Throughout the history of its existence, man has tamed about 40 species of animals. Providing them with food and giving shelter from enemies, he received in return food, clothing, vehicles, labor.

However, even before the appearance of man on Earth, animals united among themselves in "friendly" alliances. Ants and termites have surpassed everyone in this respect: they "domesticated" about 2,000 species of living beings! For life together, usually two or three species are usually combined, but they provide each other with such important "services" that sometimes they lose the opportunity to exist separately.

TEMPORARY BUT IMPORTANT COOPERATION

Everyone knows that wolves hunt moose in flocks, and dolphins hunt fish in herds. Such mutual assistance is natural for animals of the same species. But sometimes "strangers" unite for hunting. This happens, for example, in the steppes of Central Asia, where the corsac fox and a small ferret-like dressing animal live.

Both of them are interested in the large gerbil, which is rather difficult to catch: the fox is too fat to climb into the rodent's hole, and a dressing capable of doing this cannot catch the animal at the exit from the hole: while it makes its way underground, the gerbil leaves along emergency routes.

But when two hunters cooperate, they are invariably accompanied by good luck: the dressing drives the gerbils to the surface, and the fox is on duty outside, at the exit from the hole, preventing the animal from leaving. As a result, the prey goes to the one who gets to it first. Sometimes it's a fox, sometimes it's a bandage. It happens that they run from hole to hole until both are full. And in a few days they are waiting for each other in their hunting area and start a new raid.

ONE-SIDE BENEFIT

Sometimes only one side benefits from cohabitation. Such relationships can be considered "na-khlebnikov". An example here is the union of a coot (a waterfowl the size of a duck) and a carp, whose shoals follow the birds.

The reason for this “affection” is obvious: when diving for algae, their main food, coots stir up the silt, which hides many small organisms that are tasty for fish. This attracts carp, seeking to profit without making any efforts.

Often, small animals feed on the remains of a meal of a stronger animal or bird, turning into their companions. Polar bears, for example, are accompanied by arctic foxes and ivory gulls during difficult winter times.

Gray partridges do not fly far away from hares, which are better at shoveling snow. Hyenas with jackals strive to be closer to the lion king of beasts. There is no benefit or harm from such a "union" to the earner animal, but the "freeloaders" are extremely interested in it.

ENEMIES CAN BECOME DEFENDERS

A person who first finds himself in the tundra will probably be surprised to see that geese and peregrine falcon (classic models of "predator" and "prey"!) Nest in the same territory. It's like meeting a hare walking fearlessly near a wolf's hole.

The key to such good-neighborliness lies in the fact that the peregrine falcon never hunts near the nest: its hunting and nesting sites do not coincide. In addition, it hunts only in the air, which geese are well aware of.

They even developed the habit of taking off and landing away from their nests and getting to them on the ground. The proximity to the falcon gives geese considerable advantages: protecting his offspring from uninvited guests, he involuntarily becomes a formidable protector of the goose family. Whether the peregrine falcon receives any benefits from such "cohabitation" is still unknown.

MUTUAL SERVICES

Impressed by his trip to Ceylon, Ivan Bunin wrote the following lines at the beginning of the last century:

Lagoon near Ranna
- like a sapphire.
Red roses around
flamingo,
Slumber through the puddles
buffaloes. On them
Herons are standing, whitening,
and with a buzz
The flies are sparkling ...

They not only feed, but also reproduce on their body in unthinkable quantities. Sometimes it is possible to comb out so many insects, their larvae and eggs from the wool of some livestock, that this is enough for a whole collection. But the animals themselves, especially the large ones, are not able to get rid of the "evil spirits". Bathing does not help here, and they do not know how to rob each other, like monkeys. And how many insects can you pull out with the help of a zebra's hoof or a hippopotamus-"suitcase"?

Herons with an elephant and a hippopotamus



Birds provide their wards with one more service: they notify them of the danger. Seeing the enemy on the horizon, they take off and, shouting loudly, begin to circle over their "masters", giving them a chance to escape. Alliances like these are vital to both sides.

COMMONWEALTH OF WATER HABITS

Among the sea inhabitants there are real lovebirds who are not able to exist without each other. A classic example of such a pair is the hermit crab and the anemone adamsia.

Cancer, having settled in the shell of a mollusk, immediately begins to take care of its protection. He finds anemones of the right size, separates it from the substrate, carefully transfers it in a claw to his house and sets it there.

At the same time, the anemone, which burns with poisonous tentacles all who approaches it, does not offer the slightest resistance to the cancer! She seems to know that in a new place she will be much more nourishing: small pieces of prey that have slipped out of the mouth of the cancer will fall into her mouth. In addition, having "saddled" a hermit crab, she will be able to move around, which means that she will quickly renew the water in her womb, which is vitally important for her. Cancer will henceforth be protected from predators who want to profit from it.

So they live together until their death. If you remove the anemone from the crayfish house, he will immediately plant it back. If the crayfish itself is removed from the shell, the anemone will soon die, no matter how well it is fed.

CHAINED BY ONE CHAIN

The mystery of this "gravitation" has not been fully solved, but it is certainly known that it is based on a "benefit": it is easier for animals of different species to preserve their lives by uniting into a kind of "community". As well as people.

In nature, everything is interconnected, and it is impossible to painlessly touch a single link of the biological system. Hopefully, while assimilating natural resources, people will take this into account.

    This term has other meanings, see Competition. Competition in biology, any antagonistic relationship associated with the struggle for existence, for domination, for food, space and other resources between organisms or species ... Wikipedia

    - (from Latin mensa meal) a type of interspecific relationship in which one species, called amensal, undergoes inhibition of growth and development, and the second, called an inhibitor, is not subject to such tests. Antibiosis and ... ... Wikipedia

    - (from Latin com "s", "together" and mensa "table", "meal"; literally "at the table", "at the same table"; earlier co-dining) a way of coexistence (symbiosis) of two different types of living organisms, in which one population benefits ... Wikipedia

    - (from other Greek ἀντι against, βίος life) antagonistic relations of species, when one organism limits the possibilities of another, the impossibility of the coexistence of organisms, for example, due to intoxication with some organisms (antibiotics, ... ... Wikipedia

    This term has other meanings, see Symbiosis (disambiguation). Clown fish and sea anemone are organisms coexisting in mutualistic symbiosis ... Wikipedia

    - (late lat. organismus from late lat. organizo I arrange, I report a slender appearance, from other Greek. As a separate individual organism ... ... Wikipedia

    The Predator request is redirected here; see also other meanings. Request "Predators" is redirected here; see also other meanings ... Wikipedia

    Between two ants of the species Oecophylla longinoda. Thailand. Trofallaxis ... Wikipedia

    Co-evolution of biological species interacting in an ecosystem. Changes affecting any traits of individuals of one species lead to changes in another or other species. The first to introduce the concept of co-evolution was N. V. Timofeev Resovsky ... ... Wikipedia

    This article or section contains a list of sources or external references, but the sources of individual claims are unclear due to lack of footnotes ... Wikipedia

Books

  • Semiotic theory of biological life, N. A. Zarenkov. Is it possible to understand what life is, limited to the study of the flesh of organisms - the signs of life: molecules, chromosomes, cells, tissues and organs? This book substantiates a negative answer to ...

Question 1. Give a definition of the main forms of interactions of living organisms.
1. Symbiosis (cohabitation)- a form of relationship in which both partners, or one of them, benefit from the interaction, without causing harm to the other.
2. Antibiosis- a form of relationship in which both interacting populations (or one of them) experience a negative impact.
3. Neutralism- a form of relationship in which organisms living on the same territory do not have a direct effect on each other; they are transferred into simple compounds.

Question 2. What forms of symbiosis do you know and what are their features?
There are several forms of symbiotic relationships, characterized by varying degrees of partner dependence.
1. Mutualism- a form of mutually beneficial cohabitation, when the presence of a partner is a prerequisite for the existence of each of them. For example, termites and flagellate protozoa that live in their intestines. Termites themselves cannot digest cellulose, which they feed on, and flagellates receive nutrition, protection and a favorable microclimate; lichens, which are the inseparable cohabitation of fungus and algae, when the presence of a partner becomes a condition for the life of each of them. The hyphae of the fungus, entwining the cells and threads of the algae, receive the substances synthesized by the algae. Algae extract water and minerals from the fungal hyphae. In a free state, lichen fungi are not found and are able to form a symbiotic organism only with a certain type of algae.
Higher plants also enter into a mutually beneficial relationship with fungi. Many grasses and trees develop normally only when soil fungi settle on their roots. The so-called mycorrhiza is formed: root hairs on the roots of plants do not develop, and the mycelium of the fungus penetrates into the root. The plant receives water and mineral salts from the fungus, and the fungus, in turn, receives carbohydrates and other organic substances.
2. Cooperation- we see mutually beneficial coexistence of different representatives, but which, however, is obligatory. For example, hermit crab and soft coral sea anemone.
3. Commensalism(companionship) - a relationship in which one species benefits, and the other does not care. For example, jackals and hyenas, eating up the remnants of food after large predators - lions; fish pilots.

Question 3. What is the evolutionary significance of symbiosis?
Symbiotic relationships allow organisms to most fully and effectively overpower the habitat; they are the most important components of natural selection participating in the process of species divergence.

Tests in the discipline "Ecology and the basics of life safety"

1. The term "ecology" is translated from Greek as the science of ............

e) about the house, dwelling

In what year was the term "ecology" introduced ............

Which scientist first proposed the term "ecology" .........

b) E. Haeckel

Select scientists with whom the second stage of development of ecology is associated (after the 60s of the XIX century - 50s of the XX century.

e) K.F. Rulier, N.A. Severtsov, V.V. Dokuchaev

5. What does ecology study:

d) laws of existence (functioning) of living systems in their interaction with the environment.

The subject of ecology research is

f) biological macrosystems and their dynamics in time and space

Three main areas of ecology:

d) Autecology, synecology, demecology.

When did ecology finally take shape as an independent science?

d) at the beginning of the twentieth century

Which branch of ecology studies the interaction of geophysical living conditions and factors of the inanimate environment ...

e) geoecology

13. The interaction between individual organisms and environmental factors studies the section of ecology….

a) Autecology

14. The section of ecology that studies the relationship of a population with their environment is called:

a) demecology

Synecology studies

d) community ecology

16. The shell of the Earth inhabited by living organisms is called:

a) biosphere

17. A group of organisms with a similar external and internal structure, living in the same territory and giving fertile offspring is called:

a) population

The level at which the natural system was formed, covering all manifestations of life within our planet is called .....

c) biosphere

A set of pelagic actively moving animals that do not have a direct connection with the bottom. They are represented mainly by large animals that are able to overcome long distances and strong currents of water .................

20. A set of pelagic organisms that do not have the ability to move quickly:

21. A set of organisms that live at a depth (on the ground or in it) of water bodies:

b) Plankton

What levels of organization of living systems relate to a microsystem ...

a) molecular, cellular


23. Abiotic conditions that determine the field of existence of life:

a) oxygen and carbon dioxide

What factor is not abiotic?

c) agricultural development

25. The plant community is called:

e) phytocenosis

26. By the type of nutrition, green plants and photosynthetic bacteria are:

a) Autotrophs.

27. Organisms permanently living in the soil:

a) Geobints

28. Reducers are:

a) bacteria and fungi

29. Organisms that produce organic matter are called:

b) producers

The main source of oxygen to the atmosphere

d) plants

31. Organizations with a mixed type of diet:

e) Mixotrophs.

32. Light-loving plants:

b) Heliophytes

33. Shade-loving plants:

e) Sciophytes.

34. Plants growing in conditions of increased moisture:

a) Hygrophytes.

35. Adaptation of organisms develops with the help of:

c) Variability, heredity and natural selection.

36. Types of adaptation of organisms:

d) Morphological, ethological, physiological.

37. What is photoperiodism ... ..

a) Adjustment to the length of the day;

38. What factors limit during a process, phenomenon or existence of an organism: a) Limiting.

39. Environmental factors are divided into:

a) Abiotic, biotic, anthropogenic.

40. What factor is limiting in water….

d) Oxygen.

41. The microbiogenic biotic factor of the environment includes:

b) Microbes and viruses.

What law states that the body's endurance is determined

the weakest link in the chain of its ecological needs:

d) Liebig's law of minimum.

When was the law of "tolerance" discovered?

44. Which scientist discovered the law at most:

c) W. Shelford.

45. Law of the minimum discovered:

e) Y. Liebig.

Two species cannot sustainably exist in a limited space if the growth in the number of both is limited by one vital resource, the quantity and availability of which is limited.

b) Gause's law

What law indicates that the endurance of an organism is determined by the weakest link in the chain of its ecological needs .......

c) Gause Act (Competition Exclusion Rule)

48. In 1903 V. Johansen introduced the term….

d) population

What is population homeostasis ..

d) Population constancy;

50. Types of population growth are:

e) Exponential and Logistic.

51. The territory occupied by the population is called:

52. Population size is:

e) The number of individuals included in it.

53. Give the definition of the ecological population density:

b) the average number of individuals per unit area or volume occupied by the population of space

What is called biocenosis ..

a) A deeply regular combination of organisms in certain environmental conditions.

Which scientist introduced the concept of "biocenosis" .......

B) K. Moebius

56. The term "biocenosis" was introduced:

What characterizes the layering of the biocenosis ..

d) Spatial structure

58. What is the habitat ...

a) The whole environment surrounding a living organism;

59. Pollution of the natural environment by living organisms that cause various diseases in humans are called:

a) Radioactive.

60. The totality of abiotic factors within a homogeneous area is ..."

61. What is the name of the last formations of a relatively stable stage of the change of biocenoses, which are in equilibrium with the environment ...

d) Successions;

62. What is the name of the community of animals in ecosystems….

a) Biocenosis;

Biogeocenosis is

c) a group of animals and plants living in one area

64. What is amensalism….

b) Inhibition of the growth of one species by the excretion products of another;

65. What is competition….

d) Suppression of some species by others in biocenoses;

66. Such a form of relationships between species, in which the organism-consumer uses a living host not only as a source of food, but also as a place of permanent or temporary habitation ....

c) Commensalism

67. Mutualism is….

b) Mutually beneficial cooperation;

68. Commensalism is….

b) Beneficial for one and not profitable for another relationship;

69. The normal existence of two species that do not interfere with each other is ……

d) neutralism;

70. The existence of invertebrates in the burrow of a rodent is called ..

c) Lodging;

71. Organisms of one kind exist at the expense of nutrients or tissues of other organisms. This form of communication is called:

72. The ecological niche is:

e) + The set of living conditions within the ecological system.

73. Individuals of one species eat individuals of another species. This relationship is called:

c) predation

The joint, mutually beneficial existence of individuals of 2 or more 2 species is called:

b) symbiosis

75. The ecological niche of organisms is determined by:

e) + the whole set of conditions of existence

76. The concept of an ecological niche is applicable to:

b) plants

77. Organisms with a mixed type of diet:

Species of any organisms living in the same territory and in contact with each other enter into different relationships with each other. The position of the species in different forms of relationships is indicated by conventional signs. The minus sign (?) Denotes an unfavorable influence (individuals of the species experience oppression). A plus sign (+) denotes a beneficial influence (individuals of the species benefit). A zero (0) sign indicates that the relationship is indifferent (no influence).

Biotic connections? relationships between different organisms. They can be direct (direct impact) and indirect (mediated). Direct communications are carried out with the direct influence of one organism on another. Indirect connections are manifested through the influence on the external environment or another kind.

Thus, all biotic connections can be divided into 6 groups:

1 Neutralism - populations do not affect each other (00);

2a. Protocooperation - populations have mutually beneficial relationships (++) (Interaction with each other is useful for both populations, but is not required);

2c. Mutualism - populations have mutually beneficial relationships (++) (Mandatory interaction, useful for both populations);

3. Competition - relationships are harmful for both types (??);

5. Commensalism - one species benefits, the other does not experience harm (+0);

6. Ammensalism - one kind is oppressed, the other does not benefit (? 0);

Types of interactions

In nature, cohabitation of two or more species is often found, which in some cases becomes necessary for both partners. Such cohabitation is called a symbiotic relationship of organisms (from a combination of sim? Together, bio? Life) or symbiosis. The term "symbiosis" is general, it means cohabitation, a prerequisite for which is living together, a certain degree of cohabitation of organisms.

A classic example of symbiosis is lichens, which are close mutually beneficial cohabitation of fungi and algae.

Typical symbiosis is the relationship between termites and unicellular organisms living in their intestines? flagellate. These protozoa produce an enzyme that breaks down fiber into sugar. Termites do not have their own enzymes to digest cellulose and would die without the symbionts. And flagellates find favorable conditions in the intestines that contribute to their survival. A well-known example of symbiosis? cohabitation of green plants (primarily trees) and mushrooms.

A close mutually beneficial relationship in which the presence of each of the two partner species becomes mandatory is called mutualism (++). Such are, for example, the relationship of highly specialized plants to pollination (figs, bathers, dope, orchids) with pollinating insects.

A symbiotic relationship in which one species gains some advantage without causing harm or benefit to the other is called commensalism (+0). The manifestations of commensalism are diverse, therefore, a number of options are distinguished in it.

Freelogging? consumption of food leftovers from the host. This is, for example, the relationship between lions and hyenas, picking up leftovers of uneaten food, or sharks with adhering fish. Co-drinking? consumption of different substances or parts of the same food. Example? the relationship between different types of soil bacteria-saprophytes, processing various organic matter from rotted plant residues, and higher plants, which consume the resulting mineral salts. Lodging? use by some types of others (their bodies, their dwellings) as a refuge or dwelling. Is this type of relationship widespread in plants? an example is lianas and epiphytes (orchids, lichens, mosses), which settle directly on the trunks and branches of trees.

In nature, there are also such forms of relationships between species when coexistence is not obligatory for them. These relationships are not symbiotic, although they play an important role in the existence of organisms. An example of mutually beneficial relationships is protocooperation (literally: primary cooperation) (++), which can include the spread of seeds of some forest plants by ants or pollination of different meadow plants by bees.

If two or more species use similar ecological resources and live together, competition (??) Between them may arise, or a struggle for the possession of the necessary resource. Competition occurs where ecological resources are scarce and rivalry inevitably arises between species. At the same time, each species experiences oppression, which negatively affects the growth and survival of organisms, and the number of their populations.

Competition is extremely widespread in nature. For example, plants compete for light, moisture, soil nutrients and, therefore, for the expansion of their territory. Animals fight for food resources and for shelters (if they are in short supply), that is, ultimately, also for territory. Competition weakens in areas with a rare population, represented by a small number of species: for example, in the arctic or desert regions there is almost no competition between plants for light

Predation (+?)? this type of relationship between organisms, in which representatives of one species kill and eat representatives of another. Predation? one of the forms of food relations.

If the two species do not affect each other, then is it? neutralism (00). In nature, true neutralism is very rare, since mediated interactions are possible between all species, the effect of which we do not see due to the incompleteness of our knowledge.

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