Hydrosphere protection technologies. Hydrosphere protection means. The main types of pollution of the hydrosphere
Hydrosphere protection methods
Hydrosphere of the earth.
The hydrosphere is an aquatic environment that includes surface and groundwater. Surface waters are mainly concentrated in the oceans, which contain about 91% of all water on Earth. The surface of the World Ocean (water area) is 361 million / km2. It is approximately 2.04 times larger than the land area - a territory occupying 149 million / km2. If the water is distributed in an even layer, then it will cover the Earth with a thickness of 3000 meters.
The water in the ocean (94%) and underground is salty. The amount of fresh water is 6% of the total volume of water on Earth, with a very small fraction of only 0.36% available in easily accessible places for extraction.
Each inhabitant of the Earth consumes on average 650 cubic meters of water per year (1780 liters per day). However, to satisfy physiological needs, 2.5 liters per day is sufficient, i.e. about 1 cubic meter per year.
Water is not only a condition for the life of an individual organism. Without it, the existence of the biosphere, life on Earth, would not have been possible, since the circulation of substances and energy in the biosphere is possible only with the participation of water. In the course of the water cycle, 453,000 cubic meters of water evaporate from the surface of the World Ocean annually. m. of water.
Types of surface and groundwater pollution:
physical - increasing the content of mechanical
impurities, characteristic mainly of surface species
pollution;
chemical - the presence in the water of inorganic and organic
substances of toxic and non-toxic action;
radioactive - the presence of radioactive substances in surface or ground waters;
bacterial and biological - presence in water
various pathogenic microorganisms, fungi and
small algae;
Sources of pollution.
Sources of pollution are objects from which hazardous substances are discharged or otherwise released into water bodies, deteriorating the quality of surface waters, limiting their use, and also negatively affecting the state of the bottom and coastal water bodies.
1) Industrial, agricultural, domestic waste water
Industrial: In industrialized countries, industry is the main consumer of water and the largest source of effluent. Water performs various functions, for example, it serves as a raw material, a heater and a cooler in technological processes, in addition, it transports, sorts and rinses various materials. Water also removes waste at all stages of production - from the extraction of raw materials, the preparation of semi-finished products to the release of the final product and its packaging. Since it is much cheaper to dispose of waste from different production cycles than to recycle and dispose of, a huge amount of various organic and inorganic substances is discharged with industrial waste.
Agricultural: The second main consumer of water is agriculture, which uses it to irrigate fields. The water flowing from them is saturated with salt solutions and soil particles, as well as residues of chemicals that contribute to increasing yields. These include insecticides; fungicides; herbicides, a famous weed control agent; and other pesticides, as well as organic and inorganic fertilizers containing nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and other chemical elements.
In addition to chemical compounds, a large volume of faeces and other organic residues from farms where meat and dairy cattle, pigs or poultry are raised, enter the rivers. A lot of organic waste also comes in the process of processing agricultural products (when cutting meat carcasses, processing leather, producing food and canned food, etc.).
Domestic waste water : The most well-known source of water pollution, which has traditionally been the main focus, is domestic (or municipal) wastewater. Dissolved in wastewater, soap, synthetic detergents, disinfectants, bleaches and other household chemicals are present. Residential buildings receive paper waste, including toilet paper and baby diapers, plant and animal food waste. Rain and melt water flows from streets to sewers, often with sand or salt used to accelerate the melting of snow and ice on the roadway and sidewalks.
2) Household waste
Liquid and solid household waste gets into the seas and oceans through rivers, directly from land, as well as from ships and barges. Part of this pollution is deposited in the coastal zone, and part is dispersed in different directions under the influence of sea currents and wind. Household waste is dangerous because they are carriers of human diseases (mainly of the intestinal group - typhoid fever, dysentery, cholera.
3) Pollution by oil and oil products
Oil and petroleum products are the most common pollutants in the oceans. By the beginning of the 1980s, about 16 million tons of oil entered the ocean annually, which amounted to 0.23% of world production. The greatest losses of oil are associated with its transportation from production areas. Overboard discharge of flushing and ballast water by tankers in case of tanker accidents and pipeline ruptures. - all this determines the presence of permanent fields of pollution on the routes of sea routes.
4) Contamination by heavy metal ions
Heavy metal contamination. Violates the vital activity of aquatic organisms and humans. Heavy metals (mercury, lead, cadmium, zinc, copper, arsenic) are common and highly toxic pollutants. Large masses of these compounds enter the ocean through the atmosphere. Mercury is transported to the ocean by inland runoff and through the atmosphere. Lead is a typical trace element contained in all components of the environment: in rocks, soils, natural waters, atmosphere, living organisms. Finally, lead is actively dispersed into the environment in the course of human economic activity. These are emissions from industrial and domestic wastewaters, from the smoke and dust of industrial enterprises, from the exhaust gases of internal combustion engines.
5) acid rain
Acid rain pollution. It leads to acidification of water bodies and the death of ecosystems.
The term "acid rain" refers to all types of meteorological precipitation - rain, snow, hail, fog, rain and snow - whose pH is less than the average pH of rainwater (the average pH for rainwater is 5.6).
6) Thermal
Thermal pollution causes the discharge of heated waters from thermal power plants and nuclear power plants into water bodies, which leads to the massive development of blue-green algae, the so-called water bloom, a decrease in the amount of oxygen and negatively affects the flora and fauna of water bodies.
The consequences of pollution
1. The problem of fresh water, organic pollution of water bodies, deterioration in the quality of drinking water.
2. The death of plants and animals.
3. Uncontrolled development of algae.
4. Death of aquatic ecosystems with stagnant water.
5. Waterlogging of the area.
Wastewater treatment methods
Wastewater treatment methods can be divided into mechanical, chemical, physicochemical and biological, but when they are used together, the method of treatment and disposal of wastewater is called combined. The application of one method or another, in each case, is determined by the nature of the pollution and the degree of harmfulness of impurities.
1. Mechanical method
The essence of the mechanical method is that mechanical impurities are removed from wastewater by sedimentation and filtration. Coarse particles, depending on their size, are captured by grids, sieves, sand traps, septic tanks, manure catchers of various designs, and surface contamination - by oil traps, oil separators, sedimentation tanks, etc. - up to 95%, many of which, as valuable impurities, are used in production.
2. Chemical method
The chemical method consists in the fact that various chemical reagents are added to the wastewater, which react with pollutants and precipitate them in the form of insoluble sediments. Chemical cleaning achieves a reduction of insoluble impurities up to 95% and soluble impurities up to 25%
3. Physicochemical method
With the physicochemical method of treatment, finely dispersed and dissolved inorganic impurities are removed from wastewater and organic and poorly oxidizable substances are destroyed, most often from physicochemical methods, coagulation, oxidation, sorption, extraction, etc. are used. Electrolysis is also widely used. It consists in the destruction of organic substances in wastewater and the extraction of metals, acids and other inorganic substances. Electrolytic cleaning is carried out in special structures - electrolyzers. Wastewater treatment using electrolysis is effective in lead and copper plants, paint and varnish and some other areas of the industry.
Contaminated wastewater is also treated with ultrasound, ozone, ion exchange resins and high pressure, and chlorination has proven its worth.
4. Biological method
Among the methods of wastewater treatment, a biological method based on the use of the laws of biochemical and physiological self-purification of rivers and other bodies of water should play an important role. There are several types of biological wastewater treatment devices: biofilters, biological ponds, and aeration tanks.
V biofilters waste water is passed through a layer of coarse-grained material covered with a thin bacterial film. Thanks to this film, biological oxidation processes proceed intensively. It is she who serves as an active principle in biofilters. In biological ponds, all organisms that inhabit the reservoir take part in wastewater treatment. Aerotanks are huge reinforced concrete reservoirs. Here, the cleansing principle is activated sludge from bacteria and microscopic animals. All these living things develop rapidly in aeration tanks, which is facilitated by organic matter of wastewater and excess oxygen entering the structure by the flow of air supplied. The bacteria stick together in flakes and secrete enzymes that mineralize organic pollution. Sludge with flakes quickly settles, separating from the purified water. Ciliates, flagellates, amoebas, rotifers and other tiny animals, devouring bacteria (not sticking together in flakes), rejuvenate the bacterial mass of sludge.
Wastewater before biological treatment is subjected to mechanical, and after it to remove pathogenic bacteria and chemical treatment, chlorination with liquid chlorine or bleach. For disinfection, other physicochemical methods are also used (ultrasound, electrolysis, ozonation, etc.)
The biological method gives great results in the treatment of municipal wastewater. It is also used in the purification of waste from oil refining, pulp and paper industries, and the production of artificial fibers.
Self-cleaning of reservoirs
Self-purification factors of water bodies: physical, chemical, biological.
Each body of water is a complex system where bacteria, higher aquatic plants, and various invertebrates live. Their combined activity ensures self-purification of reservoirs. But this process is difficult due to the violation of biological balance, therefore, one of the environmental tasks is to maintain the ability of self-purification of water bodies from impurities.
Among physical factors of paramount importance are the dilution, dissolution and mixing of incoming contaminants. Good mixing and reduction of suspended solids concentration is ensured by the fast flow of rivers. Contributes to the self-purification of water bodies by the settling of insoluble sediments to the bottom, as well as the settling of contaminated waters. In zones with a temperate climate, the river cleans itself after 200-300 km from the place of pollution, and in the Far North - after 2 thousand km.
Disinfection of water occurs under the influence of ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. The disinfection effect is achieved by the direct destructive effect of ultraviolet rays on protein colloids and enzymes of the protoplasm of microbial cells, as well as spore organisms and viruses.
From chemical factors of self-purification of water bodies should be noted the oxidation of organic and inorganic substances. The self-purification of a reservoir is often assessed in relation to easily oxidizable organic matter or in terms of the total content of organic matter.
The sanitary regime of a reservoir is characterized primarily by the amount of oxygen dissolved in it. It should be at least 4 mg per 1 liter of water at any time of the year for reservoirs of the first and second types. The first type includes reservoirs used for water supply to enterprises, the second - used for swimming, sports events.
TO biological the factors of self-purification of the reservoir include algae, mold and yeast.
Representatives of the animal world can also contribute to the self-purification of water bodies from bacteria and viruses. Each mollusk filters more than 30 liters of water per day.
The purity of reservoirs is unthinkable without the protection of their vegetation. Only on the basis of a deep knowledge of the ecological state of each reservoir, effective control over the development of various living organisms inhabiting it, can positive results be achieved, transparency and high biological productivity of rivers, lakes and reservoirs can be ensured.
Other factors also adversely affect the processes of self-purification of water bodies. Chemical pollution of water bodies with industrial effluents inhibits natural oxidative processes and kills microorganisms. The same applies to the discharge of thermal waste water from thermal power plants.
A multi-stage process, sometimes stretching for a long time, is self-cleaning from oil. Under natural conditions, the complex of physical processes of self-purification of water from oil consists of a number of components: evaporation; sedimentation of lumps, especially overloaded with sediment and dust; clumping of lumps suspended in the water column; floating up of lumps, forming a film with inclusions of water and air; reduction of concentrations of suspended and dissolved oil due to sedimentation, floating and mixing with clean water. The intensity of these processes depends on the properties of a particular type of oil (density, viscosity, coefficient of thermal expansion), the presence of colloids, suspended plankton particles in the water, etc., air temperature and sunlight.
3. Non-drainage production
The pace of development of the industry today is so high that the one-time use of fresh water for industrial needs is an unacceptable luxury.
Therefore, scientists are engaged in the development of new drainless technologies, which will almost completely solve the problem of protecting water bodies from pollution.
With a closed technology, the enterprise returns the used and purified water to circulation, and only replenishes losses from external sources.
Protection of surface waters of the Russian Federation
The water legislation of Russia regulates relations in the field of the use and protection of water bodies in order to ensure the rights of citizens to clean water and a favorable water environment; maintaining optimal conditions for water use; the quality of surface and ground waters in accordance with sanitary and environmental requirements; protection of water bodies from pollution, clogging and depletion; conservation of biological diversity of aquatic ecosystems.
According to the Water Code of the Russian Federation, the use of water bodies for drinking and domestic water supply is a priority. For these water supplies, surface and groundwater bodies protected from pollution and clogging should be used.
It is prohibited to discharge waste and drainage waters into water bodies:
2. classified as specially protected;
3. located in resort areas, places of recreation of the population;
4. located in the places of spawning and wintering of valuable and specially protected species of fish, in the habitats of valuable species of animals and plants listed in the Red Book.
The procedure for the development and approval of standards for maximum permissible harmful effects on water bodies is established by the government of the Russian Federation.
4. Monitoring of water bodies
On March 14, 1997, the Russian government approved the “Regulations on the introduction of state monitoring of water bodies”.
The Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring monitors the pollution of land surface waters. The Sanitary and Epidemiological Service of the Russian Federation is responsible for the sanitary protection of water bodies. There is a network of sanitary laboratories at enterprises to study the composition of wastewater and the quality of water in reservoirs. The work is carried out using automatic devices. Electrical sensors continuously measure the concentration of contaminants, which facilitates quick decision-making in the event of adverse effects on water supplies.
Conclusion.
The logic of the development of life on Earth defines human activity as the main factor, and the biosphere can exist without a person, but a person cannot exist without a biosphere. Pure water is a factor in the existence of the biosphere. The next generations will not forgive us that we have deprived them of the opportunity to enjoy the pristine nature. Preserving the harmony of man and nature is the main task facing the present generation. This requires a change in many of the previously established ideas about the commensuration of human values. It is necessary to develop in each person "ecological consciousness", which will determine the choice of options for technologies, construction of enterprises and the use of natural resources.
- 1. Sources of pollution of surface (natural) waters.
- 2. Waste water. Characterization of waste water pollutants.
- 3. Wastewater treatment. Cleaning methods (mechanical, physicochemical, chemical and biological).
Hydrosphere is called the water shell of the earth, which is a combination of the ocean, seas, lakes, rivers, ponds, swamps, groundwater.
Water quality is a set of physical, chemical, biological and bacteriological indicators that determine the suitability of water for use in industrial production, in everyday life, etc.
The main sources of pollution of natural waters are:
- · Atmospheric waters, carrying the masses washed out of the air by industrial-generated polythenes; runoff from city streets and industrial sites is especially dangerous; bearing masses of petroleum products.
- · Urban wastewater, which includes mainly domestic wastewater containing surfactant detergents, microorganisms, including pathogenic ones.
- · Industrial waste water is generated in a wide variety of industries, and the most actively consuming water is the ferrous metallurgy, chemical, wood-chemical, oil refining industries.
- · Agriculture (animal husbandry, pesticides, mineral fertilizers).
A source carrying surface or groundwater, water pollutants microorganisms or heat is called source of pollution.
A substance that causes a violation of water quality standards (established values of water quality indicators by type of water use) is called pollutant... As a result of the entry of pathogenic microorganisms into water bodies, microbial pollution of water occurs, as a result of the flow of heat, thermal pollution of water is also emitted.
The main cause of pollution of surface water bodies- This is the discharge of untreated or insufficiently treated wastewater into water bodies by industrial enterprises, utilities and agriculture.
2.Waste water- this is the water removed after use in domestic and industrial human activities.
Pollution entering wastewater can be conditionally divided into several groups:
- · According to the physical state, the following are distinguished: insoluble, colloidal and dissolved impurities.
- Mineral
- Organic
- Bacterial
- Biological
Mineral pollution is usually represented by sand, clay particles, particles of ore, slag, mineral salts, solutions of acids, alkalis and other substances.
Organic pollution is subdivided according to its origin into plant and animal. Plant organic contaminants are residues of plants, fruits, vegetables and cereals. Animal contamination is physiological secretions, remains of animal tissue, etc.
Bacterial and biological pollution is characteristic mainly of domestic wastewater and wastewater from some industrial enterprises - these are slaughterhouses, tanneries, factories for the primary processing of wool, fur factories, biofactories, enterprises of the microbiological industry.
Domestic waste water includes water from kitchens, toilets, showers, baths, laundries, canteens, hospitals, cleaning water, and others.
3.Wastewater treatment is the destruction or removal of certain substances from them.
Waste water disinfection is the removal of pathogenic microorganisms from them.
In order to protect surface waters from pollution, the following eco-protective measures are envisaged:
- Development of waste-free and water-free technologies, introduction of recycling water supply systems
- Wastewater treatment (industrial, municipal, etc.)
- Wastewater injection into deep aquifers
- Treatment and disinfection of surface waters used for water supply and other purposes
Wastewater is the main pollutant of surface water, therefore, the development and implementation of effective methods of wastewater treatment is an urgent and ecologically important task ... .. Development and implementation of waterless and waste-free production technology, the initial stage of which is the creation of recycled water supply.
Due to the huge variety of wastewater composition, there are various ways of their treatment: mechanical, physicochemical, biological, chemical and others. Depending on the degree of hazard and the nature of the pollution, wastewater treatment can be carried out in any one way or a set of methods. The cleaning process also includes the treatment of sludge or excess biomass, as well as
During mechanical treatment, up to 90% of insoluble mechanical impurities of various degrees of dispersion (sand, clay particles, scale, and so on) are removed from industrial wastewater by filtering, settling and filtering, grids, sand traps are used from domestic wastewater up to 60% for these purposes, sand filters, sedimentation tanks of various types. Substances floating on the surface of wastewater: resins, oils, polymers, fats, are trapped by oil and oil traps.
Chemical and physicochemical treatment methods are the most effective for the treatment of industrial wastewater. The main chemical methods include: neutralization and oxidation. To neutralize acids and alkalis, wastewater is introduced with special reagents, such as lime, ammonia, soda. Various oxidizers are used for oxidation, with their help, wastewater is freed from toxic and other components.
For physical and chemical cleaning, the following are used:
- · Coagulation, that is, the introduction of coagulants, such as ammonium salts, into the wastewater. For the formation of cottony deposits that can be easily removed
- · Sorption, that is, the ability of certain substances, such as bentonite clays, activated carbon, silica gel, peat, to absorb pollution. With these methods, it is possible to extract valuable soluble substances from wastewater and their subsequent utilization.
- · Flotation - passing air through waste water. When moving upward, gas bubbles capture surfactants: oil, oils, other contaminants and form an easily removable foamy layer on the water surface.
The biological (biochemical) method is widely used for cleaning communal - household, industrial effluents of pulp and paper, food enterprises. It is based on the ability of artificially introduced microorganisms to use for their development organic and some inorganic compounds contained in wastewater (hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, nitrites, sulfides, and so on). Cleaning is carried out using natural methods such as irrigation fields, filtration fields, biological circles and artificial methods, using aerotanks, metatanks and biofilters, as well as circulating oxidation channels.
After clarification of wastewater, a sludge is formed, which is fermented in iron-concrete tanks (metantanks), then removed to sludge pads for drying, the dried sludge is usually used as fertilizer. But in recent years, many harmful substances, in particular heavy metals, have begun to be detected in the waste years, which excludes this method of disposal of sludge. The clarified part of the wastewater is treated in aerotanks, special closed tanks, through which wastewater enriched with oxygen and mixed with activated sludge is slowly passed. Activated sludge is a collection of heterotrophic microorganisms and small invertebrates (mold, yeast, aquatic fungi, and solid substrate).
After secondary sedimentation, wastewater is disinfected (disinfected) using chlorine compounds and other strong oxidants. Chlorination destroys pathogenic microorganisms, as well as pathogenic bacteria and viruses. In wastewater treatment systems, the biological method is the final one, and after its application, wastewater can be used in circulating water supply, or discharged into surface water bodies.
Recently, new effective methods have been actively developed that contribute to the greening of wastewater treatment processes, in particular:
- 1. Membrane cleaning methods (ultrafilters)
- 2. Magnetic treatment to improve the flotation of suspended solids
- 3. Radiation treatment of water, which allows pollutants to oxidize, coagulate and decompose in the shortest possible time
- 4. Ozonation, in which no substances are formed in wastewater that negatively affect natural biochemical processes
- 5. Introduction of new selective types of sorbents for the selective separation of useful components from wastewater for the purpose of secondary use.
A significant role in the contamination of water bodies is played by pesticides and fertilizers, which are washed away by the surface runoff of farmland. To prevent the ingress of effluents, the following set of measures is required:
- 1. Compliance with the norms and terms of the introduction of fertilizers and pesticides.
- 2. Focal and tape pesticide treatments should be used instead of solid.
- 3. Application of fertilizers in the form of granules and, if possible, together with irrigation water
- 4. Replace pesticides with biological methods of plant protection
The utilization of livestock effluents is very difficult, as it has a detrimental effect on aquatic ecosystems. In recent years, the most economical technology has been recognized, in which hazardous waste streams are separated into solid and liquid fractions by centrifugation. The solid part turns into compost and is taken out to the fields, the liquid part in a concentration of up to 18% passes through the reactor and turns into humus. When organic matter decomposes, methane, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide are released. The energy from this biogas can be used to produce heat and energy.
Sources of wastewater pollution are industrial, domestic and surface wastewater.
Industrial waste water is generated as a result of the use of water in technological processes.
Domestic wastewater in sinks, sanitary facilities, showers and the like contains large impurities (food debris, sand, feces, etc.); impurities of organic and mineral origin in undissolved form, colloidal and dissolved states; various, including disease-causing, bacteria. The concentration of these impurities in domestic wastewater depends on the degree of dilution with tap water.
Surface wastewater is formed as a result of the washing away by rain, snow and irrigation waters of contaminants on the surface of the soil, on the roofs and walls of buildings, etc. The main impurities in surface wastewater are mechanical particles (earth, sand, stone, wood and metal shavings, dust, soot and oil products, oils, gasoline, kerosene used in vehicle engines).
Water supply systems of industrial enterprises, depending on water and technological processes, can be direct-flow, repeated (sequential) and recycled water supply. When choosing a scheme for treatment plants and technological equipment, it is necessary to know the flow rate of wastewater and the concentration of impurities contained in them, as well as the permissible composition of wastewater discharged into water bodies. The permissible composition of wastewater is calculated taking into account the "Rules for the protection of surface waters". These rules are for
prevention of excessive wastewater pollution of water bodies. They establish norms for maximum permissible concentration of substances, composition and properties of water in a reservoir.
Depending on the technological purpose, water in water supply systems can be subjected to various treatments: mechanical, physicochemical and biological.
Mechanical cleaning wastewater from suspended particles is carried out by filtering, settling, processing in the field of centrifugal forces and filtration.
Straining is carried out in grates and fiber guides. In vertical or inclined gratings, the width of the gaps is usually 15-20 mm. To isolate fibrous substances from the wastewater of pulp and paper and textile enterprises, various fiber traps are used, for example, using perforated disks or in the form of moving nets with a layer of fibrous mass applied to them.
Sedimentation is based on the free settling (floating) of impurities with a density greater (less) than the density of water. The settling process is carried out in sand traps, sedimentation tanks and grease traps. Sand traps are used to purify waste water from metal and sand particles larger than 0.25 mm; sedimentation tanks - for the purification of wastewater from mechanical particles larger than 0.1 mm, as well as from particles of oil products. Wastewater treatment in the field of centrifugal forces is carried out in hydrocyclones and centrifuges.
Filtration is used to purify wastewater from finely dispersed impurities with their low concentration. It is used both at the initial stage of purification and after some methods of physicochemical or biological purification. Physicochemical methods cleaning is used, as a rule, to remove dissolved impurities. The main ones are flotation, extraction, neutralization, sorption, ion exchange and electrochemical purification, hyperfiltration, evaporation, evaporation, evaporation and crystallization.
Flotation is designed to intensify the process of floating up oil products when their particles are enveloped by gas bubbles supplied to waste water.
Wastewater extraction is based on the redistribution of wastewater impurities in a mixture of two mutually insoluble liquids (wastewater and extractant).
8.1. Environmental protection products (eco-bio-protective technology) ... 159
Neutralization of waste water is intended for the separation of acids, alkalis, as well as metal salts based on acids and alkalis. Neutralization of acids and their salts is carried out with alkalis or salts of strong alkalis: caustic soda, caustic potash, lime, limestone, dolomite, marble, chalk, magnesite, soda, alkali waste. The cheapest and most accessible reagent for neutralizing acidic wastewater is calcium hydroxide (slaked lime). For the neutralization of alkaline wastewater and their salts can be used sulfuric, hydrochloric, nitric, phosphoric and other acids.
Sorption is used to purify wastewater from soluble impurities; any finely dispersed materials (ash, peat, sawdust, slags, clay) are taken as sorbents; the most effective sorbent is activated carbon.
Ion exchange treatment is used for desalting and purifying waste water from metal ions and other impurities. Cleaning is carried out with ion exchangers - synthetic ion exchange resins made in the form of granules with a size of 0.2-2 mm. Ion exchangers are made from water-insoluble polymeric substances that have a mobile ion (cation or anion) on their surface, which, under certain conditions, enters into an exchange reaction with ions of the same sign contained in waste water.
Electrochemical cleaning is carried out by the oxidation of substances by transferring electrons directly to the surface of the anode or through a carrier substance, as well as as a result of interaction with strong oxidants formed during the electrolysis process.
Hyperfiltration is realized by separating solutions by filtering them through membranes, the pores of which are about 1 nm in size, allow water molecules to pass, retaining hydrated salt ions or molecules of undissociated compounds.
Evaporation is carried out by steam treatment of waste water containing volatile organic substances, which pass into the vapor phase and, together with the steam, are removed from the waste water.
Evaporation, evaporation and crystallization are used to treat small volumes of wastewater with high volatile content.
160 Ch. 8. Eco-bioelectric equipment and personal protective equipment
Biological treatment It is used for the separation of finely dispersed and dissolved organic substances. It is based on the ability of microorganisms to use organic substances (acids, alcohols, proteins, carbohydrates, etc.) contained in wastewater for nutrition. The process consists of two stages, proceeding simultaneously, but at different rates: adsorption of finely dispersed and dissolved organic substances from wastewater and destruction of adsorbed substances inside the cell of microorganisms during biochemical processes (oxidation or reduction) occurring in them. Biochemical cleaning is carried out in natural and artificial conditions.
Under natural conditions, wastewater is treated in filtration fields, irrigation fields and biological ponds.
Biological filters are widely used for the purification of both domestic and industrial wastewater. Slag, crushed stone, expanded clay, plastic, gravel are used as a filter material for loading biofilters. There are biofilters with natural air supply - for wastewater treatment with a daily flow rate of no more than 1000 cubic meters. m and biofilters with forced air supply - for the treatment of industrial wastewater at high costs and
concentrated.
To implement these methods, treatment facilities are used, through which all wastewater from industrial enterprises and city sewerage must be passed.
The basis for issuing permits for the discharge of industrial wastewater into the sewage system of a settlement for operating enterprises is the passport of the water management, which is one of the sections of the environmental passport of the enterprise.
The passport of the water industry is developed by the enterprise in the established form and submits it for approval to the water supply and sewerage department, where they specify:
Places of releases into sewage systems of household waste
waters of settlements;
Discharge rates and composition of discharged wastewater before and
after treatment facilities at outlets on average and
the maximum amount of pollutants.
A permit for the discharge of industrial wastewater may be canceled in the event of a change in the sewerage conditions of settlements or the failure of an industrial enterprise to comply with the conditions, including water consumption and the mass of pollution. The calculation of the permissible concentrations of pollutants in wastewater takes into account their degree of purification at the aeration station.
8.2. Individual protection means
The range of personal protective equipment (PPE) includes an extensive list of equipment used in industrial conditions (PPE for everyday use), as well as used in emergency situations (PPE for short-term use). Depending on the purpose, PPE includes: special clothing and footwear, insulating suits, respiratory, eye, hand, head, face, hearing protection, protective devices and dermatological protective equipment.
Special clothing serves to protect the body of workers from the adverse effects of mechanical and chemical factors of the working environment. It should reliably protect a person from harmful influences, not disrupt the normal thermoregulation of the body, provide freedom of movement, ease of wearing and be well cleaned of dirt, without changing its properties.
Special footwear must protect the feet of workers from the effects of hazardous and harmful production factors. Special footwear is made of leather and leatherette, dense cotton fabrics with PVC coating, rubber. In chemical industries, where acids, alkalis and other aggressive media are used, rubber shoes are used. Plastic boots made from a mixture of polyvinyl chloride resins and synthetic rubbers are also widely used.
To protect the foot from damage associated with the fall of castings and forgings on the feet, the shoes are equipped with a steel toe that can withstand impacts up to 20 kg. Special vibration-resistant footwear is also used.
Eye and face protection- these are glasses of open and closed types, visor glasses, hand and head
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Shields, helmets, eye and respiratory protection. Closed-type goggles with safety glasses are used for mechanical processing of materials; when pouring metals and alloys, corrosive liquids - closed-type goggles, masks with a screen or a light filter. The reflected light radiation requires the use of goggles or masks with a protective screen and light filters. To protect the eyes from radiant energy, glasses with light filters are used. Special glasses with metallized glasses are recommended to protect the eyes from electromagnetic radiation in the millimeter, centimeter, decimeter and meter ranges.
Special shields and masks protect from metal damage and radiation. For the protection of electric welders, a mask-shield, a head shield or a protective mask with a transparent screen are produced.
Protective dermatological agents serve to prevent skin diseases when exposed to certain harmful production factors. They come in the form of ointments or pastes that are designed to protect:
1) from petroleum products, solvents of various hydrocarbons,
fats, oils, varnishes, paints and other organic substances;
2) from water, aqueous solutions of acids, alkalis, salts, cooling
giving water-oil emulsions.
Hearing protection used in noisy industries, when servicing power plants, etc. These include earplugs and headphones. Earplugs are inserted into the ears during use. Disposable earplugs should only be used once; reusable earplugs and earmuffs require careful care, cleanliness, and early detection of defects. Correct and constant use of hearing protection reduces the noise load for earplugs by 10-20 dB, for headphones by 20-30 dB.
Respiratory and skin protection are designed to protect against inhalation and ingestion of harmful substances (dust, steam, gas) into the human body during various technological processes or rescue operations with chemical pollution of the atmosphere and terrain with potent toxic substances. When selecting personal protective equipment for the respiratory system,
8.2 Personal protective equipment
you need to know: substances with which you have to work; concentration of pollutants; the time during which you will need to work; the state of these substances (gas, vapor or aerosol); the likelihood of the danger of oxygen starvation; physical activity on a person in the process of work. According to the principle of protective action, personal protective equipment for the respiratory organs and skin are divided into filtering and insulating. In filtering gas masks, breathing air is cleaned of harmful substances. In isolating ones - breathing is carried out at the expense of oxygen reserves in the gas mask itself; they are used when it is impossible to use filtering gas masks, for example, when there is a lack of oxygen in the air, and also when the concentration of harmful substances is very high or unknown. In filter media, skin protection is ensured by neutralizing vapors of chemically hazardous substances by a special impregnation applied to the fabric and by the tightness of the suit structure; in insulating materials - using rubberized fabrics and polymeric materials.
Currently, the most widely used filtering masks GP-5 (GP-5 M) and GP-7 (GP-7 V). Civilian gas masks GP-5, GP-7 are designed to protect a person from getting into the respiratory system, on the eyes and on the face of radioactive, poisonous, potent poisonous substances and bacterial agents. The GP-7 gas mask is one of the latest models. Today this gas mask is the most reliable means of respiratory protection. In real conditions, it provides highly effective protection against vapors of neuroparalytic agents (such as sarin, soman), general toxicity (cyanogen chloride, hydrocyanic acid), radioactive substances - up to 6 hours, from drops of skin-blistering agents (mustard gas) - up to 2 hours at temperature from - 40 to + 40 ° С.
The GP-7 gas mask, in comparison with the GP-5, has a reduced resistance of the filtering-absorbing box, which makes breathing easier, the pressure of the face on the head is reduced, which makes it possible to increase the time spent in the gas mask. Thanks to this, it can be used by people over 60 years old, as well as patients with pulmonary and cardiovascular diseases. The presence of an intercom (membrane) in the gas mask provides a clear understanding of the transmitted speech and
164 Ch. 8. Ecobioprotective technicians personal protective equipment
It greatly facilitates the use of communication facilities (telephone, radio).
The GP-7V gas mask differs from the GP-7 in that the front part has a device for receiving water, which allows you to quench your thirst without removing the gas mask.
The difference between the GP-7 VM gas mask and the GP-7 gas mask is that its front part has a spectacle unit in the form of curved trapezoidal glasses, which makes it possible to work with optical devices.
Lightweight respiratory protection against harmful gases, vapors, aerosols and dust are respirators. They are divided into two types: the first is respirators, in which a half mask and a filter element simultaneously serve as a front part; the second - cleans the inhaled air in filter cartridges attached to the half mask.
Respirators are subdivided into anti-dust, gas-and-dust and gas-dust respirators. Anti-dust-left protects the respiratory system from aerosols of various types, anti-gas ones - from harmful vapors and gases, and gas-dust protection ones - from gases, vapors and aerosols, while their presence in the air.
Skin protection products are designed to protect people from the effects of SDYAV, OM, radioactive substances and bacterial agents. They are made in the form of jackets with hoods, semi-overalls and overalls.
To protect against SDYAV in the accident zone, mainly insulating-type protection means are used. These include: insulating chemical kit КИХ-4 (КИХ-5); combined arms protective kit; light protective suit L-1. A set of protective filtering clothing consists of a cotton overalls impregnated with an aqueous solution of a special paste, which retains vapors of toxic substances (adsorption type) or neutralize them (chemisorption type), as well as men's underwear, a cotton comforter and two pairs of footcloths (one of which is impregnated with the same composition as the jumpsuit).
Personal protective equipment are important in the system of measures to protect the population from the damaging factors of man-made disasters, natural disasters and infectious diseases. These include:
8.2. Personal protective equipment
radioprotective agents, antidotes, antibacterial drugs, partial treatment agents. All of them are designed to prevent disease and provide first aid to the population. The most important of them are contained in an individual first aid kit (AI-2) issued to the population with a declaration of the danger of an emergency. It is a plastic case of orange color, in which are enclosed cases with medicines and a syringe tube with an antidote. The preparations are arranged as follows:
Slot 1 is for a syringe tube with opposing
left remedy used for fractures is extensive
traumas and burns;
Nest 2 holds a red pencil case with 6 TAPE tablets
NA - for the prevention of FOV lesions (single dose -
2 tablets, repeated administration - 1 tablet in 6-8 hours);
Nest 3 contains antibacterial agent No. 2 SUL-
FADIMETOXIN (15 tablets) to eliminate the ventricle
disorders arising after irradiation. In the lane
7 tablets are taken every day, in the next two
days - 4 tablets;
In nest 4 there is a radioprotective agent No. 1 CISTA-
MIN (two cases of 6 tablets). Used when threatened
irradiation: at one time - 6 tablets; with a new threat
radiation, 6 more tablets are taken, but not earlier than
4-5 hours after the first dose;
Nest 5 contains antibacterial agent # 1
TETRACEKLIN (two boxes of 5 tablets). Applicable
in case of threat or occurrence of infection, injury and burn
gah: first 5 tablets, washed down with water, and after 6 hours -
5 more tablets;
Nest 6 accommodates radioactive agent No. 2 - 10 tablets
current of POTASSIUM IODIDE, which is taken one by one
tablet within 10 days after radioactive fallout
free precipitation;
Nest 7 contains the antiemetic agent ETHAPER-
ZIN (5 tablets). Applied 1 tablet after exposure
or when nausea occurs with a bruise of the head.
Individual anti-chemical package (IPP-8, IPP-10) used for sanitizing open areas
166 Ch. 8. Ecobioprotective equipment and personal protective equipment
Skin and adjacent areas of clothing by disinfecting droplet-liquid or foggy substances and bacterial aerosols that fall on them. The package contains a bottle with a polydegassing liquid capable of neutralizing agents, and 4 cotton gauze napkins enclosed in an airtight bag. The efficiency of sanitization is high if the degassing solution is applied immediately after droplets of organic substances get on the skin:
For the disinfection of individual water supplies shyazhonyakp- Xia PANTOCIN tablets containing chloramine. One tablet is designed to disinfect 1 liter of water. The water is suitable for drinking 45 minutes after the tablet is completely dissolved in it.
Peacetime and wartime emergencies
9.1. General information and classification of emergency situations
Natural disasters, accidents and catastrophes are very frequent occurrences in our country. Every year in this or that region there are strong floods of rivers, breakthroughs of dams and dams, earthquakes, storms and hurricanes, forest and peat fires.
Each of these phenomena has its own characteristics, the nature of the defeats, the volume and scale of destruction, the magnitude of disasters and human losses. Each of them leaves its mark on the environment.
Knowledge of the causes and nature of natural disasters allows, with early adoption of protection measures and reasonable behavior of the population, to significantly reduce all types of losses.
Timely information makes it possible to carry out preventive work, alert forces and means, explain to people the rules of behavior.
The entire population should be ready to act in extreme situations, to participate in the elimination of natural disasters, accidents and catastrophes, to be able to master the methods of providing first aid to victims.
What are natural disasters? What are their features? What are the rules of conduct and actions for people in emergency situations?
"Emergency- this is the situation in a certain area resulting from an accident, hazardous natural phenomenon, catastrophe, natural or other disaster that may or did entail human casualties, damage to human health or the environment, significant material losses and disruptions to the living conditions of people " (Article 1 of the Federal Law of the Russian Federation "On the
168
Shield the population and territories from natural and man-made emergencies ").
Sources of emergency situations can be natural disasters, accidents, widespread infectious diseases of people, animals and plants, as well as modern means of destruction, as a result of which an emergency situation has occurred or may arise.
In the regulatory documents of the Unified State System for the Prevention and Response of Emergency Situations, the following groups of emergencies are distinguished:
I - natural;
II - biological and social;
III - technogenic;
IV - ecological.
In accordance with the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation No. 1094 of 13.09.1996, depending on the scale of the spread and the severity of the consequences, all emergencies are divided into local, local, territorial, regional, federal and transboundary.
Local- this is such an emergency, as a result of which no more than 10 people were injured, or the living conditions of no more than 100 people were violated, or the material damage was no more than 1 thousand. the minimum wage (minimum wage) on the day of the emergency and its zone does not go beyond the territory of the industrial or social facility.
Local- this is an emergency, as a result of which more than 10, but not more than 50 people were injured; or the living conditions of more than 100, but not more than 300 people are violated; or material damage is more than 1,000, but not more than 5,000 minimum wages on the day of the emergency and the emergency zone does not go beyond the settlement, city, district.
Territorial - this is an emergency, as a result of which more than 50, but not more than 500 people were injured; or the living conditions of over 300 people are violated, but there are more than 500 people; or the material damage is over 5 thousand, but not more than 0.5 million minimum wages on the day of the emergency and the emergency zone does not go beyond the boundaries of the constituent entity of the Russian Federation.
169
Regional- this is an emergency, as a result of which more than 50 people were injured, but not more than 500 people; or the living conditions of more than 500, but not more than 1000 people are violated; or the material damage is over 0.5 million, but not more than 5 million minimum wages on the day of the emergency and the emergency zone covers the territory of two constituent entities of the Russian Federation.
Federal - This is an emergency, as a result of which more than 500 people were injured, or the living conditions of more than 1000 people were disrupted, or material damage was over 5 million minimum wages on the day of the emergency and the emergency zone went beyond the boundaries of more than two constituent entities of the Russian Federation.
Cross-border- this is an emergency situation, the damaging factors of which go beyond the boundaries of the Russian Federation, or an emergency situation occurred abroad, but affects the territory of the Russian Federation.
In the media, the same events associated with emergencies are called accidents or disasters.
What is the difference between them? Crash- This is damage to a machine, machine tool, installation, production line, power supply system, equipment, vehicle, building, structure. These incidents are not so significant and without human casualties.
Catastrophe- this is an event with tragic consequences, for example, a major accident with the death of people and significant material damage.
Natural disasters - these are dangerous phenomena or processes of geophysical, geological, hydrological, atmospheric and other origin, the scale of which is caused by catastrophic situations, characterized by sudden disruption of the life of the population, destruction and destruction of material values, defeat and death of people.
Natural disasters as phenomena often lead to accidents and disasters in industry, transport, utilities and other areas of human activity.
Ecological catastrophy- natural disaster, major industrial or transport accident (catastrophe),
170 Ch. 9. Emergencies of peace and wartime
Which led to extremely unfavorable changes in the environment and, as a rule, to the mass death of living organisms and to significant economic damage.
/. Natural emergencies. Based on the reasons (conditions) of their occurrence, they are divided into the following groups: geological, meteorological, hydrological, natural fires.
1. Natural disasters of a geological nature are subdivided into disasters caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, mudflows, avalanches, landslides, subsidence of the earth's surface as a result of karst phenomena.
Earthquakes - these are underground shocks (tremors) and vibrations of the earth's surface caused by natural processes occurring in the earth's crust. The size of the source of an earthquake usually ranges from several tens of meters to hundreds of kilometers. At the same time, the integrity of the soil is often violated, buildings and structures are destroyed, water supply, sewerage, communication lines, electricity and gas supply fail, there are human casualties. This is one of the worst natural disasters ever. According to UNESCO, earthquakes rank first in terms of economic damage and the number of human casualties.
Earthquakes occur unexpectedly, and although the duration of the main shock does not exceed a few seconds, its consequences can be tragic. On the territory of Russia, approximately 28% of the regions are earthquake-prone. Areas of possible 9-point earthquakes are in the Baikal region, Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands, 8-point - in South Siberia and the North Caucasus.
Volcanic activity arises as a result of constant active processes taking place in the depths of the Earth, the inner part of which is constantly in a heated state. At a depth of 10 to 30 km, molten rocks, or magma, accumulate. During tectonic processes, cracks form in the earth's crust and magma rushes to the surface. This process is accompanied by the release of water vapors and gases, which create tremendous pressure, removing obstacles in its path. When it comes to the surface of the Earth, part of the magma turns into slag, and the other is poured out in the form of lava. From vapors and gases emitted into the atmosphere,
9.1. General information and classification of emergency situations
particles of volcanic rock called tephra are deposited on the ground.
Volcanic slags, pumice, ash, rocks, piling up, form a predominantly cone-shaped mountain, which is called a volcano. In the upper part of the volcano there is a crater in the form of a funnel, connected by a channel with a magma source.
According to the degree of activity, volcanoes are classified into active, dormant and extinct. The active ones include those that erupted in historical time, in contrast to the extinct ones, which did not erupt. Dormant volcanoes manifest themselves periodically, but the matter does not come to an eruption.
In Russia, near Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, there is an active volcano Avacha. There are extinct volcanoes near it - Koryakskaya and Kozelskaya volcanoes. There are 39 active volcanoes on the Kuril Islands, and 26 on Kamchatka. To the east of the Mediterranean Sea, the extinct volcanoes of Asia Minor and the Caucasus Range - Ararat, Kazbek and Elbrus - are scattered across a wide strip.
Landslides is a sliding displacement of earth masses under its own weight. Most often occur along the banks of rivers and reservoirs, on mountain slopes. The main reason for their occurrence is excessive saturation of clay rocks with groundwater. Landslides come down at any time of the year, but mostly in the spring and summer.
Landslides cause significant damage to the national economy, they threaten the movement of trains, road transport, residential buildings and other buildings. In case of landslides, there is an intensive process of land dropping out of agricultural use. They often lead to human casualties.
Mud(mudflow, from Arabic say "stormy stream") - a turbulent mud or mud-stone flow, consisting of a mixture of water and rock debris, suddenly appearing in the basins of small mountain rivers. The reason for its occurrence is intense and prolonged downpours, rapid melting of snow or glaciers, breakthrough of water bodies, less often earthquakes, volcanic eruptions.
Unlike ordinary streams, mudflows move, as a rule, in separate waves, and not in a continuous stream. One-
Ch. 9. Emergencies of peace and wartime
.1. General information and classification of emergency situations173
A huge amount of viscous magma is temporarily brought to the surface. The steep leading front of the mudflow wave with a height of 5 to 15 m forms the “head” of the mudflow. The maximum height of the wall of the water-mud flow sometimes reaches 25 m. The mudflow passes through the obstacles that are encountered on its luti, continuing to build up its energy.
All this lasts for a very short time - 1-3 hours: The time from the beginning of the mudflow in the mountains and until it reaches the flat part is calculated in 20-30 minutes. But, possessing a large mass and a high speed of movement (up to 15 km / h), mudflows destroy buildings, roads, hydraulic engineering and other structures, disable communication lines, power transmission lines, and lead to the death of people and animals.
In Russia, up to 20% of the territory is located in mudflow hazardous zones. Mudflows are especially active in Kabardino-Balkaria, North Ossetia, Dagestan, in the Novorossiysk area, the Sayano-Baikal region, in the area of the Baikal-Amur Mainline, in Kamchatka, within the Stanovoy and Verkhoyansk ranges. They also occur in some areas of Primorye, the Kola Peninsula and in the Urals.
Snow avalanches- snow masses falling from the slopes of the mountains under the influence of gravity.
The snow that accumulates on the slopes of the mountains, under the influence of the severity and weakening of structural bonds within the snow mass, slides or crumbles from the slope. Having started its movement, it quickly picks up speed, capturing new snow masses, stones and other objects along the way. The movement continues until the avalanche reaches flatter areas or the bottom of the valley, where it slows down and stops.
Snow avalanches very often threaten settlements, sports and sanatorium complexes, railways and highways, power lines, mining facilities and other economic structures. The destructive ability of avalanches is different. So, an avalanche already in 10 m 3 poses a danger to humans and light equipment, large ones are able to destroy capital engineering structures, form difficult or insurmountable blockages on transport routes.
In Russia, such natural disasters most often occur on the Kola Peninsula, the Urals, the North Caucasus, in the south of Western and Eastern Siberia, and the Far East.
In the overwhelming majority of mountainous areas, avalanches occur annually, and sometimes several times a year.
2. Natural disasters of a meteorological nature under
are divided into disasters caused by:
Wind, including storm, hurricane, tornado (at speed
growth of 25 m / s and more, for the Arctic and Far Eastern seas - 30 m / s and more);
Heavy rain (with an amount of precipitation of 50 mm or more for 12 hours or less, and in mountainous, mudflow and storm-hazardous areas - 30 mm or more in 12 hours or less);
Large hail (with a hailstone diameter of 20 mm or more);
Heavy snowfall (with a rainfall of 20 mm and
more in 12 hours or less);
Strong blizzards (wind speed 15 m / s and more);
Dust storms;
Frosts (with a decrease in air temperature in vege
period on the soil surface below 0 ° С);
Severe frost or extreme heat.
3. Natural disasters of a hydrological nature subsection
are divided into disasters caused by:
High water level - floods, in which the
flooding of lowered parts of cities and other
settlements, crops,
damage to industrial and transport facilities;
Low water levels, when navigation is disrupted, during
additional supply of cities and national economic facilities,
irrigation systems;
Early freeze-up and the appearance of ice on navigable waters
emax;
Tsunamis - strong waves in the seas and oceans.
Floods- this is flooding of the area adjacent to a river, lake or reservoir with water, which causes material damage, damages the health of people or leads to their death. If flooding is not accompanied by damage, it is an overflow of a river, lake, reservoir.
Floods are more or less periodically observed on most rivers in Russia. In terms of frequency of occurrence, distribution area and total average annual material damage, they rank first in
Ch. 9. Emergencies of peace and wartime
9.1. General information and classification of emergency situations175
A number of natural disasters, in terms of the number of human victims and material damage, are the second after earthquakes. Neither in the present nor in the near future is it possible to completely prevent them. Floods can only be mitigated or contained.
Although all regions of Russia are different in terms of meteorological conditions, floods occur almost every year in one or another area. The damage is calculated in huge numbers. The area that can be flooded by flood waters is about 500 thousand km 2, however, from 36 to 56 thousand km 2 are actually flooded annually.
The greatest negative impact of floods is in the basins of the Amur, Ussuri, Iman, Zeya, Bureya, Siberian rivers flowing into the northern seas, and the rivers of the North Caucasus.
Floods are divided into four groups depending on the causes of occurrence, namely floods:
a) associated with the maximum runoff from the spring melting of snow;
are distinguished by a significant and rather long rise
the depleted water level in the river and are called flood;
b) formed by intense rains; characterized in
intense, relatively short-term climbs
water level and are called floods;
c) caused mainly by high resistance, which
a stream of water meets in the river; occur for the most part
at the beginning and at the end of winter with ice jams and ice clogs;
d) water created by wind surges on large lakes
and reservoirs, as well as in sea estuaries.
Floods of the first two groups predominate within Russia.
In terms of the size and scale of losses, floods are also divided into four groups:
a) low (small); usually observed on plains
rivers and have a recurrence approximately once in
5-10 years old. At the same time, less than 10% of farmland is flooded,
located in low-lying places. Apply minor
material damage and almost do not disrupt the rhythm of life on
villages;
b) high; accompanied by significant flooding,
sometimes it is necessary to evacuate the population; cover srav
significantly large areas of terrain, significantly disturbing
economic activity and the established rhythm of life. They cause significant material and moral damage. They occur once every 20-25 years;
c) outstanding; cover entire river basins. Couple
lick economic activities, inflict big ma
material and moral damage. Very often you have to
resort to mass evacuation of the population and material
values. Repeat approximately once every 50
100 years;
d) catastrophic; cause flooding of huge ter
rhetoric within one or more river systems.
Economic activity is completely paralyzed. Sharp
the way of life of the population is changing. Material
the damage is enormous. There are cases of death of people. About
emanate once every 100-200 years or less.
The main characteristics of the effects of floods include:
The population in the zone is subject to
noisy flood;
The number of settlements caught in the flood zone
nenia;
Number of enterprises, length of automobile
and railways, power lines, communications and com
operations caught in the flood zone;
The number of dead animals, destroyed bridges and tunnels.
Distinguish between direct and indirect damage from floods.
Direct is, for example, damage and destruction of residential and industrial buildings, railways and highways, power transmission and communication lines, death of livestock and crops, destruction and spoilage of raw materials, fuel, food, feed, costs of temporary evacuation of the population and material resources.
Indirect damage usually includes: the cost of purchasing and delivering food products, building materials and livestock feed to the affected areas, reduced production, worsening living conditions of the population.
Direct and indirect damage is mostly in the ratio 70%: 30%.
Tsunami- these are long waves arising from underwater earthquakes, as well as volcanic eruptions
176Ch. 9. Emergencies of peace and wartime
9.1. General information and classification of emergency situations177
Niy or landslides on the seabed. Their source is at the bottom of the ocean. In 90% of cases, tsunamis occur due to underwater earthquakes.
Having formed in any place, a tsunami can travel several thousand kilometers, almost without decreasing. This is due to long wave periods (from 150 to 300 km). In the open sea, ships may not detect these waves, although they move at a high speed (from 100 to 1000 km / h). The height of the waves is small, however, having reached shallow water, the wave slows down sharply, its front rises and falls with terrible force on land. In this case, the height of large waves near the coast reaches 5-20 m, and sometimes reaches 40 m.
The tsunami wave may not be the only one. Very often this is a series of waves at intervals of about an hour. The highest of them is called the main one.
4. The concept of wildfires includes: forest fires, fires of steppe and grain tracts, peat and underground fires of fossil fuels.
Forest fires- these are uncontrolled burning of vegetation, spontaneously spreading over the forest area, which, in dry weather and wind, cover large areas.
In 90-97 cases out of 100, the perpetrators of a disaster are people who do not exercise due caution when using fire in places of work and rest. The proportion of fires from lightning is no more than 2% from their total number.
Depending on the nature of the fire and the composition of the forest, fires are subdivided into grass-roots, high-altitude, and soil fires. Almost all of them at the beginning of their development have the character of grassroots and, if certain conditions are created, they turn into upstream or soil ones.
In a ground fire, and there are up to 90% of the total, the fire spreads only along the soil cover, covering the lower parts of trees, grass and protruding roots.
In case of a runaway head fire, which begins only with a strong wind, the fire usually moves along the tops of trees in "leaps". The wind carries sparks, burning branches and needles, which create new centers for several tens, or even hundreds of meters. The flame moves at a speed of 15-20 km / h.
Ground fires are a consequence of ground or crown fires. After the burning of the upper ground cover, the fire deepens into the peaty horizon. Underground fires are usually called peat fires.
Large forest fires rage during a period of extreme fire danger in the forest, especially during a long and severe drought. Windy weather and litter of forests contribute to their development.
The average duration of large forest fires is from 10 to 15 days, the burned-out area on average is 40-500 hectares with a perimeter of 8 to 16 km.
Areas prone to wildfires are usually declared a "disaster zone".
Natural disasters often cause massive diseases of people, animals, plants and lead to biological and social emergencies.
//. Biological and social emergencies- this is a condition in which, as a result of the emergence of a source of biological and social emergencies in a certain area, the normal conditions of life and activities of people, the existence of farm animals and the growth of plants are disrupted, there is a threat to the life and health of people, the widespread spread of infectious diseases, the loss of farm animals and plants.
Human infectious diseases - these are diseases caused by pathogens and transmitted from an infected person or animal to a healthy one.
Epidemic process is called the phenomenon of the emergence and spread of infectious diseases among people, representing an uninterrupted chain of successively emerging homogeneous diseases. To characterize the intensity of the spread of the disease, concepts such as an epidemic outbreak, epidemic and pandemic are used.
Epidemic outbreak- This is a sharp rise in incidence, limited in time and across the territory, associated with a one-time infection of people.
Epidemic- a wide spread of an infectious disease, significantly exceeding the level of morbidity usually registered in a given territory.
Ch. 9. Emergencies of peace and wartime
9.1. General information and classification of emergency situations179
Pandemic - an unusually wide spread of the incidence, both in level and in scale of distribution, covering a number of countries, entire continents and even the entire globe.
Particularly dangerous infectious diseases of humans include: plague, cholera, yellow fever, AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome), diphtheria, influenza, dysentery, hepatitis, tuberculosis, etc.
Animal infectious diseases- a group of diseases that have such common features as the presence of a specific pathogen, cyclical development, the ability to be transmitted from an infected animal to a healthy one and to take on an epizootic spread.
In terms of the breadth of distribution, the epizootic process is characterized by three forms: sporadic morbidity, epizootic, panzootic.
Sporadia - these are isolated or few cases of manifestation of an infectious disease, usually not related to each other by a single source of the causative agent of infections, the lowest degree of intensity of the epizootic process.
Epizootic - the average degree of intensity (tension) of the epizootic process. It is characterized by a wide spread of infectious diseases in the economy, district, region, country. It is characterized by the mass character, the common source of the causative agent of the infection, the simultaneity of the lesion, the frequency and seasonality.
Panzooty ~ the highest degree of development of epizootics. It is characterized by an unusually wide spread of an infectious disease, covering one state, several countries, and the mainland. Infectious diseases of animals with a tendency to panzootics include foot and mouth disease, rinderpest, pigs and birds, brucellosis, rabies of cattle, etc.
Plant disease - this is a violation of the normal metabolism, cells of organs and the whole plant under the influence of phytopathogen or unfavorable environmental conditions, leading to a decrease in the productivity of plants or to their complete death.
Phytopathogen - the causative agent of plant disease, releases biologically active substances that have a detrimental effect on metabolism, affecting the root system and disrupting the supply of nutrients.
To assess the scale of plant diseases, concepts such as "epiphytotia" and "panphytotia" are used.
Epiphytotia - the spread of infectious diseases over large areas over a period of time.
Panfitotia - massive diseases covering several countries or continents.
III. Technogenic emergencies are very diverse both for reasons of their occurrence and for their scale. By the nature of the phenomena, they are divided into 6 main groups - these are accidents into:
1) chemically hazardous facilities (HOO);
2) radiation hazardous facilities (ROO);
3) fire and explosive objects;
4) hydrodynamically dangerous objects;
5) transport (rail, road, air
nom, water, metro);
6) utilities and energy networks.
1. Chemical accident are emissions of potent
poisonous substances that can occur when damaged
and destruction of containers during storage, transportation
or recycling these substances. Also, some are not
liquid substances in certain conditions (explosion, fire) in
as a result of a chemical reaction, SDYAV can be formed. V
In the event of an accident, not only the surface
layer of the atmosphere, but also water sources, food
niya, soil.
The main damaging factor in accidents at HOO is chemical contamination of the surface layer of the atmosphere, leading to the defeat of people in the zone of action of the SDYAV. Its scale is characterized by the size of the infected zones. The following zones are distinguished: deadly toxic doses, disabling and threshold toxic doses.
2. Radiation accident- an incident leading to
release (release) of radioactive products and ionizing
radiation beyond the limits (boundaries) provided for by the project in
quantities exceeding the established safety standards
nosti.
Radiation impact on personnel and population in the zone of radioactive contamination is characterized by the values of doses of external and internal exposure of people. Under the external
Ch. 9. Emergencies of peace and wartime
9.1. General information and classification of emergency situations181
Direct irradiation of a person is taken from sources of ionizing radiation located outside his body, mainly from sources of γ-radiation and neutrons. Internal exposure occurs due to ionizing radiation from sources inside a person. These sources are formed in critical (most sensitive) organs and tissues. Internal irradiation occurs due to sources of a-, p- and y-radiation.
3. Accidents at fire and explosive facilities, related
with violent explosions and fires, may result in severe
social and economic consequences. Called
they mainly explode tanks and pipelines with easy
flammable and explosive liquids and gases
mi, short circuit of electrical wiring, explosions and
burning of some substances and materials. Fires in case of
mental accidents cause the destruction of structures due to
combustion or deformation of their elements from high temperatures.
4. In case of accidents at hydrodynamically hazardous facilities, To
which include hydraulic structures of the pressure head
type, the destruction of dams is dangerous. When dams are broken, the
a breakthrough wave is generated, the destructive effect of which is
is mainly involved in the movement of large masses of water with
high speed and ramming action of all that is
placed together with water (stones, boards, logs, various
designs).
The height and speed of the breakthrough wave depends on the hydrological and topographic conditions of the river. For example, for flat areas the speed of the breakthrough wave can reach from 3 to 25 km / h, and in mountainous and foothill areas - 100 km / h. Wooded areas slow down speed and reduce wave height.
When dams break, significant areas of the terrain in 15-30 minutes are usually flooded with a layer of water with a thickness of 0.5 to 10 m or more. The time during which the territory can be under water ranges from several hours to several days.
5. Accidents in transport and utilities
networks quite frequent occurrences in our life, and, unfortunately
Niyu, their number is increasing from year to year. Anyone for today
the mode of transport is a potential hazard.
In railway transport, rolling stock derailment, collisions, collisions with
obstacles at level crossings, fires and explosions directly in carriages. Erosion of railway tracks, landslides, landslides cannot be ruled out. When transporting dangerous goods such as gases, flammable, explosive, poisonous and radioactive substances, explosions and fires can occur.
The causes of accidents in railway transport are the deterioration of track and carriage facilities, malfunctioning of signaling, centralization and blocking devices, dispatchers' mistakes, inattention and negligence of drivers.
One of the main problems associated with road transport is traffic safety. About 75% of all road traffic accidents occur due to violation of traffic rules by drivers, and a third of accidents are the result of poor driver training. They either do not have the right to drive a vehicle of the corresponding category at all, or, moreover, they buy driving licenses. The most dangerous type of violations is still speeding, entering the oncoming lane, and driving while intoxicated.
In air transport, despite the measures taken, the number of accidents and disasters does not decrease. The destruction of individual aircraft structures, engine failure, malfunction of control systems, power supply, communications, piloting, lack of fuel or its poor quality, interruptions in the life support of the crew and passengers lead to serious consequences.
In water transport, most major accidents and disasters occur under the influence of hurricanes, storms, fogs, ice, as well as through the fault of people - captains, pilots and crew members. Half of the accidents on rivers and seas are the result of inept operation of transport, improper placement of goods, poor fastening, etc. All this leads to collisions and capsizing of ships, grounding them, explosions and fires on board.
6. Utility breakdowns in our life have become commonplace. In 2002-2003. whole cities froze in winter. Due to aging equipment, corrosion and dilapidation of pipes, deformation of the soil, ruptures in water supply, sewerage networks and pipelines have
Ch. 9. Emergencies of peace and wartime
were a real scourge for workers of housing and communal services.
When planning measures to combat accidents, it should be borne in mind that in their development they go through five characteristic stages:
Accumulation of deviations from the normal process;
Initiation of an accident;
The development of an accident during which the
visibility for people, the natural environment and objects of the national economy
wives;
Rescue and other urgent work,
Restoration of vital activity after the liquidation of the settlement
the consequences of the accident.
Due to the fact that the number of accidents tends to To increase from year to year, emergency rescue services, rescue teams, the formation of the Ministry of Emergency Situations and Civil Defense should be ready to perform tasks to eliminate unforeseen situations.
GU. Environmental emergencies are very diverse and practically cover all aspects of human life and activities. This is due to the wide range of sources of this emergency.
By the nature of the phenomena, environmental emergencies are divided into four main groups, which are characterized by changes:
State of the land (soil degradation, erosion, desertification);
Air properties (climate warming, lack of
oxygen, harmful substances, acid rain, noise, on
destruction of the ozone layer);
The state of the hydrosphere (depletion and pollution of rivers,
seas and oceans);
The states of the biosphere (zones of the Earth - including the upper
the tosphere and the lower atmosphere).
Similar information.
PLAN
INTRODUCTION ................................................. .................................................. .... 3
1. ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION .............................................. ..................... 4
1.1. Types of pollution of the hydrosphere ............................................... .................. 4
1.2. Pollution of the oceans and seas .............................................. ...................... eight
1.3. Pollution of rivers and lakes .............................................. .............................. eleven
1.4. Drinking water................................................ .......................................... fourteen
2. RELEVANCE OF THE PROBLEM OF WATER POLLUTION ............... 16
3. DISCHARGE OF WASTE WATER INTO WATER BODIES ........................................... ........ eighteen
4. METHODS OF WASTE WATER PURIFICATION ............................................ ........ twenty
CONCLUSION................................................. ............................................. 23
LIST OF USED LITERATURE ......................................... 25
INTRODUCTION
In my essay, I will consider the topic - "Protection of the hydrosphere".
In this work, I will consider the problems of pollution and the direction and methods of protecting the hydrosphere.
Water and life are inseparable concepts.
Large-scale atmospheric pollution caused damage to rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and soils. Pollutants and products of their transformations sooner or later fall from the atmosphere to the Earth's surface. This already big trouble is significantly aggravated by the fact that a stream of waste goes directly to water bodies and to the ground. Huge areas of agricultural land are exposed to various pesticides and fertilizers, landfills are growing. Industrial plants discharge wastewater directly into rivers. Runoff from fields also flows into rivers and lakes. Groundwater is also polluted - the most important reservoir of fresh water. Boomerang contamination of fresh waters and lands returns to humans again in food and drinking water.
With the emergence of human civilization, a new factor has appeared that affects the fate of wildlife and the environment. He has achieved tremendous power in the current century and especially in recent times.
With the emergence and development of mankind, the process of evolution has changed markedly. In the early stages of civilization, deforestation and burning of forests for agriculture, grazing, hunting and hunting for wild animals, wars devastated entire regions, led to the destruction of plant communities, the extermination of certain species of animals. With the development of civilization, especially the turbulent after the industrial revolution at the end of the Middle Ages, mankind acquired ever greater power, an ever greater ability to involve and use huge masses of matter - both organic, living, and mineral, inert to satisfy its growing needs.
Population growth and the expanding development of agriculture, industry, construction, transport caused massive destruction of forests in Europe and North America.
The construction and operation of industrial enterprises, mining have led to serious disturbances in natural landscapes, pollution of soil, water, air with various wastes.
Warning about the possible consequences of the expanding human invasion of nature, half a century ago Academician V. I. Vernadsky wrote: "Man becomes a geological force capable of changing the face of the Earth." This warning came true prophetically.
It is clear that in such a situation, nature needs to be protected. In my essay, I will consider in particular the protection of the hydrosphere.
1. ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION
1.1. Types of pollution of the hydrosphere
Pollution of water resources means any changes in the physical, chemical and biological properties of water in reservoirs due to the discharge of liquid, solid and gaseous substances into them, which cause or may cause inconvenience, making the water of these reservoirs dangerous for use, causing damage to the national economy, health and public safety. Sources of pollution are objects from which hazardous substances are discharged or otherwise released into water bodies, deteriorating the quality of surface waters, limiting their use, and also negatively affecting the state of the bottom and coastal water bodies.
Pollution of surface and groundwater can be divided into the following types:
mechanical- an increase in the content of mechanical impurities, characteristic mainly of surface types of pollution;
chemical- presence in water of organic and inorganic substances of toxic and non-toxic action;
bacterial and biological- the presence in the water of a variety of pathogenic microorganisms, fungi and small algae;
radioactive- the presence of radioactive substances in surface or ground waters;
thermal - release of heated waters of thermal and nuclear power plants into reservoirs.
The main sources of pollution and contamination of water bodies are insufficiently treated wastewater from industrial and communal enterprises, large livestock complexes, production waste from the development of ore minerals; water of mines, mines, processing and alloying of timber; discharges of water and rail transport; flax primary processing waste, pesticides, etc. Pollutants entering natural reservoirs lead to qualitative changes in water, which are mainly manifested in changes in the physical properties of water, in particular, the appearance of unpleasant odors, tastes, etc.); in the change in the chemical composition of water, in particular, the appearance of harmful substances in it, in the presence of floating substances on the surface of the water and their deposition at the bottom of reservoirs.
Waste water is divided into three groups: waste water, or fecal; household, including drains from the galley, showers, laundries, etc.; sub-seam, or oil-containing.
For waste water characterized by high bacterial contamination, as well as organic contamination (chemical oxygen consumption reaches 1500-2000 mg / l.). the volume of these waters is relatively small.
Domestic waste water characterized by low organic pollution. This wastewater is usually discharged overboard as it is generated. Dumping them is prohibited only in the sanitary protection zone.
Subsalm waters are formed in the engine rooms of ships. They are distinguished by a high content of petroleum products.
Industrial wastewater is polluted mainly with industrial waste and emissions. Their quantitative and qualitative composition is diverse and depends on the branch of industry, its technological processes; they are divided into two main groups: containing inorganic impurities, incl. both toxic and containing poisons.
The first group includes waste water from soda, sulphate, nitrogen fertilizer plants, enrichment plants of lead, zinc, nickel ores, etc., which contain acids, alkalis, heavy metal ions, etc. Waste waters of this group mainly change the physical properties of water.
Wastewaters of the second group are discharged by oil refineries, petrochemical plants, organic synthesis plants, coke-chemical plants, etc. The wastewater contains various oil products, ammonia, aldehydes, resins, phenols and other harmful substances. The harmful effect of wastewater from this group is mainly in oxidative processes, as a result of which the oxygen content in the water decreases, the biochemical need for it increases, and the organoleptic characteristics of water deteriorate.
Wastewater pollution from industrial production as well as municipal wastewaters leads to eutrophication reservoirs - their enrichment with nutrients, leading to the excessive development of algae, and to the death of other aquatic ecosystems with stagnant water (lakes, ponds), and sometimes to swamping of the area.
Phenol is a rather harmful pollutant of industrial waters. It is found in wastewater from many petrochemical plants. At the same time, the biological processes of reservoirs, the process of their self-purification, sharply decrease, the water acquires a specific smell of carbolic acid.
The life of the population of reservoirs is adversely affected by wastewater from the pulp and paper industry. The oxidation of wood pulp is accompanied by the absorption of a significant amount of oxygen, which leads to the death of eggs, fry and adult fish. Fibers and other insoluble substances clog the water and impair its physical and chemical properties. On fish and on their food - invertebrates - molar alloys are adversely reflected. Various tannins are released into the water from decaying wood and bark. Resin and other extractive products decompose and absorb a lot of oxygen, causing the death of fish, especially juveniles and eggs. In addition, molten rafting heavily clogs rivers, and driftwood often completely clogs their bottom, depriving fish of spawning grounds and feeding places.
Oil and oil products at the present stage are the main pollutants of inland water bodies, waters and seas, and the World Ocean. Once in water bodies, they create various forms of pollution: an oil film floating on the water, oil products dissolved or emulsified in water, heavy fractions settled to the bottom, etc. This complicates the processes of photosynthesis in water due to the cessation of access to sunlight, and also causes the death of plants and animals. At the same time, the smell, taste, color, surface tension, viscosity of water change, the amount of oxygen decreases, harmful organic substances appear, water acquires toxic properties and poses a threat not only to humans. 12 g of oil makes a ton of water unusable. Each ton of oil creates oil slick on an area of up to 12 square meters. km. Restoration of affected ecosystems takes 10-15 years.
Nuclear power plants pollute rivers with radioactive waste. Radioactive substances are concentrated by the smallest planktonic microorganisms and fish, then they are transferred to other animals along the food chain. It has been established that the radioactivity of planktonic inhabitants is thousands of times higher than the water in which they live.
Wastewater with increased radioactivity (100 curies per 1 liter or more) must be buried in underground drainage basins and special reservoirs.
Population growth, the expansion of old cities and the emergence of new cities have significantly increased the flow of domestic wastewater into inland waters. These runoffs have become a source of pollution of rivers and lakes with pathogenic bacteria and helminths. To an even greater extent, synthetic detergents, widely used in everyday life, pollute water bodies. They are also widely used in industry and agriculture. The chemical substances contained in them, entering rivers and lakes with wastewater, have a significant impact on the biological and physical regime of water bodies. As a result, the ability of waters to saturate with oxygen decreases, the activity of bacteria that mineralize organic substances is paralyzed.
A serious concern is the pollution of water bodies with pesticides and mineral fertilizers that come from the fields along with streams of rain and melt water. As a result of research, for example, it has been proven that insecticides contained in water in the form of suspensions dissolve in oil products that pollute rivers and lakes. This interaction leads to a significant weakening of the oxidative functions of aquatic plants. Once in water bodies, pesticides accumulate in plankton, benthos, fish, and along the food chain they enter the human body, acting negatively both on individual organs and on the body as a whole.
In connection with the intensification of animal husbandry, the runoffs of enterprises in this sector of agriculture are increasingly making themselves felt.
Wastewater containing vegetable fibers, animal and vegetable fats, fecal matter, residues of fruits and vegetables, waste from the tannery and pulp and paper industry, sugar and breweries, meat and dairy, canning and confectionery industries, are the cause of organic pollution of water bodies.
In wastewater, usually about 60% of substances of organic origin, the same organic category includes biological (bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae) pollution in municipal, medical and sanitary waters and waste from tanneries and wool washing enterprises.
A serious environmental problem is that the usual way to use water to absorb heat in thermal power plants is to directly pump fresh lake or river water through a cooler and then return it to natural bodies of water without preliminary cooling. The 1000 MW power plant requires a lake with an area of 810 hectares and a depth of about 8.7 m.
Power plants can increase the temperature of the water in comparison with the ambient temperature by 5-15 C. Under natural conditions, with slow increases or decreases in temperature, fish and other aquatic organisms gradually adapt to changes in ambient temperature. But if, as a result of the discharge of hot wastewater from industrial enterprises into rivers and lakes, a new temperature regime is quickly established, there is not enough time for acclimatization, living organisms receive a heat shock and die.
Heat shock is the extreme result of heat pollution. The result of the discharge of heated wastewater into water bodies can be other, more insidious consequences. One of them is the impact on metabolic processes.
As a result of an increase in water temperature, the oxygen content in it decreases, while the need for it of living organisms increases. The increased need for oxygen, its lack of it causes severe physiological stress and even death. Artificial heating of water can significantly change the behavior of fish - cause untimely spawning, disrupt migration
An increase in water temperature can disrupt the structure of the flora of water bodies. Algae characteristic of cold water are replaced by more thermophilic ones and, finally, at high temperatures, they are completely displaced by them, thus creating favorable conditions for the mass development of blue-green algae in reservoirs - the so-called “water bloom”. All of the above consequences of thermal pollution of water bodies cause enormous harm to natural ecosystems and lead to a detrimental change in the human environment. The damage resulting from thermal pollution can be divided into: - economic(losses due to a decrease in the productivity of reservoirs, the cost of eliminating the consequences of pollution); social(aesthetic damage from landscape degradation); ecological(irreversible destruction of unique ecosystems, extinction of species, genetic damage).
Rivers are also polluted during rafting, during hydropower construction, and with the beginning of the navigation period, pollution by river vessels increases.
The world economy dumps 1,500 cubic meters per year. km of wastewater of varying degrees of purification, which require 50-100-fold dilution to give them natural properties and further purification in the biosphere. This does not take into account the waters of agricultural production. World river runoff (37.5-45 thousand cubic km per year) is insufficient for the necessary dilution of wastewater. Thus, as a result of industrial activity, fresh water has ceased to be a renewable resource.
Consider sequentially the pollution of oceans, seas, rivers and lakes, as well as wastewater treatment methods.
1.2. Pollution of oceans and seas
More than 10 million tons of oil gets into the World Ocean every year, and up to 20% of its area is already covered with an oil film. This is primarily due to the fact that oil and gas production in the World Ocean has become an essential component of the oil and gas complex. In 1993, the ocean produced 850 million tons of oil (almost 30% of world production). About 2,500 wells have been drilled in the world, of which 800 are in the United States, 540 are in Southeast Asia, 400 are in the North Sea, and 150 are in the Persian Gulf. These wells were drilled at depths of up to 900 m.
The pollution of the hydrosphere by water transport occurs through two channels. Firstly, sea and river vessels pollute it with wastes obtained as a result of operational activities, and, secondly, emissions in case of accidents of toxic cargo, mostly oil and oil products. Power plants of ships (mainly diesel engines) constantly pollute the atmosphere, from where toxic substances partially or almost completely enter the waters of rivers, seas and oceans.
Oil and oil products are the main pollutants of the water basin. On tankers carrying oil and its derivatives, before each next loading, as a rule, containers (tanks) are washed to remove the remains of previously transported cargo. The flushing water, and with it the rest of the cargo, is usually discharged overboard. In addition, after the delivery of oil cargo to the ports of destination, tankers most often go to the point of new loading empty. In this case, to ensure proper draft and safe navigation, the vessels' tanks are filled with ballast water. This water is polluted with oil residues, and is poured into the sea before loading oil and oil products. Of the total cargo turnover of the world sea fleet, at present, 49% falls on oil and its derivatives. About 6,000 tankers of international flotillas transport 3 billion tons of oil annually. As the transportation of oil and cargo increased, more and more oil began to fall into the ocean in accidents.
The collapse of the American supertanker "Torrey Canyon" off the southwest coast of England in March 1967 caused enormous damage to the ocean: 120 thousand tons of oil spilled onto the water and was set on fire by incendiary bombs from aircraft. Oil burned for several days. Beaches and coasts of England and France were polluted.
More than 750 large tankers have died in the seas and oceans in the decade since the Torrey Canon disaster. Most of these crashes were accompanied by massive discharges of oil and oil products into the sea. In 1978, a catastrophe struck again off the French coast, with even more significant consequences than in 1967. Here the American supertanker "Amono Codis" crashed in a storm. More than 220 thousand tons of oil spilled out of the vessel, covering an area of 3.5 thousand square meters. km. There was huge damage to fishing, fish farming, oyster "plantations", all marine life in the area. Over 180 km. the coast was covered with black mourning "crepe".
In 1989, the accident of the Valdez tanker off the coast of Alaska became the largest environmental disaster of its kind in US history. A huge, half a kilometer long, the tanker ran aground about 25 miles offshore. Then about 40 thousand tons of oil spilled into the sea. A huge oil slick spread out within a radius of 50 miles from the accident site, covering an area of 80 square meters with a dense film. km. The cleanest and fauna-rich coastal regions of North America were poisoned.
To prevent such disasters, double-hulled tankers are being developed. In the event of an accident, if one hull is damaged, the other will prevent oil from entering the sea.
Pollution of the ocean and other types of industrial waste occurs. About 20 billion tons of garbage were dumped in all seas of the world (1988). It is estimated that for 1 sq. km of ocean accounts for an average of 17 tons of waste. It was recorded that 98 thousand tons of waste was dumped into the North Sea in one day (1987).
The famous traveler Thor Heyerdahl said that when he and his friends sailed on the Kon-Tiki raft in 1954, they never tired of admiring the purity of the ocean, and while sailing on the Ra-2 papyrus ship in 1969, he and his companions “When we woke up in the morning, we saw the ocean so polluted that there was nowhere to dip a toothbrush. From blue, the Atlantic Ocean turned gray-green and cloudy, and lumps of fuel oil, the size of a pinhead to a loaf of bread, floated everywhere. Plastic bottles dangled in this mess, as if we were in a dirty harbor. I had not seen anything like it when I sat in the ocean on the logs of the Kon-Tiki for one hundred and one days. We have seen with our own eyes that people are poisoning the most important source of life, the mighty filter of the globe - the World Ocean ”.
Up to 2 million seabirds and 100 thousand marine animals, including up to 30 thousand seals, die every year if they swallow any plastic products or get entangled in scraps of nets and cables.
Germany, Belgium, Holland, England dumped poisonous acids into the North Sea, mainly 18-20% sulfuric acid, heavy metals with soil and sewage sludge containing arsenic and mercury, as well as hydrocarbons, including poisonous dioxin (1987 year). Heavy metals include a number of elements widely used in industry: zinc, lead, chromium, copper, nickel, cobalt, molybdenum, etc. a certain threshold concentration, a sharp poisoning of the body occurs.
As a result of oil extraction from pipelines connecting oil platforms with the mainland, about 30,000 tons of oil products flowed into the sea every year. The consequences of this pollution are not hard to see. A number of species that once lived in the North Sea, including salmon, sturgeon, oysters, rays and haddock, have simply disappeared. Seals die, other inhabitants of this sea often suffer from infectious skin diseases, have a deformed skeleton and malignant tumors. A bird that feeds on fish or is poisoned by sea water dies. Poisonous algae blooms have been observed, leading to a decrease in fish stocks (1988).
During 1989, 17,000 seals died in the Baltic Sea. Studies have shown that the tissues of dead animals are literally saturated with mercury, which entered their body from the water. Biologists believe that water pollution has led to a sharp weakening of the immune system of the inhabitants of the sea and their death from viral diseases.
Large spills of oil products (thousands of tons) occur in the Eastern Baltic once every 3-5 years, small (tens of tons) - monthly. A large spill affects ecosystems in a water area of several thousand hectares, a small one - several tens of hectares. The Baltic Sea, the Skagerrak Strait, and the Irish Sea are threatened by emissions of mustard gas, a chemical poisonous substance created by Germany during World War II and flooded by Germany, Great Britain and the USSR in the 40s. The USSR drowned its chemical munitions in the northern seas and the Far East, Great Britain - in the Irish Sea.
In 1983, the international Convention on the Prevention of Pollution of the Marine Environment came into force. In 1984, the Baltic States signed the Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea in Helsinki. This was the first international agreement at the regional level. As a result of the work carried out, the content of oil products in the open waters of the Baltic Sea decreased 20 times compared to 1975.
In 1992, a new Convention on the Protection of the Environment of the Baltic Sea Basin was signed by ministers of 12 states and a representative of the European Community.
The Adriatic and Mediterranean seas are being polluted. Only through the Po River 30 thousand tons of phosphorus, 80 thousand tons of nitrogen, 60 thousand tons of hydrocarbons, thousands of tons of lead and chromium, 3 thousand tons of zinc, 250 tons of arsenic (1988 year).
The Mediterranean Sea is threatened with the fate of turning into a garbage dump, a waste pit on three continents. Every year 60 thousand tons of detergents, 24 thousand tons of chromium, thousands of tons of nitrates used in agriculture enter the sea. In addition, 85% of the waters discharged from 120 large coastal cities are not purified (1989), and the self-purification (complete renewal of waters) of the Mediterranean Sea is carried out through the Strait of Gibraltar for 80 years.
Due to pollution, the Aral Sea has completely lost its fishery importance since 1984. Its unique ecosystem has died.
The owners of the Tisso chemical plant in the town of Minamata on the island of Kyushu (Japan) dumped wastewater saturated with mercury into the ocean for many years. Coastal waters and fish were poisoned, and since the 50s, 1,200 people have died, and 100,000 have received poisoning of various severity, including psychoparalytic diseases.
A serious environmental threat to life in the World Ocean and, therefore, to humans is the burial of radioactive waste (RW) on the seabed and the discharge of liquid radioactive waste (LRW) into the sea. Western countries (USA, Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, etc.) of the USSR since 1946 began to actively use the ocean depths in order to get rid of radioactive waste.
In 1959, the US Navy sank an unsuccessful nuclear submarine reactor 120 miles off the US Atlantic coast. According to Greenpeace, our country dumped about 17 thousand concrete containers with radioactive waste into the sea, as well as more than 30 ship nuclear reactors.
The most difficult situation has developed in the Barents and Kara Seas around the nuclear test site on Novaya Zemlya. There, in addition to the countless number of containers, 17 reactors were flooded, including those with nuclear fuel, several damaged nuclear submarines, as well as the central compartment of the Lenin nuclear-powered ship with three damaged reactors. The Pacific Fleet of the USSR dumped nuclear waste (including 18 reactors) in the Sea of Japan and the Sea of Okhotsk, in 10 locations near the shores of Sakhalin and Vladivostok.
The United States and Japan dumped waste from nuclear power plants into the Sea of Japan, the Sea of Okhotsk and the Arctic Ocean.
The USSR dumped liquid radioactive waste in the Far Eastern seas from 1966 to 1991 (mainly near the southeastern part of Kamchatka and in the Sea of Japan). The Northern Fleet annually dumped 10 thousand cubic meters into the water. m LRW.
In 1972, the London Convention was signed, prohibiting the dumping of radioactive and toxic chemical waste to the bottom of the seas and oceans. Our country has also joined that convention. Warships, in accordance with international law, do not need a discharge permit. In 1993, the discharge of liquid radioactive waste into the sea was prohibited.
In 1982, the 3rd UN Conference on the Law of the Sea adopted a convention on the peaceful use of the oceans in the interests of all countries and peoples, which contains about a thousand international legal norms governing all the main issues of the use of ocean resources.
1.3. Pollution of rivers and lakes
A large amount of wastewater, oil products and even liquid radioactive waste is discharged into rivers and lakes in various regions of the world.
When the oil-laden Kayyahoga River erupted into the Great Lakes in Cleveland, USA in 1969, it immediately became a visible symbol of the environmental disaster caused by years of dumping of waste from utilities and industries along the Great Lakes coastline.
If the Great Lakes themselves, containing 90% of the fresh water of the United States, have ceased to be treated as a giant cesspool, then at the bottom of almost four dozen bays, inlets and river estuaries, garbage that falls into the upper reaches of rivers from nearby cities and farms is still deposited, and also chemicals allowed for burial.
In the early 1980s, a US-Canadian commission registered 42 areas of concern in the Great Lakes. Previous burials of toxic substances have led to the concentration of toxic bottom sediments. The US and Canada have pledged to purge these toxic hotspots. However, the attack on such technologically polluted lakes turned out to be a real nightmare. It will apparently cost tens of billions of dollars and will end in the 21st century.
Pesticides pose a particular threat. Once in the lakes, they quickly disperse and practically do not threaten the 35 million Americans and Canadians who use lake drinking water. But, moving along the food chain, pesticides reach a high degree of concentration. According to some scientists, in 1991 it was such that a lake trout lunch contained more toxic substances than all the water that a person drinks in his life and in which this trout lived. About 40% of the water resources in the United States are unfit for drinking, and 34 rivers and lakes are so polluted that you can neither swim nor fish in them (1994). The US needs $ 400 billion to clean up water sources (data for 1993).
Along the entire channel of the Rhine in the 70s and 90s, a huge number of treatment facilities were built, in which more than 50 billion dollars were invested. The water quality began to improve gradually. However, in November 1986, a fire in the warehouses of the large chemical and pharmaceutical company Sandoz in Switzerland released about 30 tons of pesticides and oxidation products into the waters of the Rhine, as a result of which almost all life in the river died up to the city of Karlsruhe. Nevertheless, by 2000, the discharge of industrial and municipal wastewater into the Rhine decreased by 50-90%, and for a number of the most hazardous compounds it was completely stopped. The water quality in the river has improved so much that salmon and ocean herring have returned here since 1990.
In Russia from 60 cubic meters. km of wastewater at least one third enters the environment without any treatment. The most polluted water sources are southern Russia, as well as the Moscow region. In 1991, 80% of the annual runoff was taken from the Kuban basin for production purposes, and 65% from the Don. From the Terek and the Urals, modern farming takes on average 50% of their runoff. More than half of the withdrawn water is returned to the rivers without purification. The water does not have time to self-purify. In order to cure the river after such aggression, it is necessary to dilute the polluted water with clean water at least in a ratio of 1:30. This is not happening.
About 2,000 tons of pollutants enter the Neva every day. In the Pechora along this course, there are high concentrations of phenol (due to timber alloy), oil products, and copper compounds. In the Northern Dvina, in addition to phenol, oil products and copper compounds, nitrogen compounds and wastes from the pulp and paper industry are also found. In the Ural rivers Chusovaya, Iset, Tagil and Tura, the concentrations of copper, nickel, chromium are 5-20 times higher than the maximum permissible norms. Yenisei, Angara and Lena are contaminated with copper, zinc and phenols. The Ob along its entire length from the source to the mouth is polluted with oil products and phenol at a concentration of 5 to 17 MPC.
Bratskoe and Ust-Ilimskoe the reservoirs are polluted with waste water from timber industry complexes (the concentration of hydrogen sulfide and other substances reaches hundreds of MPC).
The waters of the Amur are polluted with copper and chromium (5-15 times higher than the MPC). The Volga is in a difficult ecological situation, on the banks of which 60 million people live and where 30% of industrial and agricultural products are produced. Water intake from the Volga is 33% (data for 1992). The volume of polluted wastewater discharged into its basin is 37% of their total volume on the territory of Russia. In 1989, the Volga received 20 cubic meters. km of waste water. If we proceed from the 30-fold dilution average required for various industries, then 600 cubic meters of water would be required to bring these effluents to the norm. km of clean water, and the average annual flow of the Volga is 250 cubic meters. km. Every year, the Volga and then the Caspian Sea receives 367 thousand tons of organic matter, 13 thousand tons of oil products, 45 thousand tons of nitrogen, 20 thousand tons of phosphorus, which has already led to a sharp reduction in the fish resources of the Caspian and Volga. In 1990, it was no longer possible to find healthy fish in the Volga. The amount of phenols in the Volga water in the territory of the Yaroslavl region exceeds the MPC by 21 times, in the Astrakhan region - 5-12 MPC. The content of cadmium and lead exceeds the limits for fish consumption (1995). In 1998, the Russian government adopted the Volga Revival program. In 1999-2010, it is planned to radically change the state of the environment on the Volga and its tributaries, and to restore the natural components of the basin.
In general, about half of the population of Russia in 1994 was forced to use water that does not meet hygienic standards and the requirements of the State Standard.
Since the late 1950s, there has been a struggle to save the world's largest freshwater reservoir - Lake Baikal, recognized by UNESCO as the heritage of mankind. A pulp and paper mill on its shore uses the water of Lake Baikal for the production process and discharges insufficiently purified water into the lake. In 1992, 169 million cubic meters were discharged. m of untreated water. The issue of re-profiling the plant has been discussed for many years. This conversion requires $ 500 million (1999).
A great threat is posed by liquid radioactive waste from the production of nuclear fuel and weapons-grade plutonium.
In 1991, the consequences of accidents at the Mayak chemical plant near Chelyabinsk, where weapons-grade plutonium was produced since the late 1940s, and radioactive waste was discharged into the Techa River, became known. In 1951, an accident occurred, 124 thousand people were irradiated, and 28 thousand received doses up to 170 rem (Rem is the biological equivalent of an X-ray. A dose of 100 rem leads to chronic radiation sickness.). In 1957, one of the containers with liquid waste exploded, throwing almost half of the Chernobyl dose into the air. The radioactive cloud covered 23 thousand square meters. km, where 270 thousand people lived. In the Chelyabinsk, Sverdlovsk and Kurgan regions, 450 thousand people were irradiated, and 2.5 Chernobyl doses were contained in the waste discharged into Lake Karachay and in the water lens under it, which can flow into the rivers of the Ob runoff, and cause an ecological disaster in Western Siberia to the Arctic Ocean.
Almost 20 Chernobyl doses are contained in containers like the one that exploded in 1957. There are another 200 burial grounds with 500 thousand tons of solid waste and half a billion cubic meters of radioactive water in the system of artificial reservoirs in the upper Techa (1991 data).
The 1986 Chernobyl disaster led to radioactive contamination of the waters of the Pripyat, Dnieper and other rivers. Radioactive substances in water are concentrated by microorganisms, plankton and fish, and then are transferred to other animals and humans along the food chain. This phenomenon is called bioaccumulation. It has been established that the radioactivity of fish is thousands of times higher than the water in which it lives.
In 1996, 20 European countries agreed to jointly fight to reduce harmful emissions into common rivers and lakes. The agreement covers 150 rivers and 20 lakes, including the Ural and the Dnieper, the Aral Sea. Many water sources in Europe are contaminated with pesticides and fertilizers, and some, especially in Eastern Europe, contain dangerous concentrations of heavy metals (including cadmium) and even arsenic.
1.4. Drinking water
The World Health Organization warns that 80% of diseases on the planet are caused by the consumption of poor-quality drinking water. The problem of clean water is facing many countries. One in five Americans in 1991 consumed water contaminated with toxic substances (50 million people). Every year in the United States about 900 thousand people fall ill due to the use of untreated water. The US Congress approved the creation of a fund to modernize 55,000 public water supply systems to meet health standards for drinking water, protect water supply systems from microbiological contamination, and prevent lead, nitrate and other pollutants from contamination.
Almost all surface water supply sources in recent years have been exposed to harmful anthropogenic pollution, especially rivers such as the Volga, Don, Northern Dvina, Ufa, Tobol, Tom and other rivers of Siberia and the Far East. 70% of surface water and 30% of groundwater have lost their drinking value and passed into the categories of pollution - "conditionally clean" and "dirty". Almost 70% of the population of the Russian Federation uses water that does not meet the GOST “Drinking water”.
In Russia, every fifth sample of tap water does not meet sanitary and chemical standards, every eighth sample does not meet microbiological standards, and 90% of drinking water in the country does not meet the recommended sanitary standards, chemical and microbiological standards. This water is used by 70% of cities and towns. Most of all, chlorine, used to disinfect water, spoils our lives. Although at first it saves from infections, but then its derivatives begin to slowly kill us, since they have a carcinogenic, mutagenic effect, and affect heredity. According to American studies, people who regularly drink chlorinated water are 21% more likely to have bladder cancer and 38% more rectal cancer than those who drink purified, but unchlorinated water.
However, 75% of water is chlorinated in the USA (1993).
In Japan, water is purified using ozone, although one of its disadvantages is that it does not have a long-term effect of chlorine compounds. Therefore, tap water must be cleaned before use. To free it from chlorine, it is advisable to settle the water (from several hours to a day). To get rid of microbes and chlorine, the water must be boiled for no more than 1-3 minutes. Raw water should only be drunk in extreme cases. It is undesirable to use hot tap water for cooking: hot water is chemically more aggressive and this can lead to leaching of heavy metals from water pipes. Heavy metals accumulate in the vital organs of a person, causing them to become ill over time.
Recently, various household filters have begun to be used for additional purification of water. The filter must remove microbes, chlorine and its derivatives, heavy metals, oil products, nitrates and nitrites, pesticides. However, secondary contamination of water by microorganisms that have settled on the filter itself is also dangerous.
Approximately 70% of Europeans prefer to keep filter jugs in their kitchens. Every second American family installs filters directly on the kitchen faucet with a switch: water for cooking goes through the filter, for washing - bypassing it. As already noted, each person needs about 3 liters of water per day to feed.
The Japanese and Americans are now switching to electrochemical filters. This filter is the Russian-English Emerald filter. Its principle of operation is based on a chemical reaction under the influence of a strong electric field in the presence of a catalyst. As a result, the water is completely purified from microorganisms, organic compounds and heavy metal ions. It is even possible to reduce the concentration of mineral salts, which is practically unattainable with any other cleaning method. These filters are eternal, they have no consumables, but they need electricity.
2. THE RELEVANCE OF THE PROBLEM OF WATER POLLUTION
Currently, the problem of pollution of water bodies (rivers, lakes, seas, groundwater, etc.) is the most urgent, because everyone knows the expression - "water is life." A person cannot live without water for more than three days, but even realizing the importance of the role of water in his life, he still continues to toughly exploit water bodies, irrevocably changing their natural regime with discharges and waste.
Water makes up the majority of any organisms, both plant and animal, in particular, in humans, it accounts for 60-80% of body weight. Water is the habitat of many organisms, determines the climate and weather changes, helps to cleanse the atmosphere from harmful substances, dissolves, leaches rocks and minerals and transports them from one place to another, etc. For humans, water is of great industrial importance: it is a transport route, a source of energy, a raw material for production, an engine cooler, a purifier, etc.
The bulk of the water is concentrated in the oceans. Water evaporating from its surface gives life-giving moisture to natural and artificial terrestrial ecosystems. The closer the area is to the ocean, the more precipitation falls there. The land constantly returns water to the ocean, part of the water evaporates, especially from forests, part is collected by rivers, which receive rain and snow water. The exchange of moisture between the ocean and land requires a very large amount of energy: it takes up to 1/3 of what the Earth receives from the Sun.
The cycle of water in the biosphere before the development of civilization was equilibrium, the ocean received from the rivers as much water as it consumed during its evaporation. If the climate did not change, then the rivers did not shallow and the water level in the lakes did not decrease. With the development of civilization, this cycle began to be disrupted, as a result of irrigation of agricultural crops, evaporation from land increased. The rivers of the southern regions have become shallow, pollution of the oceans and the appearance of oil slick on its surface have reduced the amount of water evaporated by the ocean. All this degrades the water supply to the biosphere. Droughts are becoming more frequent, hotbeds of ecological disasters appear, for example, a long-term catastrophic drought in the Sahel zone.
In addition, fresh water itself, which returns to the ocean and other bodies of water from land, is often polluted. The water of many rivers of Russia has become practically not suitable for drinking.
The problem of maintaining water quality is currently the most urgent. Science knows more than 2.5 thousand natural water pollutants. This adversely affects the health of the population and leads to the death of fish, waterfowl and other animals, as well as to the death of the flora of water bodies. At the same time, not only toxic chemical and oil pollution, an excess of organic and mineral substances that come with the washing off of fertilizers from the fields are dangerous for aquatic ecosystems. A very important aspect of pollution of the Earth's water basin is thermal pollution, which is the discharge of heated water from industrial enterprises and thermal power plants into rivers and lakes.
Today, water suitable for drinking, industrial production and irrigation is scarce in many parts of the world. It is impossible not to pay attention to this problem, tk. the next generations will be affected by all the consequences of anthropogenic water pollution. Already now, due to dioxin pollution of water bodies in Russia, 20 thousand people die every year. Approximately the same number of Russians die every year with skin cancer as a result of the destruction of the ozone layer in the stratosphere. As a result of living in a dangerously poisoned habitat, cancerous and other environmentally dependent diseases of various organs are spread. In half of the newborns who received even a slight additional radiation at a certain stage of the formation of the fetus in the mother's body, mental retardation is found. Consequently, this problem must be solved as soon as possible and the problem of industrial waste purification must be radically revised.
3. DISCHARGE OF WASTE WATER INTO WATER BODIES
The amount of wastewater discharged into wastewater facilities is determined using the maximum allowable discharge (MPD). MPD is understood as the mass of a substance in wastewater, the maximum allowable for disposal with the established regime at a given point of a water body per unit of time in order to ensure water quality standards at a control point. The calculation of the MPD is carried out according to the highest average hourly consumption of wastewater q(in m 3 / h) of the actual period of wastewater discharge. Pollution concentration S’Art is expressed in mg / l (g / m 3), and PDS - in g / h. The MPD, taking into account the requirements for the composition and properties of water in water bodies, is determined for all categories of water use as the product:
Water bodies are polluted mainly as a result of the discharge of wastewater from industrial enterprises and settlements into them. As a result of wastewater discharge, the physical properties of water change (temperature rises, transparency decreases, color, tastes, odors appear); floating substances appear on the surface of the reservoir, and sediment forms at the bottom; the chemical composition of water changes (the content of organic and inorganic substances increases, toxic substances appear, the oxygen content decreases, the active reaction of the environment changes, etc.); the qualitative and quantitative bacterial composition changes, pathogenic bacteria appear. Contaminated water bodies become unsuitable for drinking, and often for technical water supply; lose their fishery value, etc.
The general conditions for the discharge of wastewater of any category into surface water bodies are determined by their national economic significance and the nature of water use. After the discharge of wastewater, some deterioration in the quality of water in reservoirs is allowed, but this should not noticeably affect his life and the possibility of further use of the reservoir as a source of water supply, for cultural and sports events, and fishery purposes.
Monitoring the fulfillment of the conditions for the discharge of industrial wastewater into water bodies is carried out by sanitary-epidemiological stations and basin departments.
The water quality standards for reservoirs for domestic and drinking and cultural and domestic water use establish the quality of water for reservoirs for two types of water use: the first type includes areas of water bodies used as a source for centralized or non-centralized domestic and drinking water supply, as well as for water supply to food industry enterprises; to the second type - areas of water bodies used for swimming, sports and recreation of the population, as well as located within the boundaries of settlements.
The assignment of reservoirs to a particular type of water use is carried out by the bodies of the State Sanitary Supervision, taking into account the prospects for the use of reservoirs.
The standards for water quality of reservoirs given in the rules refer to sections located on flowing reservoirs 1 km higher than the nearest water use point, and on stagnant reservoirs and reservoirs 1 km on both sides of the water use point.
Much attention is paid to the prevention and elimination of pollution of the coastal areas of the seas. The seawater quality standards, which must be ensured during the discharge of wastewater, relate to the area of water use within the designated boundaries and to sections at a distance of 300 m to the sides of these boundaries. When using the coastal areas of the seas as a receiver of industrial wastewater, the content of harmful substances in the sea should not exceed the MPCs established for the sanitary-toxicological, general sanitary and organoleptic limiting indicators of harmfulness. At the same time, the requirements for the discharge of wastewater are differentiated in relation to the nature of water use. The sea is viewed not as a source of water supply, but as a curative, health-improving, cultural and everyday factor.
Pollutants entering rivers, lakes, reservoirs and seas make significant changes in the established regime and disrupt the equilibrium state of aquatic ecological systems. As a result of the processes of transformation of substances polluting water bodies, proceeding under the influence of natural factors, in water sources there is a complete or partial restoration of their original properties. In this case, secondary products of the decay of pollution can form, which have a negative effect on the quality of water.
Self-purification of water in reservoirs is a combination of interconnected hydrodynamic, physicochemical, microbiological and hydrobiological processes leading to the restoration of the original state of a water body. Due to the fact that the wastewater of industrial enterprises may contain specific pollution, their release into the city drainage network is limited by a number of requirements. Industrial waste water discharged into the drainage network should not: disrupt the operation of networks and structures; have a destructive effect on the material of pipes and elements of treatment facilities; contain more than 500mg / l of suspended and floating substances; contain substances that can clog networks or be deposited on pipe walls; contain flammable impurities and dissolved gaseous substances capable of forming explosive mixtures; contain harmful substances that prevent biological wastewater treatment or discharge into a water body; have a temperature above 40 C. Industrial waste water that does not meet these requirements must be pre-purified and only then discharged into the city drainage network.
4. METHODS OF WASTE WATER PURIFICATION
In rivers and other bodies of water, a natural process of self-purification of water takes place. However, it is slow. While industrial and domestic discharges were small, the rivers themselves coped with them. In our industrial age, due to a sharp increase in waste, water bodies can no longer cope with such significant pollution. It became necessary to neutralize, purify waste water and dispose of it.
Wastewater treatment is the treatment of wastewater with the aim of destroying or removing harmful substances from it. Cleaning methods can be divided into mechanical, chemical, physicochemical and biological... When they are used together, the method of purification and disposal of wastewater is called combined... The use of one method or another, in each case, is determined by the nature of the pollution and the degree of harmfulness of impurities.
The complex of treatment facilities, as a rule, includes mechanical treatment facilities. Depending on the required degree of purification, they can be supplemented with biological or physicochemical purification facilities, and with higher requirements, deep purification facilities are included in the treatment facilities. Before being discharged into a reservoir, the treated wastewater is disinfected, the sludge formed at all stages of treatment or excess biomass is fed to the sludge treatment facilities. Treated wastewater can be sent to the circulating water supply systems of industrial enterprises, for agricultural needs, or discharged into a reservoir. The treated sludge can be disposed of, destroyed or stored.
Mechanical purification is used to separate undissolved mineral and organic impurities from wastewater. As a rule, it is a pre-treatment method and is designed to prepare wastewater for biological or physicochemical treatment methods. Mechanical treatment makes it possible to isolate up to 60-75% of insoluble impurities from domestic wastewater, and up to 95% from industrial wastewater, many of which (as valuable materials) are used in production.
The structure of mechanical treatment facilities includes gratings, various types of catchers, sedimentation tanks, filters. Sand traps are used to separate heavy mineral impurities (mainly sand) from wastewater. Dehydrated sand with reliable disinfection can be used in the production of road works and the manufacture of building materials.
Equalizers are used to regulate the composition and flow rate of wastewater. Averaging is achieved either by differentiating the flow of incoming wastewater, or by intensive mixing of individual effluents.
Oil traps are used to treat wastewater containing oil and oil products at concentrations exceeding 100 mg / l. These structures are rectangular reservoirs in which oil and water are separated due to the difference in their densities. Oil and oil products float to the surface, are collected and removed from the oil trap for disposal.
Chemical method lies in the fact that various chemical reagents are added to wastewater, which react with pollutants and precipitate them in the form of insoluble sediments. Chemical cleaning achieves a reduction of insoluble impurities up to 95% and soluble impurities up to 25%.
At physicochemical method treatment from wastewater, finely dispersed and dissolved inorganic impurities are removed and organic and poorly oxidized substances are destroyed. Of the physicochemical methods, coagulation, oxidation, sorption, extraction, etc., as well as electrolysis are most often used. Electrolysis consists in the destruction of organic substances in wastewater and the extraction of metals, acids and other inorganic substances when an electric current flows. Electrolytic treatment is carried out in special facilities - electrolyzers. Wastewater treatment using electrolysis is effective at lead and copper enterprises, in the paint and varnish industry.
Waste water is also purified using ultrasound, ozone, ion exchange resins and high pressure. Chlorination cleaning has proven itself well.
Biological method - a method widely used in practice for the treatment of domestic and industrial wastewater, based on the use of the regularities of biochemical self-purification of rivers and other bodies of water. It is based on the process of biological oxidation of organic compounds contained in wastewater. Biological oxidation is carried out by a community of microorganisms, including many different bacteria, protozoa and a number of more highly organized organisms - algae, fungi, etc., interconnected into a single complex by complex relationships (metabiosis, symbiosis and antagonism).
Various types of biological devices are used: biofilters, biological ponds and aerobics.
V biofilters waste water is passed through a layer of coarse-grained material covered with a thin bacterial film. Thanks to this film, biological oxidation processes proceed intensively.
V biological ponds all organisms inhabiting the reservoir take part in wastewater treatment.
Aeration tanks - huge reservoirs made of reinforced concrete. Here, the cleansing principle is activated sludge from bacteria and microscopic animals. All these living things develop rapidly in aeration tanks, which is facilitated by organic matter of wastewater and excess oxygen entering the structure by the flow of air supplied. The bacteria stick together in flakes and secrete enzymes that mineralize organic pollution. Sludge with flakes quickly settles, separating from the purified water. Ciliates, flagellates, amoebas, rotifers and other tiny animals, devouring bacteria (not clumping into flakes), rejuvenate the bacterial mass of sludge.
Before biological treatment, wastewater is subjected to mechanical treatment, and after biological (to remove pathogenic bacteria) and chemical treatment, chlorination with liquid chlorine or bleach. For disinfection, other physicochemical methods are also used (ultrasound, electrolysis, ozonation, etc.). The biological method gives the best results when cleaning municipal waste, as well as waste from oil refining, pulp and paper industries, and the production of artificial fibers.
Scientists from Los Alamos National Laboratory (USA), together with researchers from Florida International University (Miami) and the University of Miami, are developing a way to destroy harmful liquid waste using an electron accelerator. In a pilot study at a municipal waste treatment plant in Dade County, Florida, a thin layer of falling contaminated water (at a flow rate of 380 L / min) was irradiated with a scanning electron beam. This destroyed hazardous pollutants such as benzene, trichlorethylene and phenol.
In order to reduce the pollution of the hydrosphere, it is desirable to reuse it in closed resource-saving, waste-free processes in industry, drip irrigation in agriculture, economical use of water in production and in everyday life.
CONCLUSION
One of the most important current tasks of mankind is the protection of nature, a problem that has become social. Again and again we hear about the danger threatening the environment, but still many of us consider them an unpleasant, but inevitable product of civilization and believe that we still have time to cope with all the difficulties that have emerged.
However, the human impact on the environment has become rampant. To fundamentally improve the situation, you need purposeful and thoughtful actions. A responsible and effective policy in relation to the environment will be possible only if we accumulate reliable data on the current state of the environment, substantiated knowledge about the interaction of important environmental factors, if we develop new methods to reduce and prevent harm caused to Nature by humans.
The world needs sustainable water management practices, but we are not moving fast enough in the right direction. A Chinese proverb says, "If we don't change course, we can get where we are going." Without a change in direction, many areas will continue to experience water shortages, many people will continue to suffer, conflicts over water will continue and new areas of valuable, highly humid lands will be destroyed.
Protection of water resources from depletion and pollution and their rational use for the needs of the national economy is one of the most important problems requiring urgent solutions. In Russia, measures are widely carried out to protect the environment, in particular, to purify industrial wastewater.
The pace of development of the industry today is so high that the one-time use of fresh water for industrial needs is an unacceptable luxury.
Therefore, scientists are engaged in the development of new drainless technologies, which will almost completely solve the problem of protecting water bodies from pollution. However, the development and implementation of waste-free technologies will take a certain amount of time, and it is still far from the real transition of all production processes to waste-free technology. In order to speed up the creation and implementation of the principles and elements of waste-free technology of the future in every possible way, it is necessary to solve the problem of a closed cycle of water supply to industrial enterprises. Closed cycles of industrial water supply will make it possible to completely eliminate wastewater discharged into surface water bodies, and use fresh water to replenish irrecoverable losses.
In the chemical industry, a wider introduction of low-waste and non-waste technological processes, which will give the greatest environmental effect, is planned. Much attention is paid to improving the efficiency of industrial wastewater treatment.
It is possible to significantly reduce the pollution of the water discharged by the enterprise by isolating valuable impurities from the wastewater; the complexity of solving these problems at the enterprises of the chemical industry lies in the variety of technological processes and products obtained. It should also be noted that the bulk of the water in the industry is used for cooling. The transition from water cooling to air cooling will reduce water consumption by 70-90% in various industries. In this regard, it is extremely important to develop and implement the latest equipment that uses the minimum amount of water for cooling.
The introduction of highly effective methods of wastewater treatment, in particular physicochemical, of which one of the most effective is the use of reagents, can have a significant impact on increasing water circulation. The use of the reagent method of industrial wastewater treatment does not depend on the toxicity of the present impurities, which is of significant importance in comparison with the method of biochemical treatment. The wider introduction of this method, both in combination with biochemical treatment, and separately, can, to a certain extent, solve a number of problems associated with the treatment of industrial wastewater.
In the near future, it is planned to introduce membrane methods for wastewater treatment.
For the implementation of a set of measures to protect water resources from pollution and depletion in all developed countries, allocations are allocated that reach 2-4% of national income, approximately, using the example of the United States, the relative costs are (in%): protection of the atmosphere 35.2%, protection of water bodies - 48.0, solid waste disposal - 15.0, noise reduction -0.7, other 1.1. As can be seen from the example, most of the costs are the costs of protecting water bodies.The costs associated with the production of coagulants and flocculants can be partially reduced due to the wider use for these purposes of production wastes from various industries, as well as sludge generated during wastewater treatment , in particular excess activated sludge, which can be used as a flocculant, more precisely a bioflocculant.
What can be expected for the near future for the World Ocean, for the most important seas? In general, for the World Ocean, its pollution is expected to increase by 1.5-3 times over the next 20-25 years. Accordingly, the ecological situation will also deteriorate. The concentration of many toxic substances can reach a threshold level, then the natural ecosystem will degrade. It is expected that primary biological production of the ocean could decrease by 20-30% in some large areas from the current level.
The path is already clear that will allow people to avoid the ecological deadlock. These are waste-free and low-waste technologies, the transformation of waste into useful resources. But it will take decades to bring the idea to life.
Thus, the protection and rational use of water resources is one of the links in the complex global problem of nature protection.
LIST OF USED LITERATURE:
Arustamov E.A., Levanova I.V., Barkalova N.V. Ecological foundations of nature management. M. 2000
Vladimirov A.M. and others. Environmental protection. - Leningrad: Gidromethioizdat, 1991
Eremin V.G., Safonov V.G. Ecological foundations of nature management. M. 2002
Zhukov A.I., Mongait I.L., Rodziller I.D. Industrial wastewater treatment methods. - M .: Chemistry, 1996
Yu.V. Novikov Ecology, environment and man: Textbook. - M., 1998
Industrial waste water protection and sludge disposal. Edited by V.N. Sokolov M .: Stroyizdat, 1992
Petrov K.M. General ecology: The interaction of society and nature: Textbook for universities. - 2nd ed., Erased. - SPb: Chemistry, 1998
Ushakov G.V., Solodov G.A. Ecology. Biosphere and man. - Kemerovo, 1999
Khotuntsev Yu.L. Man, technology, environment M .: Sustainable world, 2001
And of course, we must not forget about measures to protect the hydrosphere. Surface water protects against clogging, pollution and depletion. To prevent clogging, measures are taken to exclude the ingress of construction waste, solid waste, timber rafting residues and other items that negatively affect the quality of water, the living conditions of fish, etc. into surface water bodies and rivers.
The depletion of surface water is prevented by strict control of the minimum allowable water flow.
The most important and most difficult problem is the protection of surface waters from pollution. To this end, the following environmental protection measures are envisaged:
Development of waste-free and water-free technologies; introduction of recycling water supply systems;
Wastewater treatment (industrial, municipal, etc.);
Wastewater injection into deep aquifers;
Treatment and disinfection of surface waters used for water supply and other purposes.
The main pollutant of surface waters is wastewater, therefore, the development and implementation of effective methods of wastewater treatment seems to be a very urgent and ecologically important task.
The most effective way to protect surface water from pollution by wastewater is the development and implementation of a water-free and waste-free production technology, the initial stage of which is the creation of a circulating water supply.
When organizing a circulating water supply system, a number of treatment facilities and installations are included in it, which makes it possible to create a closed cycle for the use of industrial and domestic wastewater. With this method of water treatment, wastewater is always in circulation and its ingress into surface water bodies is completely excluded.
Due to the huge variety of wastewater composition, there are various methods of purification: mechanical, physicochemical, chemical, biological, etc. Depending on the degree of hazard and the nature of pollution, wastewater treatment can be carried out in any one way or a set of methods (combined method). The purification process provides for the treatment of sludge (or excess biomass) and the decontamination of wastewater before discharging it into a reservoir.
During mechanical treatment, up to 90% of insoluble mechanical impurities of various degrees of dispersion (sand, clay particles, scale, etc.) are removed from industrial wastewater by filtering, settling and filtering, and up to 60% from domestic wastewater. For these purposes, grids, sand traps, sand filters, sedimentation tanks of various types are used. Substances floating on the surface of wastewater (oil, resins, oils, fats, polymers, etc.) are trapped by oil traps and other types of traps or burned out.
Chemical and physicochemical treatment methods are most effective for the treatment of industrial wastewater.
The main chemical methods include neutralization and oxidation. In the first case, special reagents (lime, soda ash, ammonia) are introduced into the wastewater to neutralize acids and alkalis, in the second, various oxidizing agents. With their help, wastewater is freed from toxic and other components.
For physical and chemical cleaning, the following are used:
Coagulation - the introduction of coagulants (salts of ammonium, iron, copper, sludge waste, etc.) into wastewater to form flocculent sediments, which are then easily removed; - sorption - the ability of some substances (bentonite clays, activated carbon, zeolites, silica gel, peat, etc.) to absorb pollution. By the method of sorption, it is possible to extract valuable soluble substances from wastewater and their subsequent utilization;
Flotation - passing air through waste water. Gas bubbles trap surfactants, oil, oils, and other contaminants during their upward movement and form an easily removable foam layer on the water surface.
The biological (biochemical) method is widely used for cleaning communal and household industrial wastewaters from pulp and paper, oil refineries, and food enterprises. The method is based on the ability of artificially introduced microorganisms to use for their development organic and some inorganic compounds contained in wastewater (hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, nitrites, sulfides, etc.). Cleaning is carried out using natural methods (irrigation fields, sludge pads, filtration fields, biological ponds, etc.) and artificial methods (aeration tanks, metatanks, biofilters, circulating oxidizing channels), biological modules, etc.
After clarification of wastewater, a sludge is formed, which is fermented in reinforced concrete tanks (digesters), and then removed to sludge platforms for drying.
The dried sludge is usually used as fertilizer. However, in recent years, many harmful substances (heavy metals, etc.) have begun to be found in wastewater, which excludes this method of disposal of sludge. The clarified part of the wastewater is purified in aeration tanks - special closed tanks, through which wastewater enriched with oxygen and mixed with activated sludge is slowly passed. Activated sludge is a collection of heterotrophic microorganisms and small invertebrates (mold, yeast, aquatic fungi, rotifers, etc.), as well as a solid substrate. It is important to correctly select the temperature, pH, additives, mixing conditions, oxidizer (oxygen) in order to maximize the intensification of the hydrobiocenosis that makes up the activated sludge.
After secondary settling, wastewater is disinfected (disinfected) using chlorine compounds or other strong oxidants. This method (chlorination) destroys pathogenic bacteria, viruses, pathogens.
In wastewater treatment systems, the biological (biochemical) method is the final one, and after its application, wastewater can be used in circulating water supply or discharged into surface water bodies.
In recent years, new effective methods have been actively developed that contribute to the environmentalization of wastewater treatment processes:
Electrochemical methods based on the processes of anodic oxidation and cathodic reduction, electrocoagulation and electroflotation;
Membrane purification processes (ultrafilters, electrodialysis, etc.);
Magnetic treatment to improve the flotation of suspended solids;
Radiation purification of water, allowing in the shortest possible time to expose pollutants to oxidation, coagulation and decomposition;
Ozonation, in which no substances are formed in wastewater that negatively affect natural biochemical processes;
The introduction of new selective types of sorbents for the selective separation of useful components from wastewater for the purpose of secondary use, etc.
It is known that pesticides and fertilizers, washed away by surface runoff from agricultural land, play a significant role in the pollution of water bodies. To prevent the ingress of polluting effluents into water bodies, a set of measures is required, including:
1) compliance with the norms and terms for the introduction of fertilizers and pesticides;
2) focal and tape treatment with pesticides instead of continuous;
3) application of fertilizers in the form of granules and, if possible, together with irrigation water;
4) replacement of pesticides with biological methods of plant protection, etc.
It is very difficult to utilize livestock effluents that have a detrimental effect on aquatic ecosystems. Currently, the most economical technology is recognized, in which hazardous effluents are separated by centrifugation into solid and liquid fractions. In this case, the solid part turns into compost and is taken out to the fields. The liquid part (slurry) with a concentration of up to 18% passes through the reactor and turns into humus. When organic matter decomposes, methane, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide are released. The energy from this biogas is used to produce heat and energy.
One of the promising ways to reduce surface water pollution is to pump wastewater into deep aquifers through a system of absorption wells (underground disposal). This method eliminates the need for expensive treatment and disposal of wastewater and the construction of treatment facilities.
However, according to many leading experts in this field, this method is useful for isolating only small amounts of highly toxic wastewater that cannot be treated with existing technologies. These concerns are related to the fact that it is very difficult to assess the possible environmental consequences of increased waterflooding even in well-isolated deep-lying groundwater horizons. In addition, it is technically very difficult to completely exclude the possibility of the penetration of the highly toxic industrial wastewater to the surface of the earth or into other aquifers through the annular spaces of the wells. And yet, in the foreseeable future, such a solution to environmental problems is inevitable as the least evil.
Among the water protection problems, one of the most important is the development and implementation of effective methods of disinfection and purification of surface waters used for drinking water supply. Inadequately treated drinking water is dangerous both from an environmental and social point of view.
Since 1896 and up to the present, the method of water disinfection with chlorine has been the most common method of combating bacterial contamination in our country. However, it turned out that chlorination of water poses a serious danger to human health.
It is possible to eliminate this hazardous effect for human health and achieve a decrease in the content of carcinogenic substances in drinking water by replacing primary chlorination with ozonation or treatment with ultraviolet rays, abandoning primary chlorination, as well as using non-reagent cleaning methods at biological reactors (State report "Drinking water", 1995).
It should be noted that the treatment of water with ozone or ultraviolet rays has almost completely replaced chlorination at water treatment plants in many countries of Western Europe. In our country, the use of these environmentally efficient technologies is limited due to the high cost of refurbishing water treatment plants.
Modern technology for purifying drinking water from other environmentally hazardous substances - oil products, synthetic surfactants, pesticides, organochlorine and other compounds - is based on the use of sorption processes using activated carbons or their analogues - graphite mineral sorbents.
Agroforestry and hydrotechnical measures are becoming increasingly important in the protection of surface waters from pollution and contamination. With their help, it is possible to prevent siltation and overgrowth of lakes, reservoirs and small rivers, as well as the formation of erosion of landslides, collapse of banks, etc. The implementation of a set of these works will reduce the polluted surface runoff and contribute to the cleanliness of water bodies. In this regard, great importance is attached to the reduction of the processes of eutrophication of reservoirs, in particular, reservoirs of such hydraulic cascades as Volokamskiy and others.
An important protective function at any water body is performed by water protection zones. The width of the water protection zone of rivers can be from 0.1 to 1.5-2.0 km, including the river floodplain, terraces and the slope of the Korshug coast. The purpose of the water protection zone is to prevent pollution, clogging and depletion of the water body. It is prohibited to plow land, graze livestock, use pesticides and fertilizers, carry out construction work, etc. within the water protection zones.
The surface hydrosphere is organically related to the atmosphere, underground hydrosphere, lithosphere and other components of the natural environment. Given the inextricable interconnection of all its ecosystems, it is impossible to ensure the purity of surface water bodies and watercourses without protection from atmospheric pollution, groundwater nights, etc.
To protect surface waters from pollution, in a number of cases, it is necessary to take radical measures: closing or re-profiling polluting industries, complete transfer of wastewater and a closed cycle of water consumption, etc.
The main measures for the protection of groundwater, carried out at present, are to prevent the depletion of groundwater reserves and to protect them from pollution. As in the case of surface waters, this large and complex problem can only be successfully resolved in an inextricable connection with the protection of the entire environment.
To combat the depletion of fresh groundwater reserves suitable for drinking water supply, various measures are envisaged, including: regulation of the regime of groundwater abstraction; more rational placement of water intakes by area; determination of the value of operational stocks as the limit of their rational use; introduction of a crane operation mode for self-flowing artesian wells.
In recent years, to prevent the depletion of groundwater, artificial replenishment of their reserves by transferring surface runoff to groundwater is increasingly used. Recharge is carried out by infiltration (seepage) of water from surface sources (rivers, lakes, reservoirs) into aquifers. At the same time, groundwater receives additional nutrition, which makes it possible to increase the productivity of water intakes without depleting natural reserves.
Measures to combat groundwater pollution are subdivided into: 1) preventive and 2) special, the task of which is to localize or eliminate the source of pollution.
Eliminate the source of pollution, i.e. It is very difficult to extract pollutants from groundwater and rocks, and it can take many years.
Therefore, preventive measures are central to nature conservation measures. Pollution of groundwater can be prevented in different ways. For this purpose, methods of wastewater treatment are being improved in order to exclude the ingress of contaminated wastewater into groundwater. They introduce production with drainless technology, carefully screen the bowls of pools with industrial wastewater, reduce hazardous gas and smoke emissions at enterprises, regulate the use of pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural work, etc.
The most important measure to prevent contamination of groundwater in the areas of water intakes is the establishment of sanitary protection zones around them. Sanitary protection zones (SPZ) are territories around water intakes, created to exclude the possibility of contamination of groundwater. They consist of three belts. The first belt (strict regime zone) includes an area at a distance of 30-50 m from the water intake. The presence of unauthorized persons and the performance of any work not related to the operation of the water intake is prohibited here. The second zone of the WSS is designed to protect the aquifer from bacterial (microbial) pollution, and the third - from chemical pollution. The boundaries of the belts are determined by special calculations.
On their territory, it is prohibited to place any objects that may cause chemical or bacterial contamination (slag storage, livestock complexes, poultry farms, etc.). The use of mineral fertilizers and pesticides, and industrial logging are also prohibited. Other industrial and economic activities of a person are also limited or prohibited.
SSS projects must be coordinated with the sanitary inspection authorities and approved by specially authorized state bodies in the field of environmental protection.
Special measures to protect groundwater from pollution are aimed at intercepting polluted water through drainage, as well as isolating pollution sources from the rest of the aquifer. Very promising in this respect is the creation of artificial geochemical barriers based on the conversion of pollutants into sedentary forms. To eliminate local foci of pollution, long-term pumping of contaminated groundwater from special wells is carried out.
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