The growing role of the household in the modern economy. Households as subjects of the market. Household financial relations
In this section:
- emitted and reflected light in computer graphics; formation of color shades on the monitor screen; the formation of color shades when printing images.
To describe color shades that can be reproduced on a computer screen and on a printer, special tools have been developed - color models (or color systems). To successfully apply them in computer graphics, you must:
Understand the specifics of each color model
Be able to identify a particular color using different color models
Understand how different graphics programs deal with color coding
Understanding why color casts displayed on a monitor are difficult to accurately reproduce when printed.
We see objects because they emit or reflect light.
Light is electromagnetic radiation.
Color characterizes the effect of radiation on the human eye. Thus, the rays of light falling on the retina of the eye produce a sensation of color.
Emitted light is light emitted from a source such as the sun, a light bulb, or a monitor screen.
Reflected light is the light bouncing off the surface of the object. This is what we see when we look at any object that is not.
The emitted light, coming directly from the source to the eye, retains all the colors from which it was created. But this light can change when reflected from an object (Fig. 1).
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Like the sun and other light sources, the monitor emits light. The paper on which the image is printed reflects light. Since color can be obtained in the process of radiation and in the process of reflection, there are two opposite methods of describing it: systems of additive and subtractive colors.
Additive color system
If you look at the screen of a working monitor or TV from a close distance (or even better with a magnifying glass), then it is not difficult to see many tiny dots of red (Red), green (Green) and blue (Blue) flowers. The fact is that on the surface of the screen there are thousands of phosphorescent color dots, which are bombarded by electrons at high speed. Color dots emit light when exposed to an electron beam. Since the dimensions of these dots are very small (about 0.3 mm in diameter), adjacent multi-colored dots merge, forming all other colors and shades, for example:
red + green = yellow,
red + blue = magenta,
green + blue = light blue,
red + green + blue = white.
The computer can precisely control the amount of light emitted through each point on the screen. Therefore, by changing the intensity of the glow of the colored dots, you can create a wide variety of shades.
Thus, the additive (add) color is obtained by combining (summing) the rays of the three primary colors - red, green and blue. If the intensity of each of them reaches 100%, then the color is white. The absence of all three colors results in black. The system of additive colors used in computer monitors is usually denoted by the abbreviation RGB.
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Rice. 3. Dialog box for choosing a color in the program Adobe photoshop
In most programs for creating and editing images, the user has the ability to form his own color (in addition to the suggested palettes) using the red, green and blue components. Typically, graphics programs allow you to combine the desired color from 256 shades of red, 256 shades of green, and 256 shades of blue. As you can easily calculate, 256 x 256 x 256 = 16.7 million colors. The appearance of the dialog box for setting an arbitrary color shade in different programs may be different (Fig. 2,3,4).
Thus, the user can choose a ready-made color from the built-in palette or create his own shade by specifying in the input fields the values of the R, G and B intensities for the red, green and blue color components in the range from 0 to 255 (Fig. 2,3,4 ).
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Since the paper does not emit light, the color model RGB cannot be used to create an image on a printed page.
Subtractive color system
During the printing process, light is reflected off the sheet of paper. Therefore, for printing graphic images, a color system that works with reflected light is used - a system of subtractive colors (subtract - subtract).
White is made up of all the colors of the rainbow. If you pass a beam of light through a simple prism, it decomposes into a color spectrum. Red, orange, yellow, green, cyan, blue and violet colors form the visible spectrum of light. White paper reflects all colors when illuminated, while colored paper absorbs some of the colors and reflects the rest. For example, a piece of red paper illuminated with white light looks red precisely because the paper absorbs all colors except red. The same red paper illuminated in blue will appear black as it absorbs the blue.
In the system of subtractive colors, cyan is the main (Cyan), purple (Magenta) and yellow (Yellow). Each of them absorbs (subtracts) certain colors from white light falling on the printed page. Here's how the three primary colors can be used to create black, red, green, and blue:
cyan + magenta + yellow = black,
cyan + magenta = blue,
yellow + magenta = red,
yellow + blue = green.
By mixing primary colors in different proportions on white paper, you can create a wide variety of shades.
White is obtained when all three primary colors are missing. High percentages of cyan, magenta, and yellow produce black. More precisely, the black color should turn out theoretically, in reality, due to some peculiarities of the printing inks, the mixture of all three primary colors gives a dirty brown tone, so when printing the image, black ink is added. (Black).
The subtractive color system is designated by the abbreviation CMYK(to avoid confusion with Blue, to designate Black the symbol K is used).
The four-color printing process can be divided into two stages.
1. Creation of four component images of cyan, magenta, yellow and black colors on the basis of the initial drawing.
2. Print each of these images one by one on the same sheet of paper.
Separation of a color image into four components is performed by a special color separation program. If printers were using the system CMY(without adding black paint), transforming the image from the system RGB into the system CMY it would be very simple: the values of the colors in the system CMY are just inverted system values RGB. The "color wheel" diagram (Fig. 5) shows the relationship between the primary colors of the models RGB and CMY... A mixture of red and green gives yellow, yellow and cyan - green, red and blue - magenta, etc.
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It is important that instead of solid color areas, the color separation program creates rasters from individual points (Fig. 6), and these point rasters are slightly rotated relative to each other so that points of different colors do not overlap one on top of the other, but are located side by side.
Small dots of different colors, close together, seem to merge together. This is how our eyes perceive the resulting color.
Thus, the system RGB works with emitted light and CMYK- with reflected. If you need to print an image obtained on a monitor on a printer, a special program converts one color system to another. But in systems RGB and CMYK the nature of obtaining flowers is different. Therefore, the color that we see on the monitor is quite difficult to accurately reproduce when printed. Usually the color appears slightly brighter on the screen compared to the same color printed.
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Rice. 7. Program dialog box CorelDraw for shaping the color in the system HSB
In addition, the user can select a color tone by clicking on the corresponding point of the color field (Fig. 3, 4, 7).
As a result of moving the mark in the form of a small square (Fig. 7) along the inner part of the color rectangle, the saturation and brightness of the selected tone are changed. In the upper left corner of the rectangle, the color becomes as blurry as possible (almost white). In the lower right corner, the brightness of its color is minimal. V Adobe PhotoShop(Fig. 3) the change in saturation and brightness is performed as a result of moving the mark in the form of a circle inside the color field. In a graphical editor Paint the color field allows you to select the hue and saturation (contrast), and the brightness is set using a special control (Fig. 4).
Control questions
1. What is the difference between emitted and reflected light?
2. What methods of describing color do you know?
3. How is color formed in the RGB color system?
4. How to form your own color when working in any graphics package?
5. Why can't the RGB color system be used to create images on the printed page?
6. What are the base colors used to form a color in the CMYK color system?
7. What is the four-color printing process?
8. Why can't the colors created on the screen always be reproduced when printed?
9. How is color described in the HSB color system?
The concept and types of household. Household behavior in different economic systems. Households and domestic work Household as a subject of financial relations Essence and functions of household finance Financial resources of households Household income and expenditures Conclusion Appendix A List of used literature Electronic sources Introduction The word economy is usually associated in our minds with science or the national economy of the country.
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HOUSEHOLDS AND THEIR PROBLEMS
HOUSEHOLDS AS SUBJECTS OF THE MARKET ECONOMY
Economists distinguish three subjects of economic life - households, firms and the state. Historically and logically, the primary the household- a person or, more often, a group of persons living together and leading a common household (having a common budget), between whom personalized relationships prevail that structure their economic activities. Both the activity of firms and the functioning of the state largely depend on the behavior of household members.
The essence of the household
The household as the primary economic entity is often identified with the family. Although the concepts are similar, there are differences between the household and the family.
One of the key criteria for distinguishing between households and families is the presence of separate budgets for each household. For example, families consisting of three generations (grandfathers, grandmothers, fathers, mothers and grandchildren) can either carry out their activities within the same household or live separately with different budgets. In the first case, the family coincides with the household, in the second case, one family consists of several households.
The degree of closeness between the family and the household, as a rule, is associated with the socio-cultural characteristics of the society.
It is widely believed that in Romanesque countries (Italy, Spain, Latin America), families and households are traditionally close to each other; in any case, families are less atomized than in Anglo-Saxon countries (for example, in the USA). This means, for example, that an ordinary young Italian, even if the conquest
She has her own family, but still continues to closely communicate with her parents and other relatives, helping them and receiving material support from them. On the contrary, the typical young American "breaks away" from his parents and other family members quite early, he "pushes the path in life" only at the expense of his own funds and efforts.
In Russia, the situation is closer to the institutions of the Romanesque countries - the family and the household are basically the same.
Household functions
In its most general form, we can say that for a household, the main economic function is the reproduction (replenishment of costs and accumulation) of human resources - human, social and physiological capital. The concept of "human capital" denotes a set of knowledge, skills and experience, inseparable from a person, by realizing which an individual creates material conditions for himself and his loved ones; by "social capital" is meant the involvement of an individual in social networks and other relationships with other people that increase labor productivity; “Physiological capital” is the biological potential of a person as a worker, received by him at birth. Stocks of human and physiological capital serve to reduce, mainly, transformation costs, while stocks of social capital help to reduce, first of all, transaction costs.
The relationship of households with firms and the state is shown in the model of economic circulation (Fig. 9.1).
Both firms and government are derived from households. After all, firms belong to individuals or groups of people, i.e. in the final analysis, it is the households that receive tangible and intangible benefits from the functioning of firms. Also, the state was created by people united in households to protect the interests of households. Thus, it is households that are the primary element of any economic system that has existed until our time. This was noted in ancient times by Xenophon and Aristotle, who viewed "economics" itself as the science of rational housekeeping.
The economic circulation model, which opposes the household to the firm and the state, is correct enough to describe an industrial society. However, it is difficult to use it to characterize the emerging post-industrial society. In an industrial society, production was mainly moved outside the household, into the "outside world", and the house was seen as a place of rest and recuperation. New means of arbitrariness
Rice. 9.1.
state - primarily electronic devices - allow you to combine work and leisure at home. Already, many specialists (programmers, designers, marketers, theoretical scientists, journalists) work mainly at home in front of a computer screen, not wasting time on moving from home to office and back. It is possible that in the future the line between the household and the firm will become more and more blurred.
Households act as active players in both commodity and resource markets. In product markets, households act as consumers of goods and services. In the resource market, households act as suppliers of the most important productive resource - labor. It is the households that form the supply in the labor market. Labor supply is determined, first of all, by demographic factors: the size of the able-bodied population, its sex and age structure. In addition, the labor supply is influenced by the economic activity of various demographic and ethnic groups of the working-age population, and immigration processes. Workers also compare the attractiveness of income per unit of work time and the usefulness of leisure time. Of course, households can participate
to act as sellers in commodity markets, offering, for example, products made on their own subsidiary plots. However, in the general case, we can say that through the sale of resources (primarily labor), household incomes are formed, which are then spent on consumption and savings.
Obviously, in the household budget, as a rule, income determines expenses. However, in each period of time, households can either spend less on consumption than they receive and save the remaining funds, or spend more than they receive by borrowing additional funds in financial markets. Accordingly, in countries with market economies, households are active players in the financial markets. Savings of the population are one of the main sources of investment. That is, households also act as suppliers of another factor of production - capital.
Households in transition economies
The above is true for households in a market economy. In a centrally command economy, the economic behavior of the household was somewhat different. The well-being of households in such an economy depended not so much on wages as on the place of the individual in the social hierarchy. Belonging to party and state structures, the presence of connections provided access to scarce goods. Those who did not have this were doomed (even with high salaries) to narrower consumer choice options and to queuing for hours for "shortages." Accordingly, family and friendships and informal relations were of particular importance.
In a command economy, the state actively intervened in the activities of households in the same way as in the activities of other economic agents. Thus, the state did not formally leave a choice between employment and leisure (by persecuting "parasites"). It reduced the possibilities for choosing the types of activities of households (prohibition of private business, restriction on the maintenance of personal subsidiary plots, etc.). In addition, with the help of state-owned "public" organizations (trade unions, party and Komsomol bodies, local committees, etc.), it directly intervened in the private life of households (holding "comradely" courts, etc.), if the behavior of individual members of society, on someone's gaze differed from the behavior of the "Soviet man".
Paternalism discouraged quality work, but it contributed to stable employment. The presence of formal constitutional guarantees for recreation and education, provided that the individual behaved "according to the rules", ensured the stability of the life of the majority
households. In fact, the limited choice (goods, types of activity, lifestyle, etc.) was compensated by stability.
The transition to a market economy has had a huge impact on Russian households. Individual individuals and households were forced to adapt to new conditions, namely:
- changes in income levels and their stability. First half of the 1990s characterized by a sharp decline in real money incomes of the population, on the one hand, and an increase in income differentiation, on the other;
- expanding the choice in the markets for goods and services, the emergence of many fundamentally new goods;
- the emergence of fundamentally new markets for financial services;
- the emergence of the labor market.
The adaptation process was not easy. In fact, it was necessary to change the entire system of values and stereotypes of economic behavior of Russian households.
Question 31: "The main subjects of a market economy: household, firm (organization), state"
A household is an economic unit made up of one person or more joint decision makers. It supplies the factor of production to the market, and uses the resulting income (salary, rent, profit) to purchase goods and services.
A firm is an economic unit that implements the main function of social production - meeting the needs of people.
The state generates income in the form of taxes on firms and households and provides society with benefits that cannot be efficiently produced by the market.
Question 32: “Household as an economic entity. The main categories and laws of consumption. Consumer Equilibrium and the Rule of Utility Maximization "
The main economic agents of a modern market economy are: households, enterprises (firms) and the state.
The household- it is an economic unit made up of one person or family. Main features of households:
Are the owners of the factors of production,
Economic decisions are made independently
Strive for maximum satisfaction of their needs.
Enterprise (firm)- it is an economic unit that implements the main function of social production - the satisfaction of people's needs. Enterprise (firm):
Makes basic economic decisions independently,
Owns the factors of production and uses them for the production of products and their sale,
Strives for maximum profit. State - these are government agencies,
having and using legal and political power to regulate the economic activities of market participants in order to achieve public goals.
HOUSEHOLDS is the largest sector of the national economy. Their role in the market economy is twofold. On the one hand, they form the demand for consumer goods and services, being their buyers. On the other hand, households own the factors of production, the main of which is labor. By selling them, they form a market offer, receive income, which they use to buy goods and services.
Thus, households, on the one hand, act in the market as buyers of goods and services, and on the other hand, as sellers in the market of economic resources. As a result, within the framework of the national economy, an aggregate stream of income and expenditure is formed with the participation of households.
Sources of formation income households are: wages, income from entrepreneurial and individual activities, income from personal subsidiary plots, dividends, income from renting real estate, interest, pensions, scholarships, unemployment benefits, help from relatives, alimony, receipts from the sale of personal property, income from the sale of real estate, other income and receipts.
Earning income, no matter how large they are, is not an end in itself for households. It is only a means of meeting the needs of their members. With an increase in income, not only the needs of the individual and the family are more fully satisfied, but the structure of their preferences also changes, which give the manufacturer information about what to produce and in what volumes.
Concerning expenditures households, then in their analysis it is necessary to understand the concepts of "household expenditures" and "consumer expenditures of households". Household consumption expenditures include expenditures on the purchase of food and non-food items and payments for services. Consumer spending is only a fraction of household spending. The latter also include the cost of cash for production activities and savings.
Accumulation households represents deferred consumption in the current period with the aim of increasing consumption in the future (for example, the purchase of furniture, a car, etc.).
HOUSEHOLDS IN A MODERN ECONOMIC SYSTEM
V.Yu. GIRNIK
The article examines the household as one of the important subjects of economic activity, its history of development, forms and role in a modern market economy.
Key words: household, subject of economic activity, phenomenon of human activity, modern economic system, economic unit.
Households at the present stage are one of the important subjects of economic activity, on the results of which depends not only the well-being of an individual economic unit, but also the entire population of the country. Along with businesses and the government, households are involved in all micro and macro regulatory processes.
A household is understood as a household that is run by one or more persons living together and having a common budget. The household unites all employees, owners of large and small capital, land, securities, who are and are not employed in social production. A household is a broader concept than a family, and unlike a family, households include not only relatives and may consist of one, two or more members.
The household in the modern economy is the main force in social production and the distribution of goods and services. In different historical epochs, depending on the nature of social relations, the place and role, structure and functions, size and stability, rights and responsibilities, position in society or the socio-economic status of the household changed.
Households were first mentioned in the works of the ancient Athenian thinker Xenophon (430-355 BC). His writings contain applied economic issues, as well as knowledge of agricultural technology for growing cereals and the basics of horticulture. Aristotle, who introduced the term "economics", also talked about the household. As a synonym for the household, and as a special science, Aristotle's "economics" reflected the organization of economic transactions, distributional, including market relations with other households, as well as with other forms of economic units of that society, temple farms and the state economy. Aristotle pointed out that the main goal of the household, first of all, should be the acquisition of wealth.
The processing household is the original historically first form of the household. It consists in keeping the place of residence in order, repairing housing, maintaining a fire, cooking, processing the gifts of nature, etc. These forms of labor do not yet become production. Such households are historically the original and today their simplest form. In this form, the household is found as a place of stay, sleep, rest, storage of kitchen and other utensils, labor here ensures the preservation of the gifts of nature by drying, pickling, soaking, salt
niya, etc.
A producing household arises with the development of agriculture. It is expressed in the creation of tools of production, and their improvement, in the cultivation of agricultural plants, in the breeding of domestic animals. So labor gradually turned into production. The household became the backbone of the home industry of the Middle Ages. It should be noted that even today, such types of households are widespread, in which they live, craft and sometimes trade in manufactured goods (for example, handicraft production) in the same place.
The household is based on labor, but not limited to it. As production separates from the household as an enterprise, the production function of the household decreases. The degeneration of the generating function of households is a process that has not yet been completed and, apparently, will not be completed soon. The productive function of households remains and in the modern world 30% of the economic activity of the whole world is carried out by households. Subsequently, it will continue to be modified into a consumer cell of a market economy.
The household economy became the basis for the emergence of exploitative formations. In this regard, it should be noted the excessive idealization of the interpretation of households in some textbooks on economic sciences: they usually interpret households as consumer cells of the economy. In fact, many modern households have production facilities.
The consumer household is the latest form of households that is rapidly expanding in a market economy, primarily in modern cities. There is no production in the consumer household, which is set aside as a separate enterprise. The household turns out to be the main supplier of hired labor for production that is not carried out within its framework, and the consumer of the goods of the manufacturing enterprises. The consumer household does not exclude production processes, which are an auxiliary source of income for the entire collective of a particular household.
Household economy is a complex phenomenon of human activity, changing over time, and it is quite difficult to take into account the entire spectrum of influence on the phenomena and processes occurring in it.
The modern household is characterized by the heterogeneity, complexity, dynamism of the processes taking place in it. In the
stindustrial society has changed the nature of economic relations, as well as the role of man in the modern economic system. Human activities are becoming more intense and complex. The transformation of the basic principles of household activities is associated with the achievements of technological progress. The main motive for their development is not the increase in wealth, but the desire for self-expression, for the creative activity of each of the household members. Such qualities of everyday life as safety, freedom and justice are becoming more significant for them.
Today in Russia, without the development of households, a holistic perception of the country's economy is impossible. In Russia, according to the latest census data, there are approximately 53 million households, including 41 million family and about 12 million households of persons who do not have a family or have lost contact with it. This suggests that households play a large role in the development of the country and proves the need to study their place and role in the modern economy.
The role of households in the development of market relations is determined by the following points:
First, households provide the necessary level of consumer demand, without which the functioning of the market mechanism is impossible.
Secondly, household savings are a source of savings and investment, which is very important in a developing economy.
Third, households are subjects of supply in the market for factors of production (entrepreneurial ability and labor).
Fourthly, it is the household that is the basis for the formation of production and the implementation of human capital.
Fifth, the ability of households to establish a family business contributes not only to the growth of personal well-being, but also to the development of the market economy as a whole.
Households are most directly involved, along with firms and the state, in the movement of resources, income and goods. Households own resources that come in the form of factor services to firms. Resource payments serve as the material basis for household income and are used to purchase consumer goods and services created by firms. The movement of flows of resources, cash, as well as goods and services is carried out constantly. Moreover, cash flows move in the opposite direction to the movement of resources, goods and services.
More specifically, the relationship of households with firms and the state is as follows: they supply firms and the state with production resources: labor, natural, capital, entrepreneurial abilities; present demand for consumer goods and services produced by firms and state-owned enterprises; replenish the revenue side of the state budget by paying taxes and other types of compulsory payments provide their
savings to firms and the government for investment in production.
In the conditions of market relations in the triad of market economy subjects - the household, the state, the firm - it is the household that plays the leading role. Through his motivational economic activity, as through a prism, the entire system of economic relations of society is refracted.
That is why modern domestic economic thought is increasingly turning its attention to the household as a subject of economic activity that has the most direct impact on the country's economy. In addition, this interest is also explained by the awareness of the insufficiency of the approach that has developed in socio-economic research to the household as an economic unit, despite the fact that it has been functioning and developing for many centuries.
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2. Borisov E.F. Economic theory. M .: Jurist, 2003.
3. Voitov A.G. History of Economic Thought. M .: Publishing and trade corporation "Dashkov and K", 2000.
4. Kulikov L.M. Fundamentals of economic theory: textbook. allowance. Moscow: Finance and Statistics, 2007.
5. General economic theory. Textbook. / Ed. Vidyapina V.I., Zhuravlevoy G.P .. M.,
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