest world powers of antiquity, the Han Empire, fell. Popular uprisings, most notably the Yellow Turbans, destroyed the old system of government and, although the uprisings were suppressed, it was impossible to restore the old order of government. The chiefs of government troops, who claimed supreme power in the state, unleashed an internecine war. On the territory of the former Han Empire, three independent kingdoms were formed: Wei, Wu, Shu. Long wars between these kingdoms ended with the victory of the northern kingdom of Wei. In all three kingdoms, the power of the new imperial Jin dynasty was established.

The collapse of the Han Empire dealt a blow to the foundations of the slave-owning society. The time of the establishment of feudal relations begins, within the framework of which slavery continued to exist, which was not completely destroyed.

In 280, Emperor Sima Yan issued a decree changing the land use system. In accordance with the decree, every able-bodied farmer (male or female aged 16 to 60) had the right to a full allotment of land, from which 1/5 of the harvest went to the state, the rest was left to the user of the land. Persons aged 13 to 15 and 61 to 65 could use only half of the allotment. Children and the elderly did not have land plots and did not pay taxes. The taxable population, in addition to the specified contribution, paid a tax in the form of silk fabric and silk wadding and, in addition, worked out at government jobs up to 20 days a year.

At the end of the III century. the Huns invaded northern China, and then other tribes roaming along the borders of the Chinese empire. The population of the conquered northern regions moved to the south. Newcomers from the north crowded local residents, often capturing their lands. At the same time, a struggle broke out between representatives of the ruling strata for land, for the enslavement of the peasants, as a result of which large landholdings were formed. The state power was weak and could not resist this.

Absorbed by the struggle for land, the court did not attempt to return the conquered northern lands. Attempts by individual commanders to carry out campaigns to the north did not receive support. Meanwhile, the domination of the Toba tribe was established in the territory of Northern China and the power of the Tobi dynasty of the Northern Wei was established. With the accession of this dynasty, wars ceased, and peaceful life began to improve in Northern China. Here also began the struggle for land, for the peasants. In 485, an imperial decree was issued, establishing an allotment system of land use. State ownership of the land was asserted, and the peasants, free from the power of individual feudal lords, were the holders of state allotments. The decree determined the size of the plot and the obligations of the holders. While securing the supremacy of state ownership of land, the decree did not prevent the formation of large landholdings by the feudal nobility.

The organs of power and administration were formed according to the ancient Chinese model. Chinese officials played an important role in the administration of the state. The Chinese language became the state language, the Tobis adopted the Chinese culture and religion. An early feudal centralized monarchy developed in the Northern Wei state.

In the second half of the VI century. The north and south of China were unified under the rule of the Sui Dynasty. The first representatives of this dynasty sought to establish autocracy. The strengthening of central power was accompanied by further enslavement of the farmers and an attack on the ancient village organizations. Officials sent to the localities conducted a population count and identified peasants who had not previously been included in the tax lists. The size of the allotment was reduced, the tax, on the contrary, increased, labor service increased. This policy led to widespread popular uprisings.

The large feudal landowners, who received grant and service lands, were also dissatisfied with the government's policy. In addition, they were frightened by the inability of the government to suppress the peasant uprisings that swept the country. Taking advantage of the unsuccessful Korean campaign, the feudal lords revolted. Trouble and the struggle for power brought to the throne a new ruling dynasty - Tang. To stop popular unrest, the new emperor issued a series of decrees aimed at improving the situation of the peasants: the tax debt for previous years was liquidated, the terms of the state corvée were limited, the peasants sold into slavery were freed, the feudal lords were forbidden to kill the peasants.

Representatives of the Tang dynasty sought to limit large land ownership by increasing state land ownership and the number of state tax-paying peasants. In 624, a decree was issued establishing favorable conditions for peasants. According to this decree, every adult male had the right to a garden plot, which is the eternal possession of the family, and to an arable plot, which was a holding for the duration of his ability to work. The elderly, women and teenagers received small allotments. State slaves could also receive land. Arable plots were subject to redistribution annually in every tenth month. Lands in perpetual possession could be the subject of transactions, arable land was allowed to be sold and mortgaged in exceptional cases. In favor of the state, farmers were required to pay food rent-tax and work on state lands 20 days a year. The peasants, who were the main productive force in the state, were attached to the land and were not only economically, but also personally dependent.

In the early years of the Tang Empire, there were not so many large family holdings of feudal lords, they were worked by peasants dependent on the owner and sometimes slaves. The service allotments of officials, provided to them only for the duration of their service, were processed, as a rule, by state allotment peasants.

During the reign of the Tang dynasty, a fairly strong centralized state was created with a well-established bureaucratic apparatus of government.

The social structure of the Tang Empire. With the development of feudal relations, the population of China was organized into a complex hierarchical system. All the inhabitants of the Empire were vassals of a single suzerain - the emperor, who personified the state. The highest group of the ruling class was the hereditary aristocracy, which had significant economic and social privileges. Representatives of the nobility were divided into groups in accordance with the category of feudal titles. Each title corresponded to a certain amount of land ownership.

Numerous officials were divided into nine ranks. Each rank corresponded to payment in the form of a certain land ownership or salary. Promotion up the bureaucratic ladder was possible subject to passing state exams.

The most numerous stratum of the population - the peasantry - was also not united. Most of the peasants belonged to the "good people", whose duties included the cultivation of the land and the timely performance of all duties. Most of the "good people" were the poor. A special position was occupied by village elders, heads of clans, and wealthy peasants. Duties were also included in the “good people”. In some cases, they could be endowed with half land plots.

At the very bottom of the social ladder were "cheap people" - land holders from private individuals, servants, slaves.

Each social group led a lifestyle that was unique to it, strictly observing the rules of conduct, using a certain type of clothing, jewelry, and housing. It was forbidden, bypassing the nearby step, to address people standing higher. Despite the obstacles that existed between numerous social groups, movement along the hierarchical ladder was not excluded.

Political system. The supreme power in the state belonged to the emperor, who had unlimited rights and had to rule on the basis of traditions and laws. The emperor was called the Son of Heaven. His closest assistants were two zai-xiang. These positions were held by members of the imperial house or influential dignitaries. Often it was they who actually decided state affairs. The country was administered through three departments - chambers: one chamber was in charge of the executive authorities, the other two prepared and promulgated imperial decrees, organized solemn ceremonies. The activities of each chamber were led by the chief and his two assistants: the right and the left. Six departments were subordinate to the first chamber, divided into two groups. The first included: the department of ranks, which was engaged in the appointment and dismissal of officials; the department of rituals, which oversaw the observance of rituals, etiquette, morality; department of finance, which carried out tax accounting, was engaged in the taxation and collection of taxes. The second group of departments included the military department involved in the organization of military affairs in the Empire; department of punishments, to which the courts and prisons were subordinate; department of works, which carried out the organization of labor service tax.

At the imperial palace there were special departments serving the imperial person, palace property.

An important place among state institutions was occupied by the Chamber of Inspectors, whose task was to monitor the central and local apparatus. The activities of this body contributed to the centralization of the state apparatus.

The empire was divided into provinces, districts, counties. Each of these levels had its own organization of officials appointed and removed by the center. Smaller than the counties, the unit was the villages headed by the elders, and the smallest unit was the union of four or five households. The creation of such units contributed to the destruction of family ties, which were still strong in the village.

The filling of public positions was based on the system of state examinations.

Right

By order of Emperor Li Shi-ming, the creation of a code of laws of criminal law began, which ended after his death. The list of crimes was huge: walking down the street at night, kindling a fire at night, driving fast around the city, etc. For example, the owner was punished with 100 blows with a stick for killing a delinquent slave, and a slave for the careless murder of a master was subjected to the death penalty. Under the influence of Confucianism, the ancient custom of physically mutilating a criminal was banned.

The reign of Emperor Xuanzuang (713-765) was the heyday of the Tang Empire. But the development of feudal relations led in the second half of the VIII century. to the crisis of the state. The tradition, according to which the supreme ownership of the land belonged to the state, the existence of a social hierarchy and a system of supervision could not resist the aspirations of the feudal lords to create large landholdings. Having strengthened their economic positions, the feudal lords began to lay claim to political dominance in the country. Separatist sentiments have spread on the ground. The state, waging a struggle with them, and also trying to stop the aspirations of the feudal lords for political domination, transferred part of the functions and rights of civil ranks to the military. As a result of this, in fact, dual power was created in the provinces, while the military governors turned out to be more influential.

The reduction of state lands and the decrease in the number of taxable peasants devastated the treasury. All attempts by the imperial government to limit the growth of large landownership did not produce any particular results. The seizure of land and peasants continued. State funds were reduced and the result was the loss of the previously conquered territories by the Empire.

Power passed to the owners of feudal estates. Instead of the allotment system, a new taxation procedure was introduced. All land owners were divided into nine categories, depending on the amount of land available. All former duties were replaced by a single land tax, levied regardless of the age and ability to work of the taxable persons. Taxes were levied twice a year: in summer and autumn. As a result of the reform, not only state peasants were subject to taxation, but also land holders from private individuals. This reform officially recognized the land holdings of the feudal lords.

The collapse of the allotment system led to a deterioration in the situation of the peasants, the ruin of peasant farms, which caused numerous popular unrest.

The political power of the emperor was shaken. At the same time, the military governors achieved hereditary rights to titles and possessions. They, only nominally obeying the emperor, pursued a completely independent policy. In China, a period of feudal fragmentation began. At the beginning of the X century. The last emperor of the Tang Dynasty was deposed.

Even during the period of feudal fragmentation, the Chinese state to some extent retained its unity. This was due to the following circumstances: there were close economic ties within the state, public works in large areas were of great importance for maintaining life, periodic civil unrest, the constant threat of raids from nomads required a combination of efforts.

In the second half of the X century. general political power was restored. The Song dynasty became the new ruling dynasty. In order to centralize power, the former administrative system, which ensured the dominance of military governors, was abolished. The newly formed districts were subordinate to the emperor. To limit the power of local officials, parallel governments were created. Chiefs were appointed from the center to the districts and counties for permanent work. In addition, it was practiced to temporarily send officials from the capital to the provinces. The ideological support of the feudal monarchy was Confucianism.

In the XIII century. China was conquered by the Mongol feudal lords, whose dominance continued until the middle of the 14th century. In 1351, all of China was engulfed in a popular movement directed against the Mongol yoke. China is free again. The Ming dynasty ascended the throne. The social and political system of the Minsk Empire exactly copied the old feudal state: the same division of the population into ranks and classes, preventing the formation of estates, the same bureaucratic apparatus of government. All power was concentrated in the hands of the emperor. Political development of China in the XIV-XV centuries. contributed to the strengthening of the feudal order.

In the XVI-XVII centuries. in China, a crisis of feudal relations begins and a transition to a new historical period in the history of the state.

During the Sui Dynasty, a number of reforms were carried out aimed at strengthening the centralized state: taxes were streamlined, new money was issued, emergency taxes were abolished, etc. The agrarian allotment system was based on the principle of the right of every adult to a land allotment.

In 605, Yang-di came to power, imitating Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi in methods of administration. Based on Confucianism, Yang-di set as his goal the creation of a strong empire. In his capital - Luoyang - he moved the richest noble families from all over the country, built luxurious palaces and huge granaries in it. During the years of his reign, the Great Canal was dug, connecting the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the Great Wall of China was reconstructed, which had become very dilapidated over the past millennium.

The inhabitants of South China put up a desperate resistance to the Mongols, which lasted about 40 years. In 1280, the warlike Mongols managed to conquer vast territories in Eurasia and completely subjugate South China, as well as the lands of Eastern Europe. Great Mongol Khan Khubi Lai proclaimed himself the new emperor of China. The family of Mongol rulers on the Chinese throne was named Yuan dynasty (1280-1368).

The Yuan period became one of the most difficult eras in the history of China. A significant part of the Chinese population was turned into slaves. Administrative positions ended up in the hands of the Mongol military leaders and Central Asian officials of the Muslim faith.

Widespread in the 20-30s. 14th century among the Mongols, Islam led to a significant strengthening of the Muslim religion in China. The official religion of the Mongolian court was lamaism is the Tibetan variety of Buddhism.

Fleet and expeditions

In the Ming era, a powerful navy was created, which was headed by Zheng He. In the first third of the 15th century, shortly before the expedition of Columbus, Vasco da Gama and Magellan, the Chinese fleet, consisting of several dozen multi-deck ships, made several trips to the countries of Southeast Asia, India and the coast of Africa. However, unlike the Western European navigators who began the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries, Zheng He's voyages did not continue. The rulers of Ming China considered that sea expeditions were a heavy burden on the state treasury. The magnificent fleet was destroyed, and the discoveries of Zheng He were consigned to oblivion.

16. Material culture of the medieval East

In essence, the medieval era was feudal and developed in two little similar versions: one - the states of the West; the other is the medieval civilizations of the east, among which is the Confucian civilization (China); Japan; the Indian state, the civilization of the Mongols and the Middle Eastern Islamic world.

1. Medieval China

Chinese civilization survived the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages imperceptibly, without global transformation and destruction of all foundations, as happened with the collapse of the great empires of the past in the West. Moreover, medieval China in many ways resembled ancient China. But changes did occur. Historians date the origin of feudal relations here from the 11th to the 4th centuries. BC, although it is believed that they developed around the 3rd century. n. e. Gradually, slowly, slavery was eliminated, and new social formations arose in their peculiar, “eastern” version. Serious changes took place in the spiritual life, the state structure and its moral foundations were recreated. In this sense, the emergence of Confucianism was a turning point in Chinese history.

In the middle of the first millennium BC. e. the philosopher Confucius (551-479 BC) created the doctrine that was destined to become the flesh and blood of Chinese civilization. The goal of his philosophical system was to make the state ideal, based on solid moral principles, with harmonious social relations. The ideas of Confucius, at first glance, far from reality, after several centuries became the state religion and for more than two millennia, almost unchanged, retained a leading role in the spiritual life of Chinese society. Confucianism is salvation on earth Confucianism is a very "earthly" religion. Rationality and practicality are expressed in it so strongly that some scholars do not even consider it a religion in the full sense of the word. The methods of government, the regulation of relations between different social strata, the principles of family life, the ethical norms that a person must follow - this is what interested the medieval followers of Confucius in the first place.

The stage of centralization of China was carried out during the Sui dynasty, which at the end of the 6th century. united north and south, but was overthrown at the beginning of the 7th century. The era of its true heyday is associated with the Tang dynasty, which ruled for a long time (from the beginning of the 7th to the beginning of the 10th century) and the Song dynasty (X-XIII centuries). In that era, roads, canals and new cities were built throughout the country, crafts, trade, fine arts, and especially poetry reached an extraordinary flowering.

Weak people - strong state: the main slogan of medieval China. The power, which played the role of patron and steward in a large family, was personified in the face of the emperor. All other social strata, no matter what step of the hierarchical ladder they stood on, were directly his subjects. Therefore, in feudal China, as it was in Western Europe, the system of vassalage did not arise; the only suzerain was the state. In addition, the system of collective responsibility was widespread in China. So, the son, and even the whole family, could pay for the crime of the father; the headman in the village was punished if the land on his territory was not fully cultivated; county officials found themselves in the same position. However, the focus on collectivism also had a downside. In China, family and clan ties, consecrated and glorified by Confucianism, have acquired tremendous power.

Most historians believe that with the fall of the Han Empire at the turn of the II-III centuries. In China, there is a change of eras: the ancient period of the country's history ends and the Middle Ages begins. The first stage of early feudalism went down in history as the time of the Three Kingdoms (220-280). On the territory of the country there were three states, the power in which was approaching a military dictatorship. But already at the end of the III century. political stability in China is again being lost, and it becomes an easy prey for the nomadic tribes that poured in here, mainly settling in the northwestern regions of the country. From that moment on, for two and a half centuries, China was divided into northern and southern parts, which affected its subsequent development.

Political changes in China III-VI centuries. are closely related to shifts in ethnic development. Although foreigners penetrated before, but it was in the 4th century. becomes a time of mass invasions, comparable with the Great Migration of Peoples in Europe. The tribes that came from the central regions of Asia settled not only on the northern and western outskirts, but also on the Central Plain, mixing with the indigenous Chinese population. In the south, the processes of assimilation of the non-Chinese population were faster and less dramatic, leaving significant areas uncolonized. This was reflected in the mutual isolation of the parties, and two main dialects of the Chinese language developed in the language.

The process of ethnic consolidation of the Chinese, which began in the 7th century, at the beginning of the 13th century. leads to the formation of the Chinese people. Ethnic self-consciousness manifests itself in the singling out of the Chinese state, which opposes foreign countries, in the spread of the universal self-name "Han Ren" (Han people). The bureaucracy has grown. The highest government institution was the Department of Departments, which headed the six leading executive bodies of the country: Chinov, Taxes, Rituals, Military, Judicial and Public Works. Along with them, the Imperial Secretariat and the Imperial Chancellery were established. The power of the head of state, officially called the Son of Heaven and the emperor, was hereditary and legally unlimited.

The economy of China in the 7th-12th centuries. based on agricultural production. The land use system included the state land fund with imperial estates, large and medium-sized private land ownership, small peasant land ownership and estates of state land holders. The development of trade was facilitated by the introduction at the end of the 6th century. standards of measures and weights and the issuance of a copper coin of a fixed weight. Tax revenues from trade have become a tangible item of government revenue.

In Chinese medieval society, the demarcation went along the lines of aristocrats and non-aristocrats, the service class and commoners, free and dependent. The peak of the influence of aristocratic clans falls on the 7th-8th centuries. But by the beginning of the XI century. the power of the aristocracy is weakening and the process of merging it with the bureaucratic bureaucracy begins.

There were three religious doctrines in medieval China: Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism. Over time, the persecution of Buddhism intensified and neo-Confucianism was established, which claimed to be the only ideology that substantiated the social hierarchy and correlated it with the concept of individual duty.

In 1280, China was completely dominated by the Mongols. With accession to the throne Khan Khubilai(1215-1294) the rate was moved to Beijing. In 1271, all the possessions of the great khan were declared Yuan Empire according to the Chinese model. Mongol domination in the main part of China lasted for more than a century and is noted by Chinese sources as the most difficult time for the country. Despite the military power, the Yuan empire was not distinguished by internal strength, it was shaken by civil strife, as well as the resistance of the local Chinese population, the uprising of the secret Buddhist society "White Lotus".

A characteristic feature was the division of the country's population into four unequal categories. The Chinese of the north and the inhabitants of the south of the country were considered, respectively, the people of the third and fourth grade after the Mongols themselves and immigrants from the Islamic countries of western and central Asia. Thus, the ethnic situation of the era was characterized not only by national oppression by the Mongols, but also by the legalized opposition of northern and southern Chinese. The dominance of the Yuan Empire rested on the power of the army. Each city contained a garrison, and in Beijing there was a khan's guard of 12 thousand people. Tibet and Korea were in vassal dependence.

Ming China (1368-1644). Erupted in the middle of the XIV century. the anti-Mongol uprisings very quickly revealed the internal weakness of the Yuan regime. Among the rebels, the greatest threat to the Yuan court was the detachments of the so-called "red troops". Their leader managed, having defeated the Mongol troops, to proclaim himself emperor of a new dynasty - the Ming (1368-1644).

In this era, the Mongol domination was finally abolished and the foundations of economic and political systems were laid that corresponded to traditional Chinese ideas about ideal statehood. In the Ming era, neo-Confucianism occupies a dominant position in religion. From the end of the XIV century.

the desire of the authorities to put restrictions on Buddhism and Taoism is traced, which led to the expansion of religious sectarianism. Other features of the country's religious life were the Chineseization of local Muslims and the spread of local cults among the people.

The peak of the power of the Ming Empire fell on the first third of the 15th century, but by the end of the century, negative phenomena began to grow. The growth of crisis phenomena begins with the gradual weakening of imperial power, the concentration of land in the hands of large private owners, and the aggravation of the financial situation in the country. The emperors were weak rulers, and temporary workers ran all the affairs at the courts. The center of the political opposition was the Chamber of Censors-Procurators, whose members demanded reforms and accused the arbitrariness of the temporary workers. Activities of this kind met with a severe rebuff from the emperors. A typical picture was when another influential official, submitting an incriminating document, was simultaneously preparing for death, waiting for a silk lace from the emperor with an order to hang himself.

Period XVI - the first half of the XVII centuries. It was characterized by a protracted crisis, which by the end of the era had acquired a comprehensive character. Starting with changes in the economy and social structure, the crisis manifested itself most visibly in the area of ​​domestic politics.

The turning point in the history of Ming China is associated with a powerful peasant uprising of 1628-1644. led by Li Tzu-chen. In 1644, his troops occupied Beijing, and he himself declared himself emperor.

Thus, the history of medieval China is a real kaleidoscope of events: a frequent change of ruling dynasties, long periods of domination by conquerors, who, as a rule, came from the north and soon dissolved among the local population, having adopted not only the language and way of life, but also the classical Chinese model of governing the country. . Not a single state of the medieval East could achieve such a level of control over the country and society, which was in China. Not the least role in this was played by the political isolation of the country, as well as the ideological conviction that prevailed among the administrative elite about the chosenness of the Middle Empire, whose natural vassals are all other powers of the world.

From the 16th century the penetration of Europeans into the country begins. As in India, the championship belonged to the Portuguese. Their first possession on one of the South Chinese islands was Macau (Maomen). From the second half of the 17th century. the country is flooded by the Dutch and the British, who assisted the Manchus in conquering China. At the end of the XVII century. in the suburbs of Guangzhou, the British founded one of the first continental trading posts, which became the center for the distribution of British goods.