Russian psychology has long ceased to be a purely academic discipline, but it still owes a big debt to practice. In various areas of public life, this debt is being actively paid - the figure of a psychologist is becoming more and more familiar in a modern factory and in a medical institution, in pedagogy and jurisprudence. But the need for psychological help exists not only in social practice, but also in personal and family life, and this need is still completely inadequate. On the other hand, psychology itself, especially the so-called "interesting psychology", which studies motives, emotions, personality of a person, cannot further develop productively only within the walls of a laboratory, without taking an active part in real human life.

Under the influence of this mutual interest, now a new (and long-awaited) period in the development of domestic practical psychology is opening: literally before our eyes, a sphere of psychological services for the population is emerging - family service, suicidological service with a network of "social and psychological assistance" offices and crisis hospitals, psychological service of the university etc., etc.

The specific organizational forms of separating the "personal" psychological service into an independent practice are not yet completely clear, but whatever they may be, the very fact of its appearance poses the task of general psychology to develop the fundamental theoretical foundations by which this practice could be guided.

These foundations themselves should be based on the awareness of the not quite familiar professional position taken by a psychologist who practically works with a person. If, within the framework of pedagogical, legal, medical and other spheres of activity, a psychologist acted as a consultant and assistant to a teacher, doctor or lawyer serving these specialists, then, taking this position, he becomes a responsible producer of work, directly serving the person who turned to him for help. And if earlier the psychologist saw him through the prism of questions facing other specialists (clarification of the diagnosis, determination of sanity, etc.), or his own theoretical questions, now, as a responsible subject of independent psychological practice, for the first time he is not professionally confronted with sick, student, suspect, operator, test subject, etc., and with a person in all the completeness, concreteness and intensity of his life problems. This does not mean, of course, that a professional psychologist should act, so to speak, purely "humanly"; the main question is precisely how to single out the psychological aspect of this vital problematic and thereby outline the area of ​​competence of the psychologist.

The fundamental limitation of this zone is set by the fact that the professional activity of the psychologist does not coincide in its direction with the pragmatic or ethical aspiration of the person who applied for help, with the focus on the world of his emotional-volitional attitude: the psychologist cannot directly borrow his professional goals from the set of actual goals and desires the patient, and, accordingly, his professional actions and reactions to the events of the patient's life cannot be automatically determined by what the patient wants.

This does not mean, of course, that a psychologist should kill sympathy and empathy in himself and once and for all oblige himself in the right to respond to a "cry for help" not as a specialist, but simply as a person, that is, ethically: to give friendly advice, to console , to provide practical assistance. These actions lie in such a dimension of life where there can be no question of any professional duty, just as there can be no question of prescribing or forbidding a doctor to give a patient his own blood.

What a psychologist really must, if he wants to be useful to a person as a specialist, is, while retaining the ability for compassion, which forms the emotional and motivational soil that feeds his practical activity, to learn to subordinate his immediate ethical reactions, directly arising from compassion, to a positively defined pathological program. help, as a surgeon can do in his flight during an operation or a teacher, Applying this or that educational influence is by no means always pleasant for the pupil.

But why, in fact, is this ability to subordinate direct ethical reactions to a professional psychological setting necessary? Because, firstly, consolation and pity are not exactly (and often not at all) what the patient needs to overcome the crisis. Secondly, because everyday advice, to which many patients are greedy, are mostly simply useless or even harmful to them, indulging their unconscious desire to relieve themselves of responsibility for their own lives. The pedologist is not at all an expert on everyday advice, the education he received does not at all coincide with the acquisition of wisdom, and, therefore, the fact of having a diploma does not give him the moral right to make specific recommendations on how to act in a particular life situation. And one more thing: before turning to a psychologist, the patient usually considered all possible ways out of a difficult situation and found them unsatisfactory. There is no reason to believe that by discussing his life situation with the patient on the same plane, the psychologist will be able to find a way out that he did not notice. The very fact of such a discussion supports in the patient unrealistic hopes that the psychologist can solve life problems for him, and the almost inevitable failure hits the psychologist's authority, reducing the chances of the ultimate success of his case, not to mention the fact that the patient often experiences unhealthy satisfaction. from the "game" won by a psychologist, described by E. Berne (1) under the title "And you try. - Yes, but ..." an arsenal of professional and psychological actions simply because a psychologist, with all his will, cannot improve his material or social situation, correct his appearance or return a lost loved one, that is, he cannot influence the external, existential aspect of his problems.

All these points are very important for the formation of a sober attitude of patients (and of the psychologist himself) to the possibilities and tasks of psychological assistance. However, the main reason that forces the psychologist to go beyond the immediate ethical response in search of proper psychological means of help is that a person himself and only himself can experience the events, circumstances and changes in his life that gave rise to the crisis. No one can do this for him, just as the most sophisticated teacher cannot understand the material being explained for his student.

But the process of experiencing can be controlled to some extent - to stimulate it, organize, direct, provide favorable conditions for it, striving to ensure that this process ideally leads to the growth and improvement of the personality - or at least does not go pathological or socially unacceptable by way (alcoholism, neurotization, psychopathization, suicide, crime, etc.). Experiencing, therefore, is the main subject of the application of the efforts of a practical psychologist who helps a person in a situation of life crisis. And if so, then in order to build a theoretical foundation for this practice, it is quite natural to make the process of experiencing the central subject of general psychological research on the problem of overcoming critical situations.

The reader has probably already noticed that the term "experience" is used by us not in the usual sense for scientific psychology, as a direct, most often emotional, form of the given to the subject of the contents of his consciousness, but to designate a special internal activity, internal work with the help of which a person it is possible to endure certain (usually difficult) life events and situations, to restore the lost mental balance, in a word, to cope with a critical situation.

Why we considered it possible to use the already "occupied" term to designate the subject of our research, we will answer this question later, in the Introduction. But why do you have to go for a terminological innovation at all? The point, of course, is not that the area of ​​psychic reality we are investigating is terraincognita for psychology and should be named for the first time, but that its existing names - psychological protection, compensation, coping behavior (copingbehavior), etc. - do not suit us. , since the categories expressed by them fix only particular aspects of the integral problem that we see here, and not one of them, therefore, can claim the role of a general category. On the other hand, a new term is required because we want immediately, from the threshold, to dissociate ourselves from the theoretically limited methodology that dominates the study of this sphere of psychic reality, and to conduct an analysis from the standpoint of a certain psychological concept - the theory of activity of A.N. Leont'ev, and there is simply no corresponding concept in her arsenal.

  • + - The Influence of Prayer on the Semantic Work of Experience

    The process of experiencing can be coupled with the process of prayer, and then both processes have a mutual influence on each other. A distinction is introduced between three planes of the process of experiencing - direct experience, expression and comprehension. The mission of the latter is to solve the problem of meaning, which consists both in comprehending the personal meaning of the accomplished events, and in searching for sources of meaningfulness, in filling being with meaning. What influence prayer has on the activity of experience in terms of comprehension is the main question of the article.

    // Counseling psychology and psychotherapy - 2005. № 3

    Http://psyjournals.ru/mpj/2005/n3/2594.shtml

  • + - The gift of discipleship. F.E. Vasilyuk with Rimas Kochyunas

    F. Vasilyuk interviewed Rimas Kociunas, a new member of the editorial board of the magazine. R. Kociunas is a famous Lithuanian psychotherapist of existential orientation, director of the Institute of Humanistic and Existential Psychology, professor at Vilnius University. He talks about the years of study at Vilnius University, about the formation of psychotherapy in Lithuania, about meetings with outstanding personalities, whom he considers to be his teachers in the profession and in life. Among them are A. Guchas, A.E. Alekseichik, V. Frankl, K. Rogers, Chogyal Namkhai Norbu.

    // Counseling Psychology and Psychotherapy - 2010. No. 1

    Http://psyjournals.ru/mpj/2010/n1/27891.shtml

  • + - Dialogue between Karl Rogers and Martin Buber

    Martin Buber was born in Vienna in 1878. From the age of three, when his parents divorced, he lived with his grandfather, a wealthy businessman, renowned scholar and head of the Jewish community. Buber was raised in a Western European intellectual tradition that cultivates reason, logical criticism, and historical research. In contrast, during his summer vacations in Eastern Europe, he was deeply influenced by the Hasidic Jewish tradition, which emphasizes direct, mystical, spontaneous and joyful communication between man and God. After studying philosophy and art history at the universities of Vienna (Ph.D., 1904), Berlin, Leipzig and Zurich, he taught philosophy and theology at several institutes and universities. From 1923 to 1933 he was professor of Jewish theology (the only such position at a German university), history of religion and ethics at the University of Frankfurt. When in 1933. Jewish students were expelled from German universities, and he became director of the Central Office for Jewish Adult Education. He married Paula Winkler, who later became a famous writer.

    // Counseling psychology and psychotherapy - 1994. № 4

    Http://psyjournals.ru/mpj/1994/n4/25708.shtml

  • + - Life World and Crisis: Typological Analysis of Critical Situations [not available]

    The problem of assessing the severity of a critical life situation is solved by the methods of typological and phenomenological analysis. The result of the research is a system of categories that describes the characteristics of stress, frustration, conflict and crisis in different types of life worlds. Key words: life world, experience, infantilism, values, stress, frustration, conflict, crisis, microcrisis.

    The publication is currently unavailable. http://psychol.ras.ru/ippp_pfr/j3p/pap.php?id=20010405

  • + - Confession and psychotherapy

    The report discusses the question: can and how exactly the experience of modern psychotherapy can help the cause of confession and repentance. The task of deepening repentance is highlighted, the final meaning of which is not in purification and correction, but in the search and awakening of a person capable of the sacrament of a meeting. Two types of deviations in the approach to confession are considered, which are designated as the danger of "legalism" and the danger of "psychologism". Examples of psychological correction of such cases are given. The significance of the psychological attitude as an organ contributing to the implementation of the results of repentance is revealed. It shows how a certain spiritual attitude can be created by combining prayer and action.

    // Counseling Psychology and Psychotherapy - 2004. No. 4

    Http://psyjournals.ru/mpj/2004/n4/Vasiluk.shtml

  • + - Cultural and anthropological conditions of the possibility of psychotherapeutic experience

    Psychotherapy, along with other forms of psychological practice, has become extremely widespread in modern Western civilization. Moreover, the process of its institutionalization, its transformation into an independent sphere of culture, is coming to an end. A culturological reflection of this phenomenon is needed. Are there analogues of psychotherapy in other cultures and in other periods of history? The main question of the article: what are the conditions for the institutionalization of psychotherapy in culture? It is divided into two sub-questions: 1) what should be the culture in which the development of psychotherapy as a special institution is possible? and 2) what should be a person for whom professional psychotherapy is an adequate cultural way of resolving life conflicts? In connection with the analysis, a conclusion is made about the philosophical mission of cultural-historical psychology in relation to psychological practice.

    // Cultural-Historical Psychology - 2007. № 1

    Http://psyjournals.ru/kip/2007/n1/Vasilyuk.shtml

  • + - Methodological analysis in psychology

    Http://tipa-biblioteka.narod.ru/vas.zip

  • + - Methodological meaning of psychological schism

    Psychology Issues, 1996, no. 6, p. 25-40

    Http://psylib.org.ua/books/_vasif03.htm http://pk.mgppu.ru/index.php?option=com_remository&Itemid=32&func=startdown&id=24 http://prepod.nspu.ru/file. php / 148 / Vasiljuk_F.E._Metodologicheskii_smysl_psikhologicheskogo_skhizisa.pdf

  • + - Model for stratigraphic analysis of consciousness

    The article sets the task of developing a multilevel model of consciousness. The first step of the stratigraphic analysis of consciousness, carried out in the author's previous works, consisted in the formation of the idea of ​​four levels, or modes of functioning of consciousness. This article introduces the concept of the register of consciousness. Each register includes a set of the levels of consciousness described above. Various types of transitions between the registers of consciousness are analyzed. The unfolding processes of consciousness create a complexly organized hierarchical structure of registers, which functions not according to a linear, but according to a network principle. The regularities of this network functioning and its main processes are described. A number of concepts of the stratigraphic analysis of consciousness are introduced - "horizon of consciousness", "tier of consciousness", etc.

    // Counseling Psychology and Psychotherapy - 2008. No. 4

    Http://psyjournals.ru/mpj/2008/n4/Vasiluk.shtml

  • + - Chronotope model of psychotherapy

    Counseling Psychology and Psychotherapy - 2009. No. 4

    // The article introduces the idea of ​​the chronotope of psychotherapy, the spatial dimension of which acts as the "structure of the psychotherapeutic situation", and the temporal dimension as "the time of the therapeutic process". To build a chronotope model

    Http://psyjournals.ru/mpj/2009/n4/Vasilyuk.shtml

  • + - Prayer - Silence - Psychotherapy

    Let me tell you one secret of psychotherapeutic work. It consists in the fact that the very first phrase that the patient utters at the first meeting with you, no matter how superficial, casual and optional it may seem, contains the key to all the mysterious interweaving of the deepest meanings, to which you and him have yet to break through maybe months and even years of hard work. The patient's first words are a symbol, which, without knowing it, reveals to us the whole reality of the still just present therapeutic process. It seems to me that his first major work "The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, William Shakespeare" has a similar symbolic significance for the analysis of the work of Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky, whose centenary we are celebrating these days. In this audience there is no need to present the content of a brilliant work written by a twenty-year-old boy. What Vygotsky writes about, we remember: about the psychology of tragedy. But what is Vygotsky's work devoted to? That which he calls "the second meaning of tragedy" - "the religiosity of tragedy", "silence and prayer", the dimension where art ends and religion begins (Vygotsky, 1987, p. 290).

    // Counseling psychology and psychotherapy - 1996. № 4

    Http://psyjournals.ru/mpj/1996/n4/25601.shtml

  • + - Prayer and Experience

    MOSCOW CITY PSYCHOLOGICAL PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY PSYCHOLOGICAL INSTITUTE RAO INSTITUTE OF SYNERGY ANTHROPOLOGY Research supported by the Russian Humanitarian Science Foundation (RHNF) Project No. 96-03-04563 Project Published with the support of the Russian Humanitarian Science Foundation No.

    Http://www.theolcom.ru/uploaded/248-264.pdf http://nkozlov.ru/print/library/psychology/d4042/?full=1

  • + - Prayer and Experience in the Context of Counseling

    The article is a report by the author at the Theological Conference of the Russian Orthodox Church "Teaching of the Church about Man" (Moscow, November 5-8, 2001). The problem of suffering is an eternal challenge. The Church's response to this challenge is threefold: in theology - theodicy, in asceticism - the bearing of the cross, in the plane of counseling - the consolation of the suffering. The report identifies the types of consolation - "spiritual-normative", "soul-sentimental", "spiritually-participatory". The phases of spiritual consolation are described: "emotional empathy" - "spiritual grafting" - "raising the vertical" - "paths". The practice of counseling needs not only a theological substantiation, but also a psychological and anthropological theory. The most important center of such a theory is the problem of the relationship between the processes of experience and prayer. It is concluded that the basic formula of Christian counseling and Christian psychotherapy is as follows: in place of experience should be prayer. Productive and unproductive options for combining the processes of experience and prayer are considered.

    // Counseling psychology and psychotherapy - 2003. № 3

    Http://psyjournals.ru/mpj/2003/n3/Vasiluk.shtml

  • + - Approaching Synergistic Psychotherapy: A Story of Hope

    “Without ontology, longing takes the throat,” two philosophers confessed to each other in the already distant Soviet 1974 (Mamardashvili, Pyatigorsky, 1974). Another longing takes the psychotherapeutic throat - without anthropology. Now the influence of psychological practice on culture has grown so much, modern psychology and psychotherapy itself has become so overloaded with countless fragments of various cultures and cults that, perhaps, our main professional business today is to ask ourselves metaphysical questions: what is a person? what is its purpose? What is the essence of our profession, not as a craft, but as a vocation? how do we believe? Psychotherapy is so strong and influential that it can no longer allow itself to remain anthropologically careless and not notice what power of energy it unleashes, uncorking the next "archetype" and releasing from it the overused genies into the mental and social space. It is possible, of course, to shrug off this responsibility and hide behind many ready-made excuses. We offer both the latest postmodernism (for which any philosophical and axiological identity is a ridiculous anachronism), and dilapidated positivism (we proceed from facts and are responsible only for the accuracy of procedures), and general pragmatism (our law is the customer's benefit) and medical (for the sake of the soonest all remedies are good for relieving symptoms). But we know only too well from patient observation how pathogenic it is to seek alibis where the courage to take responsibility is needed.

    // Counseling psychology and psychotherapy - 1997. No. 2

    Http://psyjournals.ru/mpj/1997/n2/Vasiluk.shtml

  • + - Fundamentals of psychological counseling, psychocorrection and psychotherapy (Course of lectures)

    The training course in the discipline "Fundamentals of psychological counseling, psychocorrection and psychotherapy" (OPKPP) is the main course providing preparation for the study of special psychotherapeutic disciplines, directions, schools and methods of psychotherapy. The aim of the course is to systematically review psychotherapy and counseling as a distinct scientific and practical field. The course is designed to provide a system of ideas, concepts and categories, with the help of which the student can navigate the world of professional psychotherapy. These are ideas about the place of psychotherapy in modern culture, about the relationship between psychotherapy and psychology; classification of types, models and methods of psychotherapy, characteristics of the structural elements of a psychotherapeutic situation; the primary concept of the methodological specifics of psychotherapeutic thinking. The manual was created on the basis of a course of lectures delivered by the author for several years at the Faculty of Psychological Consulting of Moscow State University of Psychology and Education and is addressed primarily to students studying in the specialty 030301 "Psychology", specializing in "Psychological Consulting", as well as to students studying in the specialty 030302 "Clinical psychology "with a specialization" Psychological counseling, psychocorrection and psychotherapy ".

    Http://www.al24.ru/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%81_1.pdf

  • + - From experience to prayer

    Looking at the motley tape of the history of modern psychotherapy, behind the dramatic twists and turns, the struggle of ideas and people, the kaleidoscopic change of fashions, one can notice slow, deep tectonic shifts. On the "surface" of psychotherapeutic theories, they are marked by a change in psychotherapeutic "hopes": the mechanism of suggestibility - the main hope of the pre-Freudian period - is replaced in psychoanalysis by the mechanism of awareness, then spontaneity, communication and, finally, experience appear on the scene. In synergistic psychotherapy, prayer becomes such a hope, the center of crystallization of all psychotherapeutic theory and practice.

    // Moscow Psychotherapeutic Journal | 2002, No. 1, pp. 76-92

    Http://psyjournals.ru/mpj/2002/n1/772.shtml

  • + - From psychological practice to psychotechnical theory

    Http://psylib.ukrweb.net/books/_vasif02.htm

  • + - Experience and prayer (experience of general psychological research)

    Http://synergia-isa.ru/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/vasiluk_perezhivanie1.pdf http://dusha-orthodox.ru/doc/vasiluk.rar http://www.xpa-spb.ru/ libr / Vasilyuk / perezhivanie-i-molitva.html http://nkozlov.ru/s_att.php?aid=1369

  • + - Understanding psychotherapy as a psychotechnical system (dissertation abstract) [not available]

    The publication is currently unavailable. http://www.twirpx.com/file/839050/

  • + - Understanding psychotherapy: the experience of building a psychotechnical system

    The purpose of this article is to present in a concise, concise form the experience of building a psychotechnical system of psychotherapeutic assistance in line with the Russian psychological tradition, a system called "understanding psychotherapy". Let us explain the wording. This is precisely the "psychotechnical system". This is not just a psychological theory that would scientifically explain the mechanisms of the psychotherapeutic process. This is not just a practical psychotherapeutic method that would be based on one or another general psychological theory and would be an effective application of this theory in the field of psychotherapy. A "psychotechnical system" is a specific "organism" that includes a psychological theory and a practical method, an organism where theory includes practice as the basis of all its scientific operations (LS Vygotsky, Schizis), where a theory is not made its subject " object ", but" practice-work-with-object ", where the addressee of the theory is the psychologist-practitioner, and where, on the other hand, practice is not just enlightened from the inside and justified from the outside by the given theory, but where it itself is the central research method ( Vasilyuk, From psychological practice to psychotechnical theory, Bubbles, Arkhangelskaya).

    // Works on psychological counseling and psychotherapy. 2005. No. 2005.

    Http://psyjournals.ru/cppp/2005/29973.shtml

  • + - PSYCHOLOGY OF EXPERIENCE. Analysis of overcoming critical situations [not available]

    The monograph is devoted to the study of critical life situations and the processes of overcoming them. Situations of stress, frustration, internal conflict and life crisis are analyzed. To cope with these situations, to survive them, a person needs to do sometimes painful inner work to restore peace of mind, meaningfulness of life. The establishment and systematization of the basic laws of the process of experiencing is something new that the book introduces into the psychology of overcoming critical situations. The book is intended for psychologists, psychotherapists, philosophers, teachers, workers of services of social and psychological assistance to the population.

    // M .: Publishing house of Moscow University, 1984

    The publication is currently unavailable. http://generalpsychology.narod.ru/books/1/Vasilyk.pdf

  • + - The psychology of experiencing. Analysis of overcoming critical situations

    Http://psylib.org.ua/books/vasif01/index.htm

  • + - Psychotherapeutic pain relief

    "Summary of the previous series" for readers who did not get the issue of the journal with the beginning of the article. Another session of the psychotherapy workshop began half an hour after I had a "difficult" tooth removed. Without giving out a real reason, I offered the students a psychotherapeutic task - to show how to provide pain relief by purely psychological means after the cessation of drug anesthesia. It immediately became clear that I was not alone - one of the students came to the lesson with a toothache ... How we managed to alleviate her pain is described in the first part of the article (see MPZh, 1997, No. 1). This work lasted 40-50 minutes. There were only a few minutes left until the end of the drug anesthesia ...

    // Counseling psychology and psychotherapy (1997. No. 2)

    Http://psyjournals.ru/mpj/1997/n2/Vasuluyk.shtml

  • + - Psychotherapeutic Toothache Relief

    The law of paired cases is impartial - it does not understand whether you are a doctor or a patient, a teacher or a student, and brings together in one place and time two, united by the similarity of circumstances or suffering. Moscow looked new from the window of the dentist's office. It was an early December evening. I just had a tooth removed. - An hour and a half later, take analgin, - said the doctor, saying goodbye. I hesitated for a minute whether to cancel the "Psychotherapy Workshop" session, which was supposed to begin in half an hour, but, imagining all the troubles and inconveniences associated with canceling, I considered it a lesser evil to somehow hold out for the usual three hours. “At six you need to take a break to take a pill,” I calculated in my mind, and, encouraged by the thought of my own heroism, walked towards Bolshaya Nikitskaya.

    // Counseling psychology and psychotherapy - 1997. № 1

    Http://psyjournals.ru/mpj/1997/n1/Vasiluk.shtml

  • + - Psychotechnical method for the study of creative thinking

    The article presents a method of psychotechnical research of thinking. When solving a creative problem, intellectual difficulties create frustration, a problem-personal situation arises, the resolution of which requires a combination of mental activity and the work of experiencing, aimed at coping with the affective disorganization of activity. A theoretical model is proposed, created on the basis of two conceptual schemes: a scheme for analyzing the level-dynamic organization of creative thinking and a scheme of modes of functioning of consciousness. The experimenter is involved in the subject's activity with the help of psychotherapeutic methods of empathy, maieutics and clarification. It is shown that such complex psychotechnical support significantly increases the productivity of mental activity.

    // Cultural-Historical Psychology - 2008. № 4

    Http://psyjournals.ru/kip/2008/n4/Vasiliuk.shtml

  • + - Freedom as a lifestyle (about Vladimir Petrovich Zinchenko)

    The professional and personal style of the most famous Russian psychologist of the last quarter of a century - V.P. Zinchenko. The style of his thinking is characterized as free, creative, non-linear, poetic, polyphonic. The geometry of the professional fate of V.P. Zinchenko is described as expanding space with acceleration. The key categories of the scientist's semiosphere are identified: free action, living movement, image of the world, participation in being, creative understanding, living memory. The special status of V.P. Zinchenko in Russian psychology, whose uniqueness lay in his experience of the entire historical body of the profession as a personal and family space and in a responsible effort to maintain its integrity. Along with the well-known concepts, institutes, departments, research V.P. Zinchenko created a cultural and historical product that is significant for the development of psychology - a personal lifestyle in the profession, the key characteristics of which are "free vitality" and "festivity". Keywords: Zinchenko V.P., living movement, free action, living knowledge, creative understanding, geometry of professional destiny, personal lifestyle in the profession

    // Cultural-Historical Psychology - 2014. Vol. 10, No. 2]

    Http://psyjournals.ru/kip/2014/n2/69995.shtml

  • + - Semiotics and the technique of empathy

    // Questions of psychology / №2 (2007)

    Http://rutracker.org/forum/viewtopic.php?t=1919645 http://svet-angela.ucoz.ru/_ld/0/3_Zfh.pdf

  • + - Semiotics of a psychotherapeutic situation and psychotechnics of understanding

    "Happiness is when you are understood." Anyone who has experienced the bitterness of misunderstanding and who has experienced the beneficial liberating influence of understanding on the soul at least once could subscribe to this simple formula of the hero of the film "We Will Live Till Monday". Understanding psychotherapy - this can be called the general approach that is implemented in this study. The term "understanding" itself will be used here in two senses - broad and narrow. In a broad sense, psychotherapeutic understanding is a special intention, a special dialogical attitude that makes understanding the main, self-valuable and, in a certain sense, the last task of the therapist. Embodying this attitude, the therapist does everything in order to understand the patient and give him this understanding, and does not try to understand in order to do something - to influence, cure, correct. Such a principled refusal of the therapist from activism, from the ideology of influence, in combination with his full appeal to the patient, attunement to him, creates a tense dialogical field in which the annoying, crying "emptiness" is constantly held. In everyday communication, this void is immediately filled with advice, recommendation, and an offer of help. In coexperiencing psychotherapy, on the other hand, the therapist spends efforts to clear the dialogical space, creating for the patient a fruitful opportunity to fill the void himself. In essence, it can only be filled with the patient's freedom - the freedom of his speech, freedom of experience, freedom of self-consciousness, free will. Understanding is an invitation to freedom. And freedom is the ultimate goal of psychotherapy.

    // Counseling psychology and psychotherapy. 1996. No. 4.

    Http://psyjournals.ru/mpj/1996/n4/25587.shtml

  • + - The structure and specificity of the theory of coexisting psychotherapy

    Http://psyjournals.ru/files/7386/mpj_2008_n1_Vasiluk.pdf http://psyjournals.ru/mpj/2008/n1/Vasiluk.shtml

  • + - Types of Spiritual Coping

    The experience of a crisis encompasses all aspects of human life - mental, physical, social, family - and almost always puts a person in front of spiritual questions. It is important for professionals and volunteers involved in social and psychological assistance to people in crisis situations to understand the spiritual dimension of the experiencing process. The Western literature on clinical psychology, counseling and counseling describes the process of spiritual (or religious) coping (spiritual coping, religious coping). This process is viewed primarily as one of the means of overcoming the crisis, serving the purposes of adaptation. However, theoretical analysis of empirical cases shows that this is only one of the types of spiritual coping, it is appropriate to call it "instrumental". In addition to it, one can single out the "value", "synergistic", "cathedral" types of coping, which differ from the instrumental in their goals, mechanisms, attitude to reality and other parameters. Knowledge of the variety of types of spiritual coping can enrich the practice of psychological assistance, counseling and counseling. Key words: crisis, coping, experience, spiritual coping, consolation, instrumental type of spiritual coping, value coping, synergistic coping, Christian psychology

    // Counseling Psychology and Psychotherapy - 2014. Vol. 22, no. 5

    Http://psyjournals.ru/mpj/2014/n5/vasiluk.shtml

  • + - Christian Psychology: "History" and "Geography". Article 1. Experience of periodization

    Since 1990, when Russian psychology, after decades of atheistic press, was able to return to the discussion of religious issues, discussions about the possibility of "Christian psychology" have flared up. Discussions are still flaring up, and Christian psychology itself has grown over a quarter of a century into a whole field of diverse and diverse research, educational programs, and psychological services. There was a need for a methodological reflection of this area, its "history" and "geography": on the one hand, the stages of its development, and on the other, maps of subject-thematic zones and methodological approaches included in it. In this article, the first problem is solved, an attempt is made to periodize Russian Christian psychology, while considering only its recent, post-Soviet history. The hypothesis is put forward that it can be divided into three stages ("inspiration", "institutionalization" and "constitution"), each of which solves specific problems. It is concluded that at the moment the task of constituting Christian psychology as a methodological unity, which includes a variety of research, educational and practical projects, is urgent.

    // Counseling Psychology and Psychotherapy - 2015. Vol. 23, no. 5

    Http://psyjournals.ru/mpj/2015/n5/vasiluk.shtml

    • Finally got to the book! For convenience, I will post some notes here.
    the book is not easy to read.

    Quoted from the book by F. Ye. Vasilyuk " Psychology of experience "

    Fedor Efimovich Vasilyuk is our contemporary, a Russian psychotherapist. Dean of the Faculty of Psychological Counseling at the Moscow City University of Psychology and Education. Head of the Department of Individual and Group Psychotherapy, Doctor of Psychology, Professor of the Department of Individual and Group Psychotherapy, Faculty of Psychological Consulting, Moscow State University of Psychology and Education.

    Typology of life worlds.


    Vasilyuk's typology gives an idea of ​​how this or that person, with a certain structure of his inner world, experiences critical situations.
    WITH     structure of typology is this: the "life world" is the subject of typological analysis. It has external and internal aspects, designated as external and internal world, respectively. The outside world can be easy or difficult. Internal - simple or complex. The intersection of these categories defines four possible states, or types of "life world".
    Talking about difficulties of the outside world, it means not only the corresponding experiences, but also the difficulty as an actual characteristic of the world; not the world in itself, not the world before and outside the subject, but the world "Divided into the subject", the world visible through the prism of his life and activity, for difficulty can be found in the world only as a result of activity ... From the external position of "lightness" of the external aspect of the life world there corresponds the provision of all life processes, the direct given to the individual of the objects of needs, and "difficulties" - the presence of obstacles to their achievement.
    Under the inner aspect of the psychological world means the internal structure of life, organization, conjugation and interconnection of its individual units.

    Each life-world is characterized primarily with tz. its spatio-temporal organization. At the same time, in accordance with the distinction between the external and internal aspects of the life world, the external and internal time-space will be separately described. External aspect of the chronotype characterized by the absence or presence of "extension", which consists in the spatial distance and time duration necessary to overcome the distance. Internal aspect of the chronotype describes the structuredness of the inner world, i.e. presence or absence of "conjugation".

    Type 1. Outwardly light and inwardly simple life world.
    can be depicted by imagining a being with a single need and living in the conditions of the immediate givenness of the object corresponding to it.
    The space-time structure of this world... Ease with spatio-temporal tz. should be interpreted as the absence of the "extension" of the external aspect of the world. (lack of spatial distance and time duration).    Due to this, the subject does not know any “there” and “then”, he has no concepts of duration, sequence, extension, there is no past and future. Each realizable relationship fills it completely. The simplicity of the inner world, or the absence of "conjugation" between individual moments of the inner space-time.the simplicity of the inner world means reckless immersion in a realized life attitude, chained to a given place of the chronotope. The described psychological world is characterized by such a chronotope in which there is no perspective and retrospective, the past and future are, as it were, pressed into the present, or rather, have not yet been isolated from it.
    The central principle of perception- the principle of pleasure.
    Prototype such a life are the conditions of the uterine and infantile existence of man. They form the basis of the infantile attitude, which is latently present in every person.Infantile attitude corresponds to the attitude to "here and now" satisfaction of the need, which does not require effort and expectation, with full possession of the object of need, identification with it.
    The goal and the highest value of such a life is pleasure. The activity of a person with such an attitude is subordinate to momentary impulses. The infantile consciousness does not face the question of whether the desire for pleasure is adequate, whether it is provided existentially, whether it is guaranteed for a certain period of time, at the cost of what consequences it has been achieved, etc.
    The experience of an easy and simple life leads to the passivity of the subject, since in the described conditions no activity is required to overcome the external world. Therefore, if a critical situation of the impossibility of satisfaction suddenly arises, it is experienced by him as death, collapse, horror. He does not know that it may ever end, does not take any action due to his passivity, and as a result he oscillates between states of horror and bliss. In this world, taken in all the purity of its characteristics, there is no place for experience at all, since the ease and simplicity of the world, that is, the security and consistency of all life processes, exclude the possibility of situations that require experiencing. Moreover, even when being suddenly ceases, for one reason or another, to be easy and simple, the subject, not being able to "respond" to the emerging critical situation with either external practical activity or ideal transformations of the psychological world, responds to it with the only means available to him - internal bodily changes. The latter corresponds to the concept of physiological stress reactions.
    In a complex and / or difficult world, the subject can develop a consciousness corresponding to this world order, but it does not abolish the infantile consciousness, does not take its place, but builds on it, entering into complex and sometimes antagonistic relations with it.
    The corresponding type of experience is called hedonistic. It corresponds to the processes of psychological defense, which help a person to create the illusion of a solution to the problem or its absence.Every person has the experience of such existence, and in certain situations it can be actualized and govern the behavior of a person. In a difficult and complex world, new, more complex forms of behavior are formed, building on top of this one, but they do not cancel it.

    Type 2. Outwardly difficult and internally simple life world.
    Here, the blessings of life are not given directly, there are obstacles, hindrances, which prevent the satisfaction of needs. The difficulty of the external world in terms of the chronotope means the presence of "extension", that is, spatial remoteness (vital goods) and temporal duration (necessary to eliminate remoteness). In a difficult world situation, the subject has to admit that the satisfaction of the need, which is a necessity for him, is impossible “here and now”. It is possible only "there" and "later", and the idea of ​​the spatial and temporal extent of the external world arises in consciousness.As for the internal structure of this life-world, it still remains simple. This lack of internal dismemberment and structuring of life in spatio-temporal development means the absence of "conjugation", that is, the absence of spatial cohesion, "congruence" of life units (= relationships = separate activities) and connections of the temporal sequence between them. Activity in this world is inherent in a steady aspiration to the object of need, this activity is not subject to any distractions that lead to temptations and temptations, the subject does not know doubts, hesitations, feelings of guilt and pangs of conscience - in a word, the simplicity of the inner world frees activity from all kinds of internal obstacles and restrictions. She knows only one obstacle - external. Due to the simplicity of the inner world, the semantic structure of the image of the outer world is also extremely simplified. It is made in two colors: each object is comprehended only from the point of view of its usefulness or harmfulness in order to satisfy the always tense single need of the subject.
    As for the external aspect of the chronotope, it is significantly changed in comparison with the first type. The subject of need can be both in direct contact with the subject, more precisely, with the organ of consumption, and at some distance. The same goes for the temporal aspect. But the main thing for characterizing a difficult life-world, as opposed to an easy one, is not such an objective situation in itself, but the fact that it is “grasped” by the subject with the help of special mental forms (phenomenologically designated “there” and “then”). Due to them, the psychological world of the subject is expanded and differentiated in comparison with the infantile one.
    the law of experience of the second type is the principle of reality. This experience proceeds from the fact that reality "does not hear convictions", that it is insurmountable, the struggle with it is useless and, therefore, you need to accept it as it is, submit, reconcile and, within the boundaries and limits set by it, try to achieve the possibility of satisfying needs ... Therefore, the type of experience corresponding to this case is called realistic. Realistic experience is based on the mechanism of patience. It proceeds from the fact that reality is inexorable, it is necessary to accept it as it is, and try to achieve satisfaction of your needs within the boundaries set by reality.
    Prototype of the described type are not only personalities of a certain type, but also certain personality states, more or less prolonged, normal or pathological. These include, say, "impulsive drives" well-known in psychopathology, which "are acutely arising drives and aspirations that subdue all the consciousness and behavior of the patient. With their emergence, all other desires and ideas are suppressed."

    Type 3. Outwardly easy and inwardly complex life-world.
    This life is devoid of situational awareness. In the psychological world, there are no situations with their "turned up cases", favorable (or unfavorable) circumstances, with their time constraints, giving rise to "worries", that is, actions that must be performed at a certain time, with their possibility of compromises between meaningfully irreconcilable tendencies , with their unexpected "suddenly" and "just", etc.
    The internal necessity for the subject is to achieve internal consistency, conjugation of units of the inner world in space and time.
    The main problematicity and aspiration of an internally complex life is to get rid of the painful need for constant choices, to develop a psychological "organ" for mastering complexity, which would have a measure of measuring the significance of motives and the ability to cement life relationships into the integrity of individual life. This "organ" is nothing more than a value consciousness, for value is the only measure of comparison of motives. The principle of value is, therefore, the highest principle of a complex and easy world of life. Each motive is assigned a certain "price", which determines its position in the hierarchy of values, which removes the tragedy of each choice, relieves a person from doubts and hesitations, and makes the choice automatic.
    Values ​​do not in themselves possess motivating energy and strength and therefore are not able to directly force motives to submit to themselves.
    However, on the other hand, value has the ability to generate emotions, for example, in the case when a particular choice clearly contradicts it. This means that value (within the framework of the activity-theoretical approach) should be subsumed under the category of motive, because emotions are relevant to a particular activity, reflect the course of its realization of a certain motive. It can be assumed that in the course of personality development, values ​​undergo a certain evolution, changing not only in content, but also in their motivational status, in place and role in the structure of life. As the value consciousness develops, values ​​can be transformed into meaning-forming motives.
    Although value as a certain content of consciousness does not initially have energy, as the personality develops internally, it can borrow it from really acting motives, so that in the end it becomes the content of life from the content of consciousness and itself receives the power of a real motive. Value is not any known content that can become a motive, but only such that, having become a real motive, leads to the growth and improvement of the personality. With this transformation of value from a motive-predestination into a real, available motivational force, an energy metamorphosis that is difficult to explain occurs. Having become a real motive, value suddenly turns out to be the owner of such a powerful energy potential, which cannot be attributed to all those borrowings that could have taken place in the course of its evolution. And if the motive, the need always belongs to a certain person, then the values ​​- attach the subject to the universal. They are impersonal, transpersonal. The main values ​​of a person give him a sense of the meaningfulness of being, determine his main goals in life.
    The value experience inherent in this type of life world,- This is an internal work on the formation of the motivational-value system, its hierarchization, and restructuring. In the process of such internal work, consciousness clarifies its own system of values, separates the main from the insignificant. This can be, for example, a decrease in a certain value (activity) by hierarchical rank, that is, depriving it of its former significance. There are two main subtypes of value experience. The first of them is realized when the subject has not yet reached the highest stages of value improvement, and is accompanied by a greater or lesser change in his value-motivational system.
    Several variants of this subtype of experience can be distinguished, depending on the scale of these changes and on whether, along with motivational transformations, a substantial restructuring of the subject's values ​​occurs or not.
    In another case, if the world objectively hinders the realization of dominant, meaning-forming values, the task of experiencing value may be the choice and approval of a new meaning-forming value. A similar work takes place if the existing system of values ​​discredits itself by the experience of a past life. Then the task of experiencing is to build a new value system that would give inner integrity and meaning to being.
    In the case of grief caused by loss, the value experience helps to transfer the lost relationship into the sphere of the ideal, aesthetic.
    The development of the value system takes place especially intensively during periods of significant choices and decisions for the individual, making them the content of the history of life. Prototype value experience is moral behavior: there is such a layer, cut or dimension of human existence, in which life is reduced to consciousness, the matter of vital activity - the difficulty of the world - is taken out of the brackets and a person acts in a kind of light world. It is this plane that was identified and examined from a psychological point of view in the third type of typology.

    Type 4. externally difficult and internally difficult life world.
    In the fourth type of the life world, the subject's activity is complicated by both internal vibrations (the struggle of motives familiar from the past) and external difficulties that can hinder the implementation of the chosen action, enticing the subject to quit this difficult task, reconsider the choice made, and switch to another, easier action , motive.
    An internal necessity for a person in this case is the realization of his life plan, what he perceives as a work of life, a vocation.
    The main neoplasm that helps to cope with a difficult and complex world is will. One of the main functions of the will is to prevent the struggle of motives from stopping or rejecting the activity of the subject.
    Will serves not one activity, but the construction of all life. Its purpose is to embody a person's intentions about himself, about his life, the embodiment of life's creativity. The will constantly monitors the external and internal opportunities and requirements that arise in the situation, evaluates them.
    Volitional behavior is characterized by a conscious correlation of the implemented activity (situational) with all the intentions, goals, plans, intentions, obligations, expectations of the individual, those that are not included in the given spatio-temporal situation (oversituational).
    A specific critical situation for a given world is a crisis when the realization of one's life plan becomes impossible for a person.
    The type of experience characteristic of this situation is called creative experience. Creative experience is the work of self-creation, self-construction. It restores the lost opportunity to live and act.
    In a situation where only the previous forms of realization of a life plan have become impossible, in the process of creative experience a person clarifies for himself the inner essence of his life plan and looks for new forms of practical realization of his ideal values, formalizing a new concrete life plan.
    Situations are possible when the experience of a person's implementation of his life plan completely discredits both the plan itself and the value system of the personality on which it was based. Here the work of creative experience includes the creation of a new system of values, and the creation of a new integrity of one's life history and a new image of oneself, and in the eradication of everything connected with the former, rejected values, and, finally, in the sensory and practical embodiment of a new ideal.

    the subject's relationship to reality in the case of different types of experience:
    Creative experience is distinguished by a sensory and practical attitude to reality.
    In a real life situation, a person can use different types of experience or any combination of them. Using different types of experience in one situation will lead, respectively, to different results.
    Hedonistic experience ignores reality, distorts and denies it, forming the illusion of satisfaction and safety of the disturbed content of life.
    Realistic experience accepts reality as it is, adjusting the dynamics and content of the subject's needs to it.
    Value Experience tries to disarm reality with ideal procedures, turning it into an object of interpretation and evaluation. The accomplished event is only ideally transformed by the value consciousness.

    Brief annotation

    The monograph is devoted to the study of critical life situations and the processes of overcoming them. Situations of stress, frustration, internal conflict and life crisis are analyzed. To cope with these situations, to survive them, a person needs to do sometimes painful inner work to restore peace of mind, meaningfulness of life. The establishment and systematization of the basic laws of the process of experiencing is something new that the book introduces into the psychology of overcoming critical situations.

    The book is intended for psychologists, psychotherapists, philosophers, teachers, workers of services of social and psychological assistance to the population.

    From the author.

    Russian psychology has long ceased to be a purely academic discipline, but it still owes a big debt to practice. In various areas of public life, this debt is being actively paid - the figure of a psychologist is becoming more and more familiar in a modern factory and in a medical institution, in pedagogy and jurisprudence. But the need for psychological help exists not only in social practice, but also in personal and family life, and this need is still completely inadequate. On the other hand, psychology itself, especially the so-called "interesting psychology", which studies motives, emotions, personality of a person, cannot further develop productively only within the walls of a laboratory, without taking an active part in real human life.

    Under the influence of this mutual interest, now a new (and long-awaited) period in the development of domestic practical psychology is opening: literally before our eyes, a sphere of psychological services for the population is emerging - family service, suicidological service with a network of "social and psychological assistance" offices and crisis hospitals, psychological service of a university, etc. . d.

    The specific organizational forms of separating the "personal" psychological service into an independent practice are not yet completely clear, but whatever they may be, the very fact of its appearance poses the task of general psychology to develop the fundamental theoretical foundations by which this practice could be guided.

    -- [ Page 1 ] --

    Vasilyuk, F.E. Psychology of experience [Text] / F.E. Vasilyuk.

    - M .: Moscow State University, 1984 .-- 240p.

    Moskovsky

    State University

    Lomonosov

    Interdepartmental

    science Council

    on the problem "Consciousness"

    F.E. Vasilyuk

    PSYCHOLOGY

    EXPERIENCES

    OVERCOMING

    CRITICAL

    SITUATIONS

    Publisher

    Moscow University

    Vasilyuk F.E. Psychology of experience (analysis of overcoming

    critical situations). - M .: Publishing house of Moscow. University, 1984 .-- 200 p.

    The monograph is devoted to the study of critical life situations and the processes of overcoming them. Situations of stress, frustration, internal conflict and life crisis are analyzed. To cope with these situations, to live them, a person needs to do sometimes painful inner work to restore mental balance, meaningfulness of life. The establishment and systematization of the basic laws of the process of experiencing is something new that the book introduces into the psychology of overcoming critical situations.

    The book is intended for psychologists, psychotherapists, philosophers, teachers, workers of services of social and psychological assistance to the population.

    Reprinted by the order of the Editorial and Publishing Council of Moscow University Reviewers:

    Full member of the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor V.V.Davydov, Doctor of Philosophy, Professor V.A. Editor I. I. Shevtsov a.

    Artistic editor B.S. Cover by artist B.V.G o rdon and. Technical editor K. S. Chistiakova. Correctors L. A. Aidarbekova, S. F. Budaeva Thematic plan 1984 No. IB No. Donated to set 21.06.83. Signed for printing 02/21/84. L. Format 84x1081 / 32 Paper type. No. 3. Literary typeface. You are a good seal. CONV. print l. 10.5 Uch.-ed. l. 10.91 Zak. Circulation 46,000 copies. Price 65 kopecks. Ed. № of the Order "Badge of Honor" publishing house of Moscow University. Moscow, st. Herzen, 5/7. Printing house of the Order of the Badge of Honor of the Moscow State University publishing house. Moscow, Lenin Hills 0304000000– B 40–077 (02) - © Moscow University Publishing House, 1884

    FOREWORD In classical psychology, the phenomenal world of consciousness, the world of subjective human experiences, was viewed as initially internal and not having any connection with external objective activity.

    At the same time, action was considered as a machine-like execution of commands, and movement was considered as contraction of muscles and stretching of tendons. Therefore, classical psychology did not allow action on the threshold of psychological laboratories. The subsequent history of psychological science is full of cunningly clever attempts to overcome the dichotomy of human consciousness and human existence in the world and to bring psychology out of the closed phenomenal world of consciousness. A decisive step in bridging the gap between external and internal was taken by L. S. Vygotsky, A. V. Zaporozhyt, A. N. Leontiev, A. R. Luria, S. L. Rubinstein and their students and followers, who put the beginning of the creation of a psychological theory of activity. According to this theory, the emergence of the mediated structure of a person's psychological processes is the product of his activity as a social person. Mental processes are generated by activity and become its functional organs. Initially, this theory was developed on the basis of cognitive processes, such as perception, attention, memory, thinking. Within its framework, the listed processes are considered as special forms of perceptual, mnemonic, mental actions that go through a difficult path of formation and development. The accumulated data indicate that something in consciousness has existential (and amenable to objective analysis) characteristics, the source of which is a human object action, which, in turn, has a biodynamic and sensory tissue. This is the real content of the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity. The analysis of the classical psychology of consciousness, carried out by A. N. Leont'ev, showed the futility of studying individual consciousness outside of its connections, firstly, with the concrete being of a person and, secondly, with social consciousness.

    At the same time, in the psychological theory of activity, there was a certain gap between the activity-based interpretation of cognitive processes and the activity-based interpretation of consciousness.

    It is impossible to move from cognitive processes to consciousness, bypassing the activity-based interpretation of human emotions and experiences. Of course, representatives of the psychological theory of activity turned to both the sphere of emotions and the world of subjective experiences. Here, in the first place, the name of L.S.Vygotsky can be named, who at the end of his life undertook a large theoretical study devoted to the teaching of B. Spinoza about the passions. He wrote that in the system of meanings the world of inner experiences is generalized and realized - a person gets out of the “slavery of affects” and gains inner freedom. S. L. Rubinstein possesses the proposition that emotions are born in action and therefore each action contains at least the rudiments of emotionality. A.V. Za porozhets began researching the genesis of children's emotions and considered the latter as functional organs of the individual, as specific forms of action. More than forty years ago, A. N. Leont'ev and A. R. Luria wrote that it is necessary to consider complex human experiences as a product of historical development. In other words, during the development of the psychological theory of activity, certain methodological provisions on how to build an activity theory of human emotions and experiences were repeatedly expressed.

    The logic of the development of the psychological theory of activity itself led to this. And it is precisely this task that the author of this book F.E.Vasilyuk, who is a direct student of A.N.Leont'ev, set himself.

    Does this mean that this is a book about emotions? No. To understand it in this way means to disguise the new psychological content into old, familiar clothes. The problem of experiencing, as it is posed in the book, does not fit into the traditional problematic of emotional processes. The point is that the theory of activity in general requires completely different divisions than those that we inherited from classical psychology.

    As the object of his research, the author chose the processes by which a person overcomes critical life situations. This problem is posed in the work of F. Ye. Vasilyuk boldly and broadly. The main essence of the plan can be formulated as follows: to investigate from a psychological point of view what a person does when nothing can be done, when he finds himself in a situation of impossibility of realizing his needs, attitudes, values, etc. To theoretically fix this object , the author introduces a new category into the conceptual apparatus of the psychological theory of activity - the category of experience.

    Experiencing is considered in the book not as a reflection in the consciousness of the subject of one or another of his states, not as a special form of contemplation, but as a special form of activity aimed at restoring mental balance, the lost meaningfulness of existence, in a word, at the “production of meaning”.

    The main goal of the study is to establish patterns that govern the processes of experience. To achieve this goal, F. Ye. Vasilyuk uses the method of categorical typology. This method is one of the possible concretizations of Marx's method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete, and this explains the success of the typological analysis of the patterns of experience contained in the work. The work identifies four principles that govern the processes of experiencing.

    These are the principles of pleasure, reality, value, and creativity. It should be emphasized that we are talking about the establishment (one can even say about the discovery) of a system of psychological regularities, and not about a simple mechanical addition of the principles of value and creativity new to the psychology of experiencing to the two that have long been known. The principles of pleasure and reality within the framework of this system have been critically rethought, they are actually rediscovered, since their internal, psychological structure has been explained for the first time. It is no less important that their inclusion in an integral system of laws shows their real place in the human psyche, thereby demonstrating the fundamental philosophical and methodological limitations of psychoanalytic theory, which absolutized the principles of pleasure and reality and, as a result, reduced the higher, spiritual laws of the mental life to the lower.

    The book convincingly shows the mediation of the processes of experiencing by certain structures, or "schematisms" of social consciousness and emphasizes that these structures are not natural, as, for example, K.-G. Jung, and historical and cultural formations mi.

    Very important and valuable for the psychological theory of activity as a whole (and not only for the theory of experience) is the transition made in the work from the scheme of individual activity to the scheme of the life world. This idea is not new, but here for the first time it was carried out not declaratively, but in practice. It is in this ontology of the life world that the concept of experiencing as a special activity of transforming oneself in the world and the world in oneself in critical life situations is constructed. The concept of the life world is important for overcoming the vestiges of classical epistemology, which are still very living in psychology, which thought the subject and the object were divided and opposed to each other in the plane of being and found only in the cognitive plane. The concept of the life world fixes the fact that nowhere, except for our theoretical constructions, do we meet a person before and outside the world in which he lives, and considering him in abstraction from this world is a false theoretical move, which at one time led psychology to a crisis. the consequences of which are still felt in it.

    The psychological theory of activity has a high practical potential. Its conceptual schemes are successfully used in child and pedagogical psychology, labor psychology and ergonomics, social and medical psychology. F. Ye. Vasilyuk's book is purely theoretical.

    However, in its main focus, it is focused on a very specific practice of psychological assistance to a person who finds himself in a situation of life crisis. She seems to be "drawn" to this practice, which is demonstrated in the Conclusion, where the author describes his first steps as a practicing psychologist.

    F.E. Vasilyuk's book makes a significant contribution to the development of the psychological theory of activity and thereby expands the scope of practical application of this theory, including what is called life psychology. Let us recall the words of LS Vygotsky: "Not only does life need psychology and is practicing it in other forms everywhere, but in psychology one must expect an uplift from this contact with life."

    Professor V. P. Zinchenko FROM THE AUTHOR Domestic psychology has long ceased to be a purely academic discipline, but it still owes a big debt to practice. In various areas of public life, this debt is being actively paid - the figure of a psychologist is becoming more and more familiar in a modern factory and in a medical institution, in pedagogy and jurisprudence. But the need for psychological help exists not only in social practice, but also in personal and family life, and this need is still completely insufficiently satisfied. On the other hand, psychology itself, especially the so-called “interesting psychology,” which studies motives, emotions, and human personality, cannot further develop productively only within the walls of a laboratory, without taking an active part in real human life.

    Under the influence of this mutual interest, a new (and long-awaited) period in the development of domestic practical psychology is opening now: literally before our eyes, a sphere of psychological service to the population is being born - a family service, a suicidological service with a network of offices of "social and psychological assistance. »And crisis hospitals, the psychological service of the university, etc. , and in her arsenal there is simply no corresponding concept.

    The last circumstance is not accidental. Although many studies within the framework of this theory in one way or another touch upon the topic of interest to us, no attempts have yet been made to clearly formulate this problem in the most general theoretical plan. The probable reason that the theory of activity has so far only in passing dealt with this sphere of psychic reality is that this theory focused on the study of object-oriented practical activity and psychic reflection, and the need for experiencing arises precisely in such situations. which cannot be directly resolved by practical activity, no matter how perfect reflection it may be provided. This cannot be understood in such a way that the category of activity is generally inapplicable to experience and that it is thus "by nature"

    falls out of the general theoretical and activity picture;

    on the contrary, experience complements this picture, representing, in comparison with external practical and cognitive activities, a special type of activity processes 2, which are specified primarily by their product. The product of the work of experience is always something internal and subjective - mental balance, meaningfulness, serenity, a new value consciousness, etc., in contrast to the external product of practical activity and internal, but objective (not in the sense of an indispensable truth in content , but in the sense of referring to the external in form) the product of cognitive activity (knowledge, image).

    Thus, in the problem of experience, the theory of action reveals a new dimension for itself. This determined the main goal of the study - from the standpoint of the activity approach, to develop a system of theoretical ideas about the patterns of overcoming critical life situations by a person and thereby expand the boundaries of general psychological. ... It's just that they are not included in this series at all as an equal member, since they are not processes of activity. Indeed, specifically activity problems "how?", "By what means?" and so on. can stand on the practical plane, on the cognitive plane and on the plane of experience (“Today in the spring,” says the hero of AN Ostrovsky, “one pawnbroker lost his strength: they robbed him for twenty thousand. And there is something. How to survive? How to survive? ? ”), But in the emotional sphere they are meaningless: there is no such perplexity - how, by what means, to feel joy, pain, longing;

    not to evoke in yourself, namely to feel the feeling that has already arisen?

    theory of activity, highlighting in it the psychology of experiencing as a special subject of theoretical research and methodological development.

    It is clear that such a goal cannot be achieved empirically, through the accumulation of already numerous facts. Its achievement presupposes the application of a theoretical method. As such, we used the Marxian method of “ascent from the abstract to the concrete”. At the concrete methodological level, our theoretical movement was organized by the method of categorical-typological analysis, the principles and techniques of which we borrowed from the works and oral speeches of O.I. "(Bassin's term) and an attempt to present them as" the primary subject of psychology. " In these works, the concept of experiencing received, so to speak, a serious shake-up, as a result of which its boundaries were blurred (but also expanded!) By the convergence of this concept with a large and heterogeneous mass of phenomena and mechanisms (among them the “inferiority complex” A Adler, the effect of "incomplete action" B. Zeigarnik, mechanisms of psychological defense, the mechanism of "shift of motive to the goal" by A. N. Leontiev, etc.), which allowed FV Bassin to put forward a number of promising hypotheses emerging beyond the traditional concept of experience, to one of which we will return in due time. The main thing in the works of FV Bassin lies, in our opinion, in the marked, although not clearly formulated, translation to the "economic" point of view on experience, that is, to the perception beyond the surface of the phenomenally felt stream of experience of the work he is doing, producing real and vital, significant changes in human consciousness. If such a transition could be done rigorously and systematically, we would have a unified theory of experience, uniting experience-contemplation and experience-activity in a single representation.

    Neither Bassin nor anyone else has yet succeeded in doing this at the level of a holistic theory;

    studies of experience-contemplation, conducted mainly in the mainstream of the study of emotions, and studies of experience-activity, carried out in the theories of psychological defense, psychological compensation, coping behavior and substitution, are mostly parallel. However, in the history of psychology there are examples of a successful combination of these two categories in clinical analyzes of specific experiences (for example, in the analysis by Z. Freud of the “work of sadness”, E. Lindemann's “work of grief”, in Sartre's understanding of emotion as a “magical action”), and this gives rise to hope that sooner or later a unifying theory of experience will be built.

    Introduction of the concept of experience into the categorical apparatus of the theory of activity. The construction of such a unifying theory is a matter for the future. We are faced with a much more modest task - the development of ideas about the experience of activity from the standpoint of the activity approach in psychology. Thus, the concept introduced does not pretend to replace or include the traditional concept of experience 2. It is introduced not instead of it, but next to it, as an independent and independent concept.

    In foreign psychology, the problem of experiencing is actively studied within the framework of the study of the processes of psychological defense, compensation, coping. Further, instead of the term “experience-activity” we will use the term “experience”, marking

    cases when this word will be used in the traditional sense of psychology.

    behavior. A lot of facts are described here, a developed technique of theoretical work with them has been created, a lot of methodological experience has been accumulated in practical work with a person in a critical life situation. In recent years, this area has become the subject of close attention of many Soviet psychologists and psychiatrists. The theory of activity remained somewhat aloof from this problematics.

    Meanwhile, since this theory claims to be a general psychology, it cannot indifferently look at the existence of whole layers of psychological facts (known to other psychological systems) and whole areas of practical psychological work without trying to theoretically assimilate these facts and the corresponding intellectual and methodological experience.

    It cannot be argued, of course, that the psychological theory of activity has not yet noticed this sphere of psychological reality at all. The course of research has more than once led many authors, who are developing an activity-theoretical approach, to the problem of experiencing. We find in their writings an analysis of specific cases of experience (recall, for example, A. N. Leontyev's description of the "psychological way out" that the prisoners of the Shlis Selburg Fortress found in order to survive the necessity of performing senseless forced labor);

    the development of ideas about psychological situations and states that are the causes of the processes of experience (these include: "disintegration of consciousness", a crisis of personality development, a state of mental tension, a conflict of personal meanings). The idea of ​​experiencing comes both in the study of individual mental functions (let's call VK Vilyunas's idea of ​​the “emotional way of resolving situations,” an attempt to explain such phenomena of perception as perceptual defense, etc. with the help of the concept of personal meaning), and in the study of general mechanisms of the functioning of the psyche (for example, when studying the phenomenon of attitude from an activity point of view). In addition, we find in the theory of activity a number of general concepts that can be directly used to develop ideas about experience.

    Among them, the concept of "inner work" or "work of consciousness" should be especially highlighted.

    However, all these, in themselves valuable, ideas and concepts are scattered in relation to our problem, since they were put forward, so to speak, along the way, when solving completely different theoretical problems, and they, of course, are completely insufficient for the theoretical development of such an important the topic of what is experience 3. In order for this mastering to be systematic, so that it would not be a mechanical transplantation of concepts from other conceptual systems onto a new theoretical soil, but was carried out due to the organic growth of the theory of activity itself, it is necessary to introduce a new category into it around which the development of this problem would be grouped. As such, we propose the category of experience.

    But what does it mean to introduce a new category into the existing conceptual system? This means, firstly, to show such a state or quality of an object studied by this system, before describing and explaining which it becomes a dead end, i.e. demonstrate the internal need of the system in a new category, and secondly, correlate it with the main categories of this system.

    It is enough to take one of the classical theories of psychological defense and coping behavior of situations, say, the death of a loved one, to find that the theory of activity can relatively easily answer the questions why a psychological crisis arises in this case and how it manifests itself phenomenologically, but she will not even ask the most important question - how does a person get out of the crisis?

    Of course, this is not a fundamental failure of the theory;

    it just happened historically that her main interests so far lay in a different plane. It is not by chance that A.N. Leont'ev, discussing the promising problems of Soviet psychology, wrote that the issues of conflict experiences and psychological compensation have been undeservedly ignored until now.

    bones - in the plane of subject-practical activity and mental reflection. These categories determined the nature of the main questions with which the researcher approached the psychological analysis of reality. But in this very reality, in life, there are situations, the main problem of which can not be solved neither by the most equipped object-practical action, nor by the most perfect mental reflection. If a person is in danger, writes R. Peters, he can try to flee, "but if he is gripped by grief: his wife has died, then what special action can be taken to correct this situation?" ... Such an action does not exist, because there is no such objective transformation of reality that would resolve the situation, and, accordingly, it is impossible to set an internally meaningful and at the same time externally adequate situation (i.e., an achievable) goal. You know, substantive and practical action is powerless. But psychic reflection is also powerless, both rational (which is obvious) and emotional.

    Indeed, emotion, as long as it is a special reflection 4, can only express the subjective meaning of the situation, giving the subject the opportunity to rationally realize it, the meaning tacitly assumed to be present before and independently of this expression and awareness. Otherwise: emotion only contemplates the relationship between “being and duty,” but has no power to change it. This is how matters are conceived in the theory of activity. Nor does the process of solving the “problem for meaning” that unfolds on the basis of emotion, which unfolds on the basis of emotion, does not have the ability to resolve such a psychological situation, since it seems to continue on a different level the reflection initiated by emotion.

    And in the theory of activity, emotion is considered in this way and only in this way. Although there is disagreement among authors who have studied emotions on the issue of their functions, the fact that emotion is a reflection, albeit a special one that has a special object (not external reality, but its relation to the needs of the subject), a special form (direct experience * or so called "emotional coloring"), but still, reflection and nothing else - at this point they are all the same: as meaning is a unit of objective knowledge about reality, so meaning is a unit of subjective (biased) attitude to it. This first meaning of the concept of meaning is abstracted from the concrete form of its existence in consciousness. The second opposition - meanings and emotions - just distinguishes between the two main forms of this existence. Emotion is a direct expression of a person's attitude to certain events and situations, and meaning is already something mediated by meanings and, in general, knowledge, cognition of oneself and one's life: meaning is an emotion with a thought, an emotion enlightened by thought. The third opposition (meaningfulness - meaninglessness) has a completely different origin. Its source is the concept of a meaning-forming motive. Only when the subject's activity and, in general, the course of events unfold in the direction of the realization of sense-forming motives, then the situation is meaningful, meaningful. Otherwise, it becomes meaningless.

    and thus passing to the second, "positive", phase of its introduction, it is necessary to set aside possible claims to the role of this category from the side of the concept of meaning formation. The latter in the form in which it is used in the theory of activity is often used in relation to the process of the emergence of any personal meaning (and not in relation to the emergence of meaningfulness), i.e. without regard to the allocation of special, meaning-forming motives. But the main thing is not even this: the formation of meaning is considered as a function of the motive, and when we talk about the generation of meaning, we mean the special activity of the subject 6.

    The specificity of this activity is determined, first of all, by the peculiarities of life situations that confront the subject with the necessity of experiencing.

    We will call these situations critical.

    If it were required to define in one word the nature of a critical situation, it would be necessary to say that this situation is not possible. Impossibility of what? Inability to live, to fulfill the inner necessities of your life.

    The struggle against this impossibility for creating a situation of the possibility of realizing life's necessities is an experience. Experiencing is overcoming a certain "gap" in life, it is a kind of restorative work, as it were, perpendicular to the line of realization of life. The fact that the processes of experience are opposed to the realization of life, i.e.

    activity does not mean that these are some mystical out-of-life processes: in terms of their psychophysiological composition, these are the same processes of life and activity, but in terms of their psychological meaning and purpose, these are processes aimed at life itself, at providing psychological the possibility of its implementation. This is an extremely abstract understanding of experience at the existential level of description, i.e. in distraction from consciousness.

    That which at the level of being appears as the possibility of realizing vital necessities, as In the theory of activity, by the way, there already exists a model of approach to meaning formation as an activity, realized on the basis of pseudoscopic vision. “Impossibility” also has its own positive phenomenology, the name of which is meaninglessness, and concrete states are despair, hopelessness, impossibility, inevitability, etc.

    Since life can have various types of internal necessities, it is natural to assume that the realizability of each of them corresponds to its own type of states of possibility, and unrealizability - its own type of states of impossibility. It is impossible to decide what exactly these types of needs and these states are - this is one of the main questions of the entire study. We can only say that in a situation of impossibility (meaninglessness) a person in one form or another faces a “task for meaning” - not that task of embodying in meanings the meaning objectively present in individual being, but not clear to consciousness, about which only it is a question of the theory of activity of A. N. Leont'ev, 8 and for the idea of ​​the existence of such a layer has been sufficiently well developed in philosophical literature, for example, in the concept of “pre-reflective consciousness”. This idea has been repeatedly used in various forms in the construction of psychological theories. It is not alien to the theory of activity, implicitly realized in the concept of motive and explicitly used by a group of authors who tried to put the concept of “semantic formations” at the forefront of the theoretical-activity approach to personality.

    For the sake of fairness, it must be said that A. N. Leont'ev understood perfectly well that the “task for meaning” turns out to be a “task for the correlation of motives” for the individual, that it does not end with the awareness of these relationships, but requires for its solution special transformative work on his dacha of obtaining meaningfulness, search for sources of meaning, "development" of these sources, active extraction of meaning from them, etc. - in a word, making sense.

    It is this general idea of ​​the production of meaning that makes it possible to speak of experience as a productive process, as a special work. Although it can be assumed in advance that the idea of ​​production is applicable in different degrees and in different forms to different types of experience, it is for us ontologically, gnoseologically and methodologically central. Ontologically, because productivity, and in the limit, the creative nature of experience, is, as we will see later, an inalienable property of its highest types. On the epistemological plane, because, according to the well-known Marxist position, it is precisely the higher forms of development of the object under study that provide the key to understanding its lower forms. And finally, in the methodological one, because in this idea, like no other, the essence of the activity approach in psychology is concentrated, the methodological model and reference point of which is the Marxian idea of ​​production and its essential “superiority” over consumption.

    If at the level of being experience is the restoration of the possibility of realizing the inner necessities of life, and at the level of consciousness it is gaining meaningfulness, then within the framework of the relationship of consciousness to being, the work of experience is to achieve a semantic correspondence of consciousness and being, which, in relation to being, is the provision of its meaning, and in relation to consciousness - the semantic acceptance of being.

    As for correlating the concept of experiencing with the concept of activity, the statement that the need for experiencing arises in situations that are not directly solvable by objective-practical activity, no matter how perfect reflection of motives (“special inner work is needed to solve such a problem and, perhaps, to tear away from ourselves that which has been exposed ”[ibid.]), however, before us they only raise the canopy, behind which opens up a wonderful (you cannot say otherwise) psychological area, where it is not motives that dominate a person, but he himself becomes the owner, moreover, the creator their motives.

    it was not provided, as already mentioned, it is impossible to understand that the category of activity is generally inapplicable to experience and that it, therefore, either is an auxiliary functional mechanism within activity and reflection, or by its "nature" falls out of the theoretical and activity picture psychological reality. In fact, experience complements this picture, representing, along with external practical and cognitive activities, a special type of activity processes, specified primarily by their product - meaning (meaningfulness) 9.

    Experiencing is precisely an activity, i.e.

    an independent process that correlates the subject with the world and solves his real life problems, and not a special mental “function” that is on a par with memory, perception, thinking, imagination or emotions. These "functions", together with external objective actions, are included in the realization of the experience in the same way as in the realization of any human activity, but the significance of both intrapsychic and behavioral processes involved in the realization of the experience can be clarified only on the basis of the general tasks and directions of experience, from the holistic work he does to transform the psychological world, which alone is capable of resolving the situation in a situation of impossibility of adequate external activity.

    Turning to the question of the carriers, or realizers, of experiences, let us first of all dwell on external behavior. External actions carry out the work of the experience not directly, by achieving certain objective results, but through changes in the consciousness of the subject and, in general, his psychological Cf. with the deep idea of ​​V.K. Vilyunas, expressed in relation to the "biological meaning": "semantic formations, although they also (like" cognitive psychological formations "- F.V.) arise as a result of activity, but by itself are not generated and do not represent the product that fixes its objective content. "

    “It is not objective activity that forms meaning ...”, he writes further.

    th world. This behavior sometimes bears a ritual-symbolic character, acting in this case by connecting the individual consciousness to the special symbolic structures that organize its movement, worked out in culture and concentrating the experience of human experience of typical events and circumstances of life.

    The participation in the work of experiencing various intra-mental processes can be clearly explained by paraphrasing the "theatrical" metaphor of 3. Freud:

    in the “performances” of experience, the whole corpse of mental functions is usually occupied, but each time one of them can play the main role, taking on the main part of the work of the experience, that is, work to resolve an unsolvable situation. This role is often played by emotional processes (aversion to “too green” grapes eliminates the contradiction between the desire to eat it and the inability to do so), however, in contrast to the strong association (and sometimes identification) between the words “emotion” and “experience ”, Which is common in psychology, it should be specially emphasized that emotion has no prerogative to play the main role in the realization of the experience. The main performer can be perception (in various phenomena of "perceptual defense"), and thinking (cases of "rationalization" of one's motives, the so-called "intellectual processing" of traumatic events), and attention ("defensive switching of attention to extraneous traumatic events moments "), and other mental" functions ".

    So, experience as an activity is realized by both external and internal actions. This is more correct. The illustration from War and Peace, quoted by V. Ye. Rozhnov and M. Ye. Burno, describes the reaction of Pierre Bez ukhov to the death of Karataev, which consisted in the fact that, upon hearing a shot, which meant that Karataev was killed, “in The same instant he remembered that he had not yet finished the calculation he had begun before the passage of the march of how many passages remained to Smolensk.

    And he began to count. " "Now only Pierre understood all the power of a person's vitality and the saving power of shifting attention, embedded in a person, similar to that saving valve in steam engines that releases sticky steam as soon as its density exceeds a certain norm."

    it is extremely important from a methodological and worldview point of view. Traditional psychology in its idealistic versions closed the experience in the narrow world of individual subjectivity, while the vulgar materialistic currents understood experience as an epiphenomenon, thereby leaving it outside the scope of scientific study. Only materialistic psychology, based on the Marxist doctrine of the active social essence of man, is able to overcome the seemingly self-evident for traditional psychology confinement of experiences exclusively to internal, mental processes. A person manages to survive a life crisis, often not so much due to a specific internal processing of traumatic events (although one cannot do without it), as with the help of active creative socially useful activity, which, realizing, as an object-practical activity, the conscious goal of the subject and producing a socially significant external product, it simultaneously acts as an activity of experience, generating and increasing the stock of meaningfulness of an individual's life.

    Let us summarize what was said in the Introduction. There are special situations in life that are insoluble by the processes of practical and cognitive activity. The processes of experience decide them. Experiencing should be distinguished from the traditional psychological concept of experiencing *, which means the immediate givenness of mental contents to consciousness. Experiencing is understood by us as a special activity, a special work on restructuring the psychological world, aimed at establishing a semantic correspondence between consciousness and being, the general goal of which is to increase the consciousness of life.

    These are the most general, preliminary provisions on experience from the point of view of the psychological theory of activity.

    CHAPTER I CONTEMPORARY CONCEPTS OF EXPERIENCE In this chapter, we have to pose two basic questions to theories that investigate the problem of experience.

    The first of them is associated with understanding the nature of critical situations that give rise to the need for experience. The second relates to the concept of these processes themselves.

    § 1. THE PROBLEM OF A CRITICAL SITUATION As already noted, a critical situation in the most general terms should be defined as a situation of impossibility, that is, a situation in which the subject is faced with the impossibility of realizing the internal necessities of his life (motives, aspirations, values, etc.).

    There are four key concepts used in contemporary psychology to describe critical life situations. These are the concepts of stress, frustration, conflict and crisis. Despite the huge literature on question 1, the theoretical concepts of critical situations are rather poorly developed. This is especially true of the theories of stress and crises. By 1979 alone, stress and related topics. according to the International Institute of Stress, 150,000 papers were published.

    where many authors limit themselves to a simple enumeration of specific events, as a result of which stressful or crisis situations are created, or use such general schemes as imbalance (mental, mental, emotional) to characterize these situations, without specifying them theoretically. Despite the fact that those frustrations and conflicts, each individually, have been worked out much better, it is not possible to establish a clear relationship between at least two of these concepts, not to mention the complete absence of attempts to attribute all four of these concepts at the same time. Do they overlap, what are the logical conditions for the use of each of them, etc.

    The situation is such that researchers who study one of these topics bring any critical situation under their favorite category, so that for the psychoanalyst any such situation is a situation of conflict, for the followers of G. Selye it is a situation of stress, etc., and the authors , whose interests are not specifically related to this issue, when choosing the concept of stress, conflict, frustration or crisis, proceed mainly from intuitive or stylistic considerations. All this leads to a great deal of terminological confusion.

    In view of this situation, the primary theoretical task, which will be solved on the following pages, is to isolate, behind each of the conceptual fixations of a critical situation, a specific categorical field that defines the sphere of its application. Solving this problem, we will proceed from the general idea, according to which the type of critical situation is determined by the nature of the state of “impossibility” in which the subject's life activity turned out to be. This “impossibility” is determined, in turn, by what vital necessity is paralyzed as a result of the inability of the subject's types of activity to cope with the existing external and internal conditions of life. These external and internal conditions, type of activity and specific vital necessity are the main points by which we will characterize the main types of critical situations and distinguish them from each other.

    STRESS The lack of clarity on categorical bases and constraints affected the concept of stress most of all.

    Meaning at first the nonspecific response of the organism to the effect of harmful agents, which manifests itself in the symptoms of a general adaptation syndrome, this concept is now referred to anything, so that in critical works on stress even a kind of genre tradition has developed to begin the review of studies with a list of miraculously coexisting under the heading this concept of such completely dissimilar phenomena as a reaction to cold effects and to criticism heard in his address, hyperventilation of the lungs in conditions of forced breathing and the joy of success, fatigue and humiliation, and G. Selye believes that “even in a state of complete relaxation, a sleeping person experiencing some stress, ”and equates the absence of stress with death [ibid.]. If we add to this that stress reactions are inherent, according to Selye, to all living things, including plants, then this concept, together with its simple derivatives (stressor, micro- and macrostress, good and bad stress) becomes the center almost a system that is cosmological in its claims, suddenly acquiring dignity no more and no less than "the leading stimulus of life affirmation, creation, development"

    , "The foundations of all aspects of human life" [ibid, p. 14] or acting as a foundation for homegrown philosophical and ethical constructions.

    Such transformations of a concrete scientific concept into a universal principle are so well known from the history of psychology, the laws of this process are described in such detail by L.S. “Stress boom”: “This is a discovery swollen to the point of a worldview, like a frog swollen into an ox, this bourgeois nobleman gets into the most dangerous ... stage of his development:

    it bursts easily, like a soap bubble 2;

    in any case, it enters the stage of struggle and denial, which it now meets from all sides. "

    Indeed, in modern psychological work on stress, persistent attempts are made to somehow limit the claims of this concept, subordinating it to traditional psychological problems and terminology. For this purpose, R. Lazarus introduces the concept of psychological stress, which, in contrast to the physiological highly stereotyped stress response to harm, is a response mediated by threat assessment and protective processes. J. Everill, following S. Sells, considers the essence of a stressful situation to be a loss of control, i.e. the absence of an adequate response to this situation, with the significance for the individual of the consequences of refusal to respond. P. Fress proposes to call stress a special type of emotiogenic situations, namely “to use this term in relation to repetitive or chronic situations, in which adaptation disorders may appear”. Yu. S. Savenko defines mental stress as "a state in which a person finds himself in conditions that prevent his self-actualization."

    This list could be continued, but the main tendency in psychology's assimilation of the concept of stress is visible from these examples as well. It consists in denying the non-specificity of situations that generate stress.

    Not any requirement of the environment causes stress, but only that which is assessed as threatening, which violates adaptation, control, and prevents self-actualization. “Hardly anyone thinks,” Razumov appeals to common sense, “that any muscle tension should be a stress agent for the body.

    A calm walk ... no one perceives it as a stressful situation. "

    In this way, L.S. Vygotsky conveys an increase in the volume of a concept that transcends all limits, but, of course, not the disappearance of its content and not its abolition from scientific use.

    However, none other than the father of the doctrine of stress, Hans Selye, considers even a state of sleep, not to mention a walk, not devoid of stress. Stress, according to G. Selye, is "a nonspecific response of the organism to any (we emphasize: any. - FV) demand presented to it."

    The reaction of psychologists can be understood: really, how to reconcile this formulation with the idea that stress is something unusual, out of the ordinary, exceeding the limits of the individual norm of functioning, which cannot be eliminated from the concept of stress? How to combine “any” with “extreme” in one thought? It would seem that this is impossible, and psychologists (and physiologists reject "any", that is, the idea of ​​stress nonspecificity, opposing the idea of ​​specificity to it. , for the sake of what it was created, its main meaning.The pathos of this concept is not in denying the specific nature of the stimuli and the body's responses to them, but in the assertion that any stimulus, along with its specific action, imposes nonspecific requirements on the body, the response to which is nonspecific reaction in the internal environment of the body.

    It follows from what has been said that if psychology is already adopting the concept of "stress", then its task is to, having abandoned the unjustified expansion of the scope of this concept, nevertheless retain its main content - the idea of ​​the nonspecificity of stress. To solve this problem, it is necessary to explicate those conceivable psychological conditions under which this idea accurately reflects the slice of psychological reality given by them. We talk about accuracy for this reason. No doubt, violations of self-actualization, control, etc. cause stress, these are sufficient conditions for it. But the point is to find the minimum necessary conditions, more precisely, the specific conditions for the generation of nonspecific education - stress.

    Any requirement of the environment can cause a critical, extreme situation only in a creature that is not able to cope with any requirements in general and at the same time the internal need for life of which is the urgent (here and now) satisfaction of any need, in other words, in a being whose normal life-world is "light" and "simple", that is, is such that the satisfaction of any need occurs directly and directly, without encountering obstacles either from external forces or from other needs and, therefore, does not require any activity from the individual.

    The full realization of such a hypothetical existence, when the blessings are given directly and directly and all life is reduced to immediate vitality, can be seen, and even then with certain reservations, only in the presence of the fetus in the womb of the mother, but it is partly inherent in all life, manifesting in the form of an attitude towards the here-and-now satisfaction, or in what 3. Freud called the "principle of pleasure."

    It is clear that the implementation of such an attitude quite often breaks through with the most ordinary, any requirements of reality;

    and if we qualify such a breakthrough as a special critical situation - stress, we arrive at a notion of stress in which the idea of ​​"extreme" and the idea of ​​"non-specificity" are obviously combined. Under the described content-logical conditions, it is not clear how stress can be considered a critical event and, at the same time, considered as a permanent life state.

    So, the categorical field that stands behind the concept of stress can be denoted by the term “vitality”, meaning by it the irreducible dimension of being, the “law” of which is the attitude towards here-and-now satisfaction.

    FRUSTRATION The necessary signs of a frustrating situation, according to most definitions, are the presence of a strong motivation to achieve the goal (satisfy a need) and an obstacle preventing this achievement) and "ideological"

    barriers (a type of social, characterized by the inclusion of "goals and values ​​recognized by the child himself"

    [ibid., p. 127]. Illustration: “Remember, you’re a girl!”).

    The combination of strong motivation to achieve a certain goal and obstacles on the way to it is undoubtedly a necessary condition for frustration, but sometimes we overcome significant difficulties without falling into a state of frustration. This means that the question of sufficient conditions of frustration must be raised, or, what is the same, the question of the transition of a situation of difficulty in activity into a situation of frustration [cf. 83]. It is natural to look for the answer to it in the characteristics of the state of frustratedness, because it is precisely its presence that distinguishes a situation of frustration from a situation of difficulty. However, in the literature on the problem of frustration, we do not find an analysis of the psychological meaning of this state, most authors limit themselves to descriptive statements that a person, being frustrated, experiences anxiety and tension, feelings of indifference, apathy and loss of interest, guilt and anxiety, rage and hostility, envy. and jealousy, etc. By themselves, these emotions do not clarify our question, and besides them we have the only source of information - the behavioral "consequences" of frustration, or frustrating behavior. Perhaps the features of this behavior can shed light on what happens when you move from a situation of difficulty to a situation of frustration?

    The following types of frustration behavior are usually distinguished: a) motor excitement - aimless and disordered reactions;

    b) apathy (in the well-known study of R. Barker, T. Dembo and K. Levin, one of the children in a frustrating situation lay on the floor and looked at the ceiling);

    c) aggression and destruction;

    d) stereotypy - a tendency to blind repetition of fixed behavior;

    e) regression, which is understood either “as an appeal to behavioral models that dominated in earlier periods of an individual’s life”, or as “primitivization” of behavior (measured in the experiment of R. Barker, T. Dembo, and K. Levin by a decrease in “Constructiveness” of behavior) or a drop in “quality of performance”.

    These are the types of frustrating behavior. What are its most essential, central characteristics? N. Mayer's monograph answers this question with its own title - “Frustration:

    behavior without a purpose. " In another work, N. Mayer explained that the basic statement of his theory is not that “a frustrated person has no purpose,” but “that the behavior of a frustrated person has no purpose, that is, that it loses its purposeful orientation ”. Mayer illustrates his thesis with an example in which two people in a hurry to buy a train ticket get into a fight in the queue, then a fight, and both end up late. This behavior does not contain the goal of getting a beat, therefore, according to Meier's definition, it is not adaptive (= satisfying a need), but "frustration-provoked behavior."

    The new goal does not replace the old one here [ibid].

    To clarify the position of this author, it is necessary to highlight it with other opinions. Thus, E. Fromm believes that frustrating behavior (in particular, aggression) "is an attempt, although often useless, to achieve a frustrated goal."

    K. Goldstein, on the contrary, asserts that behavior of this kind is not subordinated not only to a frustrated goal, but to no goal at all, it is disorganized and disorderly. He calls this behavior "catastrophic."

    Against this background, N. Mayer's point of view can be formulated as follows: a necessary sign of frustration behavior is a loss of orientation towards the initial, frustrated goal (as opposed to the opinion of E. Fromm), the same sign is also sufficient (as opposed to the opinion of K. Goldstein) - frustration behavior is not necessarily devoid of any purposefulness; it may contain some purpose inside itself (say, it hurts to hurt an opponent in a frustration-provoked quarrel). It is important that the achievement of this goal is meaningless in relation to the original goal or motive of the given situation.

    The disagreements between these authors help us to single out two most important parameters by which behavior in a frustrating situation should be characterized. The first of them, which can be called “motiosity”, consists in the presence of a meaningful perspective connection between behavior and the motive that constitutes the psychological situation. The second parameter is the organization of behavior by any goal, regardless of whether the achievement of this goal leads to the realization of the specified motive.

    Assuming that one and the other parameters of behavior can in each individual case have a positive or negative value, i.e. that the current behavior can be either ordered and organized by the goal, or disorganized, and at the same time it can be either consistent with the motive or not, we get the following typology of possible "states" of behavior.

    Typology of "states" of behavior In a difficult situation for the subject, we can observe the forms of behavior corresponding to each of these four types.

    Behavior of the first type, motivational and subservient to the organizing goal, is certainly not frustrating. Moreover, it is precisely these internal characteristics of it that are important here, because the external type of behavior itself (be it the observed indifference of the subject to the goal that has just beckoned him, destructive actions or aggression) cannot unambiguously indicate that the subject has a state of frustration: after all, we can deal with the voluntary use of the same aggression (or any other, usually automatically related to frustrating behavior), use, accompanied, as a rule, by exaltation itself with the enactment of a corresponding emotional state (rage) and proceeding from a conscious calculation in this way to achieve the goal.

    Such pseudo-frustrating behavior can turn into a form of behavior of the second type: deliberately "throwing a hysterics" in the hope of achieving his goal, a person loses control over his behavior, he is no longer free to stop, to generally regulate his actions. Arbitrariness, i.e. control on the part of the will is lost, but this does not mean that control on the part of consciousness is completely lost. Since this behavior is no longer organized by the goal, it loses the psychological status of purposeful action, but nevertheless retains the status of a means of realizing the initial motive of the situation, in other words, a semantic connection between behavior and motive, the hope of resolving the situation, remains in consciousness.

    A good illustration of this type of behavior is rental hysterical reactions, which were formed as a result of “voluntary intensification of reflexes,” but later became involuntary. At the same time, as, for example, the observations of military doctors show, soldiers suffering from hysterical hyperkinesis were well aware of the connection between increased tremor and the ability to avoid returning to the battlefield.

    The behavior of the third shooting gallery is characterized precisely by the loss of connection through which meaning is transferred from the motive to the action. A person loses conscious control over the connection of his behavior with the initial motive: although his individual actions are still purposeful, he no longer acts “for the sake of something”, but “as a result of something”. This is the aforementioned behavior of a man deliberately fighting at the box office with his competitor as the train departs from the station. "Motivation here," says N. Mayer, "is separated from causation as an explanatory concept."

    Behavior of the fourth type, using K. Goldstein's term, can be called "catastrophic."

    This behavior is not controlled by either the will or the consciousness of the subject, it is disorganized and does not stand in a meaningful connection with the motive of the situation.