The types of cultural variability, in addition to development, are. "Domostroy" as the main source of everyday life in Russian society in the 16th-17th centuries. Creating your own fantasy world
Chapter IV [C1]
CULTURE OF THE EPOCH OF RUSSIAN PREFERENCE (late 15th - 16th centuries)
At the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. almost simultaneously with England, France, Spain, the formation of a single state completed the process of unification of the Russian lands. Unlike the mono-national states of Western Europe, the Russian state was initially formed as a multinational one; the process of unification in Russia was based not so much on economic and cultural ties as on the military might of the Moscow princes. The lack of an economic unifying force, which in the West was the "third estate" - the emerging bourgeoisie of prosperous cities, in Russia was more than made up for by the state. All this gave rise not only to a specific form of autocracy, but also to a special socio-psychological atmosphere inherent in Russia in the sixteenth and subsequent centuries. The emerging all-Russian culture at the end of the 15th-16th centuries. was subordinated to the tasks of serving "the sovereign's cause." Public thought and literature are imbued with concerns about the Russian state, architecture is subordinated to state tasks. The growth of state power was reflected even in the painting of the 16th century. Finally, after two and a half centuries of almost complete isolation, the culture of the young Russian state came into contact with the Renaissance culture of the West, which became an important condition for overcoming a certain cultural backwardness and strengthening Russia's position among other European states.
Folklore
The main theme of folklore is the struggle for independence. In this regard, the heroic epic epic of the Kiev period was modernized. Many historical songs, which became in the 16th century, are devoted to the same topic. the most common genre of folklore. The songs responded to the most important events and historical phenomena that left a deep imprint on the people's minds. For example, the politics and personal life of Ivan the Terrible gave rise to whole cycles of historical songs ("Campaign to Kazan", "Cossacks go to Kazan", "Capture of Kazan", "Ivan the Terrible prays for his son", "", etc.).
In parallel and in close connection with the historical song, a younger genre also developed - the folk ballad (a narrative song of a dramatic nature). Some ballads have a very ancient origin, they show the features of Slavic paganism ("The Princess and the Serpent", "The Fugitive Prince", etc.), but most are devoid of archaism and are turned to modernity ("to the son", "Defense of Pskov", etc. .).
Socio-political thought and literature
End of the 15th century became a turning point in the history of social thought and journalism: at this time, the beginning of those disputes about rituals and the letter, which in the 17th century would lead to the Schism, were laid; signs of religious free-thinking appeared, attempts at rationalistic criticism of the basic dogmas of Orthodoxy; and, finally, the most important issue of social and political thought was the question of the place of the church in the state.
One of the most striking manifestations of the mental life of the Middle Ages in Europe was heresy. In the 70s - 80s. XV century in Novgorod and Moscow, a heretical movement arose, which received the name " heresy of the Judaizers". The moderate part of the movement limited its struggle to the right to a certain free-thinking in literature and science, the more radical one reached the denial of the church hierarchy (demanding a cheap and righteous church) and basic theological dogmas (about the Trinity of God). Some ideas of heretics (denial of monasticism and church land tenure) ) aroused the sympathy of the state authorities, who saw in the large ecclesiastical landownership a source of replenishment of the land funds of the treasury.Despite the support of Ivan III, the ecclesiastical council of 1490 condemned the heresy.
The ideas of the heretics of the 15th century. found their continuation with " non-possessors"The teachers of non-acquisitiveness (the ideologist of Russian hesychasm Nil Sorsky and Vassian Patrikeev) spoke in favor of reforming monasteries to raise their authority, called upon the monks for asceticism and moral self-improvement, pointed out the inconsistency of church practice with the principles of Christianity. The ideas of non-acquisitives found support among the nobility and the servants. Grand Duke, but on the part of many churchmen they met with a hostile attitude. Joseph, formulating the position of the highest hierarchs, he justified the presence of material wealth in the church, depicting church lands as "a refuge for the poor and ruined peasants." Osiflians achieved an alliance with the great princely power on condition of maintaining their positions. Joseph Volotsky developed theory of theocratic absolutism, according to which the power of the Grand Duke is of divine origin, which not only strengthened her authority, but also strengthened the role of the church in the state. The non-covetous were condemned as heretics at church councils in 1503, 1531. The main views of the Osiphlians became the official teaching of the church. The underdevelopment of socio-economic relations, the absence of a broad social base for the reformation movement predetermined the defeat of the heretics and the strengthening of the position of the church. This was reflected in the development of Russian culture in the 16th century, which found itself under the most severe pressure of canonical requirements,
The variety of social ideas, expressing the aspirations of various strata in the new socio-political conditions, was reflected in secular journalism. Representatives of the clergy took part in the formulation of the theory of the feudal monarchy (the theory of "Moscow is the third Rome" of the monk Philotheus, who came out with the thesis about the chosen kingdom of God and justification not only of the world significance of the Russian state, but, to an even greater extent, of the exceptional significance of the church), nobles (petitions containing a program for the construction of a noble state headed by an autocrat) and, finally, representatives of the princely-boyar aristocracy (the correspondence of Ivan the Terrible with Prince Andrei Kurbsky demonstrates diametrically opposite views of the state power of the crowned apologist of autocracy and a representative of the princely-boyar opposition, a staunch supporter of estate-representative monarchy). These political concepts reflected the main trends in the development of Russian statehood that developed in the 16th century.
Journalism thematically and ideologically adjoins historical literature, imbued with the idea of strengthening the autocracy, strengthening its alliance with the church. So, the Nikon Chronicle, according to the plan of its compilers (among the editors was Ivan IV), was to show the history of the Muscovy as the history of a world power, and Ivan IV - a worthy successor to the Roman and Byzantine emperors. In the Book of Degrees, the history of statehood was intertwined with the history of the Orthodox Church, and the main business of state power was the protection and strengthening of Orthodoxy.
The ideology of the feudal monarchy, which was so actively discussed in publicism, in historical and church literature, was applied by Archpriest Sylvester to private life in his famous work "Domostroy" (middle of the 16th century), dedicated to the life and life of a wealthy urban family.
In the XVI century. a new genre of literature appeared - action-packed story("The Tale of the merchant Dmitry Basarga and his son Borzomysl", early 16th century). It is symptomatic that the influence of socio-political ideas is noticeable in this genre as well. In addition to the amusing plot, the success of the story was also facilitated by the fact that its hero was a merchant's son. With the growth of commodity-money relations, the merchant people occupied a prominent position in feudal society; having a relatively high level of literacy, he needed his literature, and it appeared.
Architecture
At the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. a new stage in the development of stone architecture began. The works of Russian masters in monumental forms reflected the major changes taking place in the life of the country. With the transformation of Moscow into the capital of an independent unified state, the formation of an idea of it as a stronghold of Orthodoxy, the desire to raise the artistic and technical level of Moscow construction is associated. The most skillful Russian masters (Pskov, Tver, Rostov) worked here alongside the best architects of Europe. As a result, Moscow architecture lost its regional limitation and acquired an all-Russian character. By the end of the 15th century. the white-stone Kremlin of Dmitry Donskoy (1367) is dilapidated. Italian craftsmen (Milanese engineer Pietro Antonio Solari and others) were invited to build new walls and towers of the Kremlin (1465-1495).
The new brick walls (more than 2 km long with 18 towers) turned out to be not only wonderful fortifications, but also wonderful works of art. In the 30s. XVI century the second line of stone fortifications was erected in Moscow - the walls of Kitai-gorod (architect Petrok Maly), and in 1585-1593. - the third - the White City (master Fyodor Kon). A peculiar result of the development of serf architecture in the 16th century. became the remarkable Smolensk Kremlin (1595-1602, architect F. Kon).
On the Cathedral Square of the Kremlin, on the site of the dilapidated and cramped churches of the time of Ivan Kalita, new ones were erected. During the construction of the Assumption Cathedral (1475-1479), the Italian architect Aristotle Fioravanti, following the model of the Vladimir Assumption Cathedral, creatively combined the most characteristic Old Russian forms with the Renaissance understanding of architectural space and created a completely original work that amazed his contemporaries with "majesty, height, luminosity, sonority and space ". The composition of the new cathedral was taken as a model during the construction of the Smolensk Cathedral of the Novodevichy Convent in Moscow (1524-1525), the Assumption Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (1559-1585), the Sophia Cathedral in Vologda (1568-1570) and etc. In 1505-1509 The Italian Aleviz Novy built the tomb of the Moscow princes - the Archangel Cathedral, decorating it like a two-story palazzo in the spirit of the Italian Renaissance. Such a frank use of details typical for civil construction in the decoration of the temple signified the strengthening of secular traditions in cult architecture. The Annunciation Cathedral (1484-1489) and the Church of the Deposition of the Robe (1484-1486), built by Russian craftsmen, are much more connected with the traditions of Pskov, Vladimir and early Moscow architecture. The ensemble of Cathedral Square is completed by the Faceted Chamber (Marco Ruffo and Pietro Antonio Solari, 1467-1491), which had a five-hundred-meter square hall, covered with four cross vaults with a powerful support pillar in the middle, and a high pillar-like bell tower of John Climacus (Bon Fryazin, 1505- 1508), which was a tower of slender octagons with arcades for bells. The elegance of the building was emphasized by flat shoulder blades at the corners and light cornices.
The engineering and aesthetic experience of Moscow was used by the builders of many Russian fortresses (Novgorod, 1490-1500; Nizhny Novgorod, 1500-1511; Tula, 1514-1521; Kolomna, 1525-1531).
The creation of the new all-Russian architecture was not limited to this. In the 1st half of the 16th century. Russian architects accomplished the task of transferring the elements of a tent-roofed church (a pillar-like structure with a tent-shaped top structure never seen before in stone architecture) into stone construction. One of the best examples of this style is the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye (1530 - 1532). This is a truly Russian building in all forms, breaking with the usual image of the cross-domed church. The composition of the church consists of four main elements: a basement, a powerful quadrangle with protrusions-narthexes forming a cruciform plan, an octagon and a tent with a dome. With a great height, the area of the temple is small. It was created primarily for viewing from the outside, as a solemn monument to an important event - the birth of the heir to the throne. The complex shape of the gable kokoshniks, the octagonal shape of the drums of the heads of the side pillars, the unusual decoration of the central drum with half-cylinders, the decor of the Church of the Beheading of John the Baptist in the village of Dyakovo (mid-16th century) also testify to the influence of wooden architecture.
Russian architects Barma and Postnik Yakovlev in 1554-1561. in memory of the capture of Kazan, the Cathedral of the Intercession, "in the moat", was erected on Red Square. The architectural ensemble of the church consists of nine pillar-like temples of various heights, the names of which reflect the Kazan events. The original color scheme of the building was formed by the combination of red brick walls with white carved decorative stone, which was in harmony with the sparkling chapters covered with "white iron" and the colored majolica decorations of the central tent. The elegant onion domes of the cathedral appeared at the end of the 16th century, and the flowery painting - in the 17th-18th centuries. The temple on Red Square, as foreigners noted, "was built, as it were, for decoration than for prayer." The secular principle prevails in it over the cult. Bold in composition and unusually decorative, it embodied the full power of the Russian architectural genius. This is the highest point in the development of Russian architecture in the 16th century.
In the second half of the XVI century. a conservative trend emerged in religious construction. The hundred-headed church cathedral of 1551 strictly regulated church construction. The architect was ordered to adhere to the canonical model of the Dormition Kremlin Cathedral, tent buildings that contradicted the Byzantine models were prohibited. As a result, many heavy repetitions of the Kremlin masterpiece appeared in Russia. Only at the very end of the century, during the reign of Boris Godunov, in architecture again there was a craving for a variety and elegance of forms, increased decorativeness (the church in the residence of Boris Godunov in the village of Vyazema, 1598-1599).
In general, the architecture of the XVI century. in scale, diversity and originality of creative solutions belongs to the most striking stages in the history of Russian architecture.
Painting
At the end of the 15th century. in ancient Russian painting the leading role was played by the "ruble" direction. Artists turned more to the subjects of the Old Testament, to the legendary-historical genre, showed interest in national life, in Russian realities (architecture, costume, etc.).
The largest artist of the Rublev trend at the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. was Dionysius (30s - 40s of the 15th century - c. 1508). Unlike Andrei Rublev, he was a layman, apparently of noble birth. His two sons, Vladimir and Feodosii, were also artists and worked with their father. The most important among the surviving works of Dionysius is the cycle of murals on the Nativity Cathedral of the Ferapontov Monastery (1502). They have come down to us in their original form almost completely. The main theme of the painting of the Nativity Cathedral was "Akathist" - a cycle of solemn lyrical chants in honor of the Mother of God. In these frescoes, the best features of the artist's style were manifested - perfectly fine proportions, a soft rounded silhouette combined with a light but sonorous color, and finally, the ultimate fusion of painting with architecture. The influence of Dionysius affected all the art of the 16th century.
At the same time, in Russian painting of the 16th century. there was a desire for abstract "philosophizing", for the interpretation of the most important Christian dogmas in artistic images, which led to the overload of the image with details, symbols (icons "Vision of Eulogius", "", "The Parable of the Blind and the Lame", RM). But at the same time, the church regulation of artistic creativity intensified. In the resolutions of the Stoglava Cathedral of 1551, icon painters were required to write "how the Greek icon painters wrote and how Ondrei Rublev wrote, and pretend nothing from their conception." Strict ecclesiastical supervision not only over icon painting, but also over the icon painters themselves was imputed to special elders from the "deliberate masters". The ideal image that every artist should strive for is outlined in Chapter 43 of Stoglava: "It befits a painter to be meek, meek, reverent, not talkative, not ridiculous, not quarrelsome, not envious, not a drunkard, not a robber, not a murderer; especially to keep purity of soul and body ... "For icon painting of the 16th century. characterized by the exaltation of official political ideas by means of art. Thus, the icon-painting "Militant Church" or "Blessed is the Host of the Heavenly King" (mid-16th century, Tretyakov Gallery) bears little resemblance to the traditional prayer image. It depicts the ceremonial return of the Russian army to Moscow from the conquered Kazan, which is conveyed as the apotheosis of the "army of the king of heaven." Rather, it is a picturesque monument to the Kazan victory of Ivan the Terrible, a work, in fact, of a historical and allegorical genre. In the XVI century. the appearance of the Russian icon also changed. A silver basma or embossed salary becomes an almost obligatory accessory. To emphasize the brilliance of the frames, the faces were often painted deliberately with dark, expressionless colors.
The same changes as in icon painting took place in monumental painting, which is known primarily from Moscow monuments. Even in the traditions of the 15th century, in a style close to the Ferapont frescoes, the son of Dionysius, Theodosius, painted the new Kremlin Cathedral of the Annunciation (1508). The murals of the cathedral reflected the popular idea of the succession of the power of the Vladimir princes and the Byzantine emperors by the Moscow princes.
In the murals of the Smolensk Cathedral of the Moscow Novodevichy Convent (c. 1530), another political theory was embodied - "Moscow is the third Rome". More complex is the composition of the murals of the Assumption Cathedral of the Assumption Monastery in Sviyazhsk near Kazan (1561). The painting is a kind of pictorial theological treatise dedicated to the proof of the Christian dogma of the Incarnation. It is significant that, in addition to episodes of the Old Testament history, complex symbolic images of Christ and the Mother of God, the painting includes portraits of state and church leaders of the 16th century - Ivan the Terrible, Metropolitan Macarius, etc. The development of the genre of historical portrait is associated with the growing interest in historical topics.
Traditional book miniature underwent significant changes in the 16th century due to the replacement of parchment with paper and the introduction of printing. In particular, wood engraving appeared - woodcut... Among the best engravings of the 16th century. belongs to the headpiece with the image of the Evangelist Luke in the first printed book of I. Fedorov - "The Apostle" (1564). The disciple and follower of the first printer, Andronik Timofeev Nevezha, who worked in a Moscow printing house after the departure of the teacher, in many ways contributed to the development of the art of book engraving.
In the XVI century. the culture of the Great Russian people was formed, which consolidated the corresponding ethnic process. It was in the XVI century. the history of the culture of the Russian people in the proper sense of the word began (as well as the culture of the Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples). Various new phenomena that characterize the cultural development of Russia in the next 17th century were prepared by the historical and cultural process of the end. XV-XVI centuries
Questions and tasks for the chapter IV
1. What role did the formation of a unified Russian state play in the development of Russian culture? It is known that in comparison with the countries of Western Europe, the process of centralization in Russia had a number of peculiarities. Have they influenced the historical and cultural process?
2. What is the significance for Russian culture of the influence exerted on it by the advanced Renaissance culture of the West in the 15th-16th centuries? Show this with any examples.
3. Why were the ideas of heretics and non-possessors, which found understanding and support not only among the boyars and nobles, but also among the Grand Duke, were still condemned, and their bearers were subjected to the most severe persecution?
4. In what genres of Russian literature con. XV - XVI centuries important journalistic issues were raised? Think about the political concepts formulated by representatives of different classes. Which of the ideas expressed by them have been embodied in the political practice of the Russian state? Why?
5. What signs of the formation of general Russian architecture can be seen in the buildings of the late 15th - 1st floor. XVI centuries? What was the significance of church regulation for the further development of Russian architecture?
6. Why weren't sculptural monuments erected in honor of significant events in Russia? How were such events noted? Show this, for example, on memorial structures in Moscow associated with the life and work of Ivan IV.
7. The Cathedral of the Intercession, "what's on the moat" (otherwise, St. Basil's Cathedral), built on the main trading, and therefore crowded square of the capital, could simultaneously accommodate only a small number of people. How does this relate to the purpose of the building? How do you explain both names of the cathedral?
8. Dionysius continued the Rublev tradition in Russian painting. Look at the albums with reproductions or go to the Tretyakov Gallery to get acquainted with the originals, and try to determine whether the work of Dionysius was a simple imitation of the great predecessor or was a new step in the direction in which Rublev was moving?
9. How were the current political ideas reflected in the painting of the 16th century? What consequences did church regulations have for the further development of Russian painting?
The origin of the name heresy has not yet been satisfactorily explained. According to some, it is connected with the fact that the scholarly Jew Skhariya brought the heresy from Lithuania, others associate the name with the fact that in their polemics with the official church heretics turned to the Old Testament.
From the name Joseph comes the name of the "money-grubbers" - "Josephites" or "Osiflyans".
Both churches are located within the boundaries of modern Moscow.
This monument is popularly called the Cathedral of St. Basil the Blessed in memory of the Moscow miracle worker, who was buried in the cathedral cemetery. ordered on the site of this burial to arrange a side-chapel in the Intercession Cathedral and to build a silver reliquary for the relics of the Blessed One (1588).
[C1] Chapter requires styling
Degradation
Desemantization
Efficiency
Relevance
18. The characteristic features of primitive culture are ...
Mythological consciousness
The dominance of collective representations
Personal beginning
The birth of philosophy
19. Establish the correspondence m \ y with the definition and concept:
1.the way of human existence and perception of the world, entirely based on the semantic relatedness of a person with the world
2.inseparability of elements of culture
3.belief in transmigration of souls
1.syncretism
2.archetype
4.reincarnation
20. Make the correspondence between the m \ u of a sculptor of the classical period and his work
1.Phidias -----
2.Miron ----------
3.Polyclet --------
1.Diskobol
2. Athena Parthenos.
3. Aphrodite of Cnidus
4.Dorifor
Privacy
Public life
Public service
Church life
22. The pendulum of Russian literature of the 16th century. Domostroy is a set of rules for ___________ behavior
Civil
Household
Moral
Public
The head of the family for Domostroy is an unlimited ruler in the house like the TsAR in the state
TEST # 4.
Does not apply to the main tasks of cultural studies
Social research Structures of various human collectives
Study of the genesis of culture as a whole, as well as individual phenomena and processes in culture
The most deep, complete and holistic explanation of culture, its essence, content, features and functions
Kulutra is one of the most complex systems, a kind of super-system, with the elements of a cat. Subsystems appear - separate cultural ones.
Achievements
Phenomena
Does not apply to fundamental cultural studies
Cultural semantics
Psychology of culture
History of cultural studies
Culture methodology
One of the founders of axiology is
L. Morgan
G. Rickert
The totality of cultural objects, forms, features, meanings, expressed in the symbolic form of yavl.
Acculturation
Cultural integration
Cultural text
Counterculture
6. The totality of changes in culture in space and time is ...
Culture dynamics
Axiology culture
Sociocultural adaptation
Globalization of culture
The process of assimilation by an individual of social roles and norms is called
Decentralization
By inculturation
Globalization
Socialization
A feature of the congregation of the New Time since the 17th century. Is an
Locality
Intolerance
Multilingualism
Democracy
He called Russia East-West
Plekhanov G.
Berdyaev N.
P. Chaadaev
A. Herzen
The Mesolithic era is characterized by
The appearance of the bow and arrow
The emergence of the visual arts
Transition to agriculture
The emergence of ceramics
The reason for the non-aggressive modus of Japanese culture was
Lack of military skills
Established aesthetic norms
Religions of Buddhism
The established economic and cultural complex
The main style of the era of Peter's reforms
Romanticism
Sentimentalism
Classicism
The sections of cultural studies are
Applied Culturology
History of cultural studies
Ethnology
Psychology of culture
In C. Jung's concept, the collective unconscious
Inherent in all people
Has a cultural character
Based solely on instinct
Inherent in mediums, shamans, sorcerers
15. The process of cultural change includes ________ variability
Technological
Historical
Social
The political
For a person of Western culture, har-ny
The desire to "live by reason"
A clear separation of oneself from any object that is an object of knowledge
Reverence for all forms of life
Physiological Sensitivity
Human development in the paleolithic era khar-sya
The emergence of rituals
The emergence of mythology
The addition of protoreligious ideas
The disintegration of the tribal community
18.Conformity m / y
3 the misanthrope
1 Jean Racine
2 Jean Lafontaine
3.Pierre Corneille
19. From D. T. Suzuki's commentary on Basho's poem:
“Look closely!
Shepherd's purse flowers
You will see under the wattle fence! "
Oriental art is characterized by ...
Lack of personality
+ detachment from nature
Pragmatism
Symbolism
20.Base - an outstanding Japanese ___ poet of the 17th century
TEST # 5
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B. Malinovsky
5. From the "Word about Idols" ... "The Word about Idols", directed against paganism, is a monument of Old Russian literature of the ___ century.
7.From Confucius: “When the state is governed by reason, poverty and want are shameful; when the state is not governed according to reason, then wealth and honor are shameful. " The main keepers of the Confucian commandments were ...
Officials
4. courtiers
10. From the work of J.-F. Lyotard "Notes on the margins of narratives" ... In the work of J.-F. Lyotard is talking about _________ modernity.
The end
2. refusal
3.exception
4.Editing
12.From the work of J.-F. Lyotard "Notes on the margins of narratives" ... According to J.-F. Lyotard, the current state of society is characterized by ...
1.the pursuit of success
2.dominance of Christian values
3. domination over nature
Dominance of science and technology
13. This cathedral (Peter and Paul) was erected in 1712–1733 on the site of the wooden church of the same name ... The name of the architect of the cathedral described and shown in the photo is associated with the __________ direction in Russian architecture of the 18th century.
Baroque
2.renaissance
3.classic
4. romance
18. The construction of this cathedral began between 1017 and 1019 ... In honor of the victory over the Pechenegs, which led to their complete defeat, in the XI century. the cathedral was built ...
1. St. Sophia in Chernigov
2. St. Elijah in Kiev
St. Sophia in Kiev
4. Uspensky in Vladimir
19.M. Vrubel ... The works of M. Vrubel are characterized by ...
1.Following nature
Creating your own fantasy world
3.the pursuit of illustrative accuracy
4. admiration for color
Fauvism
2.surrealism
3.dadaism
25. From the work of P. Sorokin "The Crisis of Our Time" ... The essence of the crisis of sensual culture P. Sorokin saw in ...
1.the opposition of democracy and totalitarianism
2.the struggle between communism and fascism
Changing the value system
4.the great economic depression
29. From "Domostroy" ... The author of "Domostroy" applied the ideology of the feudal monarchy to ...
1.public service
Privacy
3. church life
4.public life
33. In the ancient tradition, a person is a microcosm ... The specificity of ancient democracy is that it is based not on the preferential protection of the interests of an individual, individualism, but on the protection of interests ...
1.Oligarchy
2.human freedoms
3.aristocracy
Polis
37. From an article by L. Febvre ... The appeal to the ancient heritage contributed to the formation of the Italian ...
1.cosmopolitanism
Humanism
3.Mercantilism
4.paternalism
40. This abbey (Saint-Denis) occupied a special place ... The creator of the Gothic and the most influential abbot of the temple described and presented in the text was ...
1. Guibert Nozhansky
2. Trouble Venerable
Abbot Suger (Suger)
4. Bernard of Clairvaux
42.The architectural ensemble of this church consists of nine pillar-like temples of various heights. The temple described and shown in the photo was built in memory of (about) ...
1.the victory over the Poles
2.releasing from the Mongol-Tatar yoke
Capture of Kazan
4.the accession of the Romanov dynasty
44. The first seven theses state that the repentance to which Jesus Christ calls is not performed in an act of sacrament, but lasts the whole life of a Christian ... The author of 95 theses that initiated the Reformation is ...
Martin Luther
2. Jean Calvin
3. Albrecht Durer
4. Johannes Fishart
48 P. S. Gurevich: “In the era ... the elevation of the spirit took root in the area of the economy itself. Any work associated with the transformation of life was considered poetic ... The fundamental contribution to the formation of Protestant ethics was made ...
Martin Luther
2. Francois Vignon
3. Jean Calvin
4. Erasmus of Rotterdam
49. P. S. Gurevich: “In the era ... the elevation of the spirit took root in the area of the economy itself. Any work associated with the transformation of life was considered poetic ... Recognition of the dignity of labor is characteristic of the culture of the era ...
1.the middle ages
2.Antiquity
Reformation
4. Renaissance
51. Theodore Gericault. "Officer of the Horse Rangers of the Imperial Guard, Going to the Attack." 1812 The French artist Theodore Gericault is the founder of _____ in painting.
1.impressionism
2.classicism
Romanticism
4.realism
53 Voltaire's aphorisms:
"... A man will be born to live in the convulsions of anxiety ...".
"If God did not exist, he should have been invented."
"If people argue for a long time, it proves that what they are arguing about is not clear to themselves."
One of the highest achievements of Voltaire are his ...
Historical works
2.paintings
4.scientific views
54. Voltaire's aphorisms ... Voltaire criticized absolutism, glorified reason, fought for ...
1.human rights
2.market economy
Tolerance
56.From a letter to the boyar FP Morozova and princess EP Urusova ... The author of the quoted letter addressed to the boyar FP Morozova and princess EP Urusova was ...
1.Protopop Filaret
2.patriarch Nikon
Archpriest Avvakum
4.boyar Rtischev
59. This cathedral, built in 1158-60. (rebuilt in 1185–89) differs both from Kiev and from the early monuments of North-Eastern Russia ... The cathedral described and shown in the photo was founded ...
1. Yuri Dolgoruky
2. Daniel Zatochnik
3. Vsevolod the Big Nest
Andrey Bogolyubsky
60. This cathedral, built in 1158-60. (rebuilt in 1185–89) differs from both Kiev and the early monuments of North-Eastern Russia ... The Cathedral of the Assumption described and shown in the figure is ...
1.the main cathedral of North-Eastern Russia
2.the first stone church in Russia
3.the main cathedral of the Novgorod Republic
a model for the construction of Russian churches
62. Antique space is active, moving, heterogeneous, but it does not yet have a rigid grid of dominant coordinates, it is the same in many directions, despite its heterogeneity in many areas and intervals, to dynamically changing stresses of its individual areas ... A characteristic feature of an ancient temple is ...
Traditional ideas about "Domostroy" in a modern person are approximately as follows. It is a historic document that reinforces women's powerlessness and encourages corporal punishment. Every step that must be taken during the day is spelled out in Domostroy, self-will is unacceptable, freedom of the individual - where else ... In other words, "Domostroy" is a lash alphabet, invented in the Middle Ages for the benefit of someone who does not know. But it is known that there were much more strong families at the time of Domostroi than now. And parents were respected more, despite the lash "chaos". Was the gingerbread sweeter at that time, or is the stick not as harsh as it seems at first glance?
Domostroy is a historical monument of the middle of the 16th century. Contains a set of rules related to different areas of life: spiritual, civil, social. 40 lists of the document (that is, handwritten copies) that have survived to this day indicate that at one time Domostroy enjoyed great popularity.
Domostroy is not a purely Russian work. Such collections had their predecessors - Byzantine rulebooks written in the Orthodox tradition. They were translated into Russian and therefore are well known to the literate population (for example, Izbornik Svyatoslav, 1073). There was also a Catholic tradition, for example, in Poland ("The Life of a Good Man"). On the basis of this heritage in Russia, by the 15th-16th centuries, collections were written containing the rules: how to run a household, how to meet guests, raise children, how to relate to state power, how to behave in church, etc. Domostroy is a compilation from various sources of this kind.
Therefore, the collection does not have a specific author. Its editor is considered to be the archpriest of the Moscow Cathedral of the Annunciation, Sylvester. It is believed that in Novgorod there was a "pre-Sylvestrovsky" list, close to the version we know, which was edited by the archpriest, himself a native of Novgorod. Sylvester's task was to bring together information from different sources and slightly tweak it stylistically. Only the 64th chapter of Sylvester's Domostroi was written by the archpriest himself.
The first academic edition of Domostroi appeared in 1908, edited by Alexander Sergeevich Orlov.
What are the peculiarities of people's thinking in Russia in the 16th century? One of them is sluggishness, that is, constancy in views and tastes, tradition. Which, by the way, didn't make any bad sense at all. For the new time, progress and all kinds of changes are important. (Let us recall Pushkin's: "He was seized by anxiety, a desire to change places"). For the people of the 16th century, each new year is similar to the previous one. After all, calendar days are tied to the agricultural cycle of sowing, growing, harvesting. This is the most important aspect of life that determines everything else: whether the family will survive depends on the harvest. Therefore, if today dynamics is considered a good indicator in the development of society, then in the Middle Ages conservatism was undoubtedly assessed positively: this is how life proceeded in a traditional society. Such a society can be characterized as a “post-figurative culture”. Margaret Mead describes it this way: “... it is a culture where every change proceeds so slowly and imperceptibly that grandfathers, holding newborn grandchildren in their hands, cannot imagine any other future for them, different from their own past. The past of adults turns out to be the future of each new generation; what they have lived is a blueprint for the future for their children. The future of children is shaped in such a way that everything experienced by their predecessors in adulthood also becomes what children will experience when they grow up. "
Modern man thinks in relative terms. There are not so many truths that are absolute for everyone today - except the multiplication table. In the Middle Ages, on the contrary, there are practically no relative truths, there are only axioms that must be accepted without any proof: the hierarchy in society is natural, it is necessary to obey those who are higher in class, etc. Such thinking is irrational, it is built on faith, and in this case, a person does not need proof. Any attempt to demand them is perceived almost as treason, as apostasy.
You also need to understand that at that time the perception of relations in the state and in the family was practically the same. Because of this, in the text of Domostroi, an ambiguity even arises: both the tsar-father and the owner of the house are named sovereign. It turns out that it is no coincidence that we are accustomed to seeing a father-breadwinner and protector in the leader of the state. But this is a sign of archaic thinking: in the tribal structure, the oldest and wisest relative became the head of the community. This primitive communal feature does not disappear either in the Middle Ages, or in the 19th century, or even at the end of the 20th century. By the way, already from the above, we can conclude that Domostroy is not a harsh work - after all, a family cannot be built on a stick relationship. And parents, no matter how strict, still take care of children and household members, take care of them, wish them well.
Our ancestors also had a different attitude to their own destiny - this is another feature. In the modern world, an entrepreneurial, proactive person, rather than passive, is more likely to achieve success. The medieval Russian “doer” is more likely to go with the flow, to obey the existing course of things, than to act as the creator of his own destiny. It is not a person who forms the world order, but on the contrary - the world order dictates a way of life to a person. In addition, there is the belief that conscientious service always leads to rewards and promotion. This “submissive” attitude to fate changes after Peter's reforms, when European values are forcibly instilled in Russia. However, only the elite of Russian society accepted the innovations. The middle class and the lower classes continue to live in the same value system, according to the way of Domostroi. Let's try, while reading Domostroy, to take these features into account. Then it will become obvious that for its time this collection was a very humane work, very sensibly written, and, what is important, very rational.
The 40 lists of Domostroy that have come down to us are conventionally divided into three editions: short, Sylvester's and mixed. The first, brief, presumably, is the Novgorod prototype with which Archpriest Sylvester worked. The mixed edition is nothing more than the result of the labor of careless scribes (and at that time there were such workers, even among the monks!), Who took half of the text of the first version, half of the second, and the result was a rather confusing text with many repetitions.
The most widespread is Sylvester's edition. It has been processed, and, in addition, it contains the 64th chapter, written by Sylvester himself in the form of a teaching to his only son Anfim. This chapter is also called "small Domostroi", because it sets out the main content of the previous 63 chapters, but only briefly and without repetitions. It is written in a very gentle, soft language, in the fatherly way. It is with her that it is better to start your acquaintance with Domostroi. Then all suspicion that this collection is harshness itself will be dispelled. Such notes of concern can only come from a father who wants his son to grow up as a worthy person. What are some appeals to Anfim: "My dear dear child!" The atmosphere of good, kind relations is being recreated.
In modern society, a tendency has long been noticed: the epithet “courageous” is being used more and more often for a woman, and more and more men, about whom it is customary to say: “with a gentle character”. And what does Domostroy say about the relationship between a man and a woman in the family?
First of all, Domostroy speaks of duty: the duty of spouses to each other, parents to children, children to parents, servants to masters, gentlemen to servants ... About the duty of every person in the family and in the state. About "male tyranny" and "female powerlessness" is also said quite specifically. Domostroy lists the responsibilities of men and women in the family, and their spheres of influence practically do not overlap. The owner and the hostess act autonomously from each other, in many respects they are "equal". The mistress, just like the head of the family, is the empress over the children and over the servants in the house. She teaches, commands, encourages them and, if necessary, scolds them. But the most important thing with regard to the role of women in the family is expressed as follows: “If God gives someone a good wife, this is more valuable than a precious stone. It would be a sin to lose such a wife, even with greater profit: she will establish a prosperous life for her husband ... A good wife is blessed with a husband, and the number of days of his life will double - a good wife pleases her husband and fill his summer with peace; a good wife is a reward for those who fear God, for a wife makes her husband more virtuous: firstly, having fulfilled God's commandment, she is blessed by God, and secondly, people praise her ... A good wife saves her husband after death, as pious queen Theodora ”[Domostroy, Chapter 23].
In Domostroy there are words that cut the ear - “to be afraid of the husband”, “to listen with fear”. However, the scenes of the outpouring of unrighteous male anger have nothing to do with it - in the Old Russian language, the meaning of these words was completely different. At that time, to be afraid, that is, the fear of God to have, meant respect, and recognition, and understanding. It is not without reason that they say today, however, with a completely different accent: "To be afraid is to respect." To be afraid of a husband is, first of all, to be with him in sorrow and in joy, to fulfill his duty in relation to the house, to raise children, to be support and help to the spouse. Of course, this also includes recognition of the seniority of the husband. But this is not the spouse who, in front of the TV or with a newspaper in his hands, forgets about the earthly vanity, and on occasion hits the table with his fist! His duty is to be the head of the family, to take care of the household, to teach them the correct life, because he is responsible for this before God, and before the sovereign, and even before public opinion, “neighbors”. The seniority of a husband in the house is not self-will and not a manifestation of male tyranny, this phenomenon is quite natural for that time. This is one of the principles of the world order, the guarantee of order.
What are the powers of the owner? First of all, to take care of, teach family members and household members, take care of their well-being. Households are domestic servants. Domostroy also mentions it several times. If the servants honestly fulfill their duties, they should be seated at the master's table, presented with clothes from their shoulders, and protected in every possible way. The owner helps a good servant to get settled in life: to start his own business, to equip the yard ... If the servant is negligent, robbing the owners, gossiping about them, dodging work, it is necessary to teach him, including the most popular means of that time - flogging. But after that, it is imperative to give the person a new chance. And only if he again and again will steal, mess around, then you should feed such a servant and drive him out of the yard.
In the 64th chapter, Sylvester constantly turns to his own experience, encourages his son to remember how it was in their house: how many orphans they took into their service, and then they helped all of them to get settled. Some became merchants, others now have their own households, and how many were successfully married off by mother, and collected a dowry for everyone ... Their servants, having served in good faith in the master's yard, became people.
The upbringing of children is based on the same principles of love and forgiveness. It is necessary "and teach them the fear of God, and courtesy, and all decency ... And to keep them and to observe bodily purity and from all sin, as the apple of an eye and as your soul" [Domostroy, Chapter 19].
Although Domostroy was compiled on the basis of many collections, on the whole it was built within the framework of the Orthodox education system, for which a positive example is at the forefront. First, a picture of the ideal is given, and then it is explained that you, a mere mortal, can achieve this by living like a Christian. The righteous parents, "prudent and sensible", and children "are taught all knowledge and order, and craft, and handicrafts."
Of course, rigor in raising children is important. In some cases, flogging is inevitable: Domostroy advises “if you do not understand it, you should beat”. However, upon careful reading, it is clear that the text pays much more attention to praise than abuse. In addition, if today we perceive corporal punishment as a personal insult, then for a medieval person it was the most common means of admonition. They flogged everyone, including the boyars, and this science did not inflict a spiritual wound on medieval man. Domostroy generally offers flogging as the very last resort, if other methods of teaching no longer help: "If she does not understand this, punish her severely, saving her with fear, but do not get angry, you are at your wife, and your wife is at you." At the same time, Domostroy fully takes into account the psychological characteristics of a person. “Teach” the wife and children should be done so that none of the outsiders sees it and that the person does not feel humiliated. The purpose of punishment is to reason, but not to spit in the soul. And if the punished has understood, then immediately after the spanking it is imperative to caress him and to feel sorry for him: “Teach alone, and after having taught - calm down, have pity, caress her; also teach your children and your household members the fear of God and all good deeds, for you will be given an answer for them on the day of the Last Judgment. It turns out that for its time, Domostroy offers very careful, even delicate means.
How Domostroy reflects reality is perhaps the most difficult question. He paints a picture of ideal relationships with the family, with the state, in the church, at home. In fact, this is a dream, an example of what could have been. Domostroy for its time is the same as Soviet films about a happy life in the 30s. In reality, everything was completely different, but such a movie was watched with delight, because it told about what everyone would like to see in their life. The cinema was comforting and encouraging. Domostroy is the same virtual idyll that every family should strive for. Someone is doing better, closer to the ideal, someone is worse. One thing is indisputable - that Domostroy was read, he was listened to, he was a kind of everyday conscience.
Also, don't forget about the practical side of the text. Many useful household tips needed in everyday life were very popular with the widest audience. In general, Domostroy is designed for the "middle class". These are middle and small nobility - the document mentions people who own villages. This merchant class - when it comes to their own business, about the shop. These are both wealthy peasants and the urban estate - when it is mentioned about the yards, about the payment of household taxes. Each Domostroy offers a rational approach in the right area.
It is interesting that Domostroy addresses everyone - a nobleman, a merchant, a city dweller, a peasant - on equal terms. This means that in those days there was no strong difference between the elite of society and the lower classes. Everyone spoke the same language, had the same ideals, wore clothes of the same cut, sewn in the same fashion - maybe someone's fabric is richer, someone's is simpler. The mentality was the same, and "Domostroy", of course, influenced the minds.
In other words, this collection is not just a collection of rules and conventions. This is a completely rational basis of life, and in a society with an irrational system of views. In a sense, Domostroy was even ahead of its time. And maybe, in vain, from the bell tower of our XXI century, we look so skeptically at this monument of the "dark Middle Ages"?
Domostroy structure:
The 63 chapters of Sylvester's edition of Domostroy can be conditionally divided into 3 parts. The first is about spiritual life: how to pray to God in church and at home, how to live like a Christian. The second is about civil life: how to communicate with the king, how to build relationships with the state and in the family. The third part, which accounts for half of the entire text, is practical advice on housekeeping, house building: how to preserve vegetables, fruits, how to deal with moths, how to bake bread, how to meet guests with dignity if they come unexpectedly ... the beginning of all the books on home economics so popular today, calendars with useful tips and other household aids.
Responsibilities of the owner:
Every day and every evening, after prayer, consult with your wife about household chores.
To teach the craft of sons: carpentry, tailor, blacksmith, shoemaker.
To teach the wife and children and household members not to steal, not to fornicate, not to lie, not to slander, not to envy, not to offend, not to talk about something else, not to encroach on someone else's, not to condemn, not to harass, not to ridicule, not to remember evil, not to to be angry, to the elders to be obedient and submissive, to the middle ones - friendly, to the younger and poor - friendly and merciful.
Look after cellars and glaciers, granaries and dryers, barns and stables.
To plant a vegetable garden and a garden, to take care of it.
Take care of the purchase of supplies for the year; make stocks for future use.
Give the servants what they deserve, and punish the bad ones.
Duties of the hostess:
Ask your husband about any order, about how to save your soul, please God and your husband, and build your house.
To love and keep children, but also to save by fear, punishing and teaching.
Teach daughters needlework: spinning, sewing; learn to eat, cook, bake bread and rolls.
Stretch out your hands for work; to know how to sow flour, how to knead dough, and roll up and bake bread; to know how much flour they will take, and how much they will bake - to know the measure and the count in everything.
Turn your mercy on the poor, and give the fruits of labor to the poor.
Every day to look after the servants, and which servant does everything well - and for that, welcome to praise, if it is bad - to punish or teach a lesson.
Always watch out for the drunk.
Collect dowry for daughters.
To train maids, maidens and widows, to marry, endowing with a dowry. [*]
Thus, "Domostroy" is an example of the moral and cultural values of the Russian family in the Middle Ages. The book condemns idleness and drunkenness, greed, overeating and slander. Belief in God, respect for the authorities and loyalty to the Tsar, hard work, thrift, patience, care for loved ones and mutual assistance, hospitality - this is just a short list of human qualities that Sylvester's Domostroy calls for. The patriarchal family was considered as the first type of family and social object, which reflected the ideological concepts of that period of time. The most famous monument of Russian literature is "Domostroy" - a set of rules of conduct in the family, describing all the subtleties of the arrangement of everyday life in the 15-16th centuries. Colorful sketches of the way of life of Russian families give an idea of the mentality of the people of that time, of the degree of influence of the church in society. It is safe to say that not a single document of medieval Russia did not reflect the nature of life, economy, economic relations of its time, with the degree of reliability of "Domostroi". For its time, "Domostroy" was an authoritative guide and an important text regulating life. In full accordance with medieval ideas, Domostroy, in its finished form, built a hierarchy of basic organizing forms: state - church - family, with the leading principle of unity based on will, understood as social benefit, for such a hierarchy. These were the demands of history, and in full observance of the principle of power at all social levels, the reformers of the 16th century. saw the meaning of their state reforms and the strength of state life. In this rigid hierarchy, the ruler himself is not completely free, he himself is simply obliged to teach and instruct everyone around him. If he does not fulfill such a function, he himself will be punished - God, sir, "soussedi" - with mockery, judgment, and a fine. The meaning of the life of the sovereign, therefore, lies in the "leadership of the house." The family as a school of preparation for life in society in the absence of an organized state education; not individual inclinations and abilities of a person, but general civil, pragmatically concentrated virtues; not the development of moral principles, but the establishment of tradition as a universal norm for all - all this is characteristic of the social atmosphere that gave birth to "Domostroy".
Chapter 2. The role of the family in modern Russia.
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