Genre of ode in the poetry of European classicism. New time. Classicism as a trend in art and literature

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Essay

Ode and its place in the system of genres of Russian classicism

Introduction

An ode is a lyrical poem that expresses a feeling of delight caused by some important subject: the thought of God, grandiose events in people's lives, majestic natural phenomena, etc.

Ode - a genre of lyrics, which is a solemn poem dedicated to an event or a hero, or a separate work of such a genre. This is a genre that has developed in the era of classicism. In ancient times, the term "ode" did not define any poetic genre, but meant "song", "poem" and, in translation from Greek, means a song (from the Greek shch?dzm).

The Greeks called an ode a song of praise in honor of the gods, heroes and famous citizens. The best creator of odes among the Greeks was Pindar, who in his songs usually glorified the winners at the Olympic Games. The odes were sung by the poet to the accompaniment of the lyre. Hence the expression: "to sing of heroes." Many odes were written by the Roman poet of the times of Augustus Horace Flaccus.

Much later, in imitation of the classical odes, a false-classical ode appeared. It was compiled according to certain rules, which were strictly observed by the odographers of that time.

The ancient Greek poet actually sang his own ode. The poets of the 17th-18th centuries did not sing them, but wrote and read them. The ancient odographers often referred to the lyre, which was quite natural, since they had it in their hands. Imitators also turned to the lyre, although they had a pen or pencil in their hands. The ancient poet invoked the Olympians in his ode because he believed in them. Imitators also turned to Zeus, then to Apollo, although they did not allow their existence.

The ancient Greek poet composed his ode under the live impression of the events that he sang and which he really admired, and therefore, under a strong influx of feelings, he could not be consistent in presentation everywhere, that is, he allowed the so-called lyrical disorder. Imitators also considered disorder in the presentation of thoughts and feelings, moreover, in certain places, to belong to one. The ancient Greek poet, singing the winner, glorified at the same time both his ancestors and fellow citizens, that is, he touched on outsiders and events. Imitators also considered it necessary to introduce extraneous elements into their odes. Finally, the pseudo-classical ode was supposed to consist of the same parts as the oratorical speech: introductions, sentences, presentations with different episodes or digressions from the main theme, lyrical disorder (pathetic part) and conclusion.

It goes without saying that in poetic products of this kind, with a few exceptions, there was no sincere feeling: they were imbued with artificial delight, feigned inspiration, which was expressed, on the one hand, by lyrical disorder, on the other, by an abundance of tropes and figures, which made them unnatural, pompous.

In Russia, false-classical odes were written by V.K. Trediakovsky,

M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavin and many others. However, readers soon appreciated these odes, and the poet I.I. Dmitriev cruelly ridiculed them in his satire Alien Sense.

The ode of the new time, which rejected all the rules of artificial construction, has the character of a natural expression of the real, genuine delight of the poet. The very name "ode" is now rarely used and is replaced by the names "song", "hymn", "thought".

Gavriil Romanovich Derzhavin defined the ode as follows:

“Ode, the Greek word, as well as the psalm, marks a song in our language. According to some differences, in ancient times it bore the name of Anthem, Paean, Dithyramb, Scoli, and in modern times it is sometimes the same as Cantata, Oratorio, Romance, Ballad, Stanza and even a simple song. It is composed in stanzas, or couplets, in a dimensional syllable, of various kinds and in the number of verses; but in the deep distance of centuries, uniform stanzas in it are not noticed. In ancient times, it was transmitted with a simple melody; sung with a lyre, with a psalter, with a harp, with a harp, with a zither, and in the newest ones with other instruments, but more, it seems, with strings. According to the lyre, or according to the composition, capable of music, it is called the Ode of lyric poetry.

1. Antiquity

The development of the ode and its genre features began in the ancient world. Originally in ancient Greece, any form of lyric poetry intended to accompany music was called an ode, including choral singing. Ancient philologists used this term in relation to various kinds of lyrical poems and divided them into “laudatory”, “deplorable”, “dance”, etc.

The ode is historically associated with the solemn choral lyric poems of Ancient Greece (among the Dorians), which combined religious hymns with chants in honor of individuals.

The odes of Pindar and the Roman poet Horace were widely used. Since the time of Pindar, an ode has been a choral epinic song with emphasized solemnity and grandiloquence, as a rule, in honor of the winner of sports competitions: - an ordered poem "in case", the task of which is to excite and encourage the will to win among the Dorian aristocracy. In Pindar's epinicia, myths and tribal traditions are used to glorify the hero (winner at the Olympiads); the thematic parts are arranged in disorder, obeying the figurative structure of the song, which, combined with the solemn tone, reflected the poet's priestly self-awareness.

Local and personal elements that are obligatory for epinicia (praise of the winner, his family, city, competitions, etc.) receive their “illumination” in correlation with myth as the basis of the ideology of the ruling class and with aristocratic ethics. The ode was performed by a dancing choir, accompanied by complex music. It is characterized by rich verbal ornamentation, which was supposed to aggravate the impression of solemnity, emphasized grandiloquence, weak connection of parts. The poet, who considers himself as a "wise man", a teacher, only with difficulty gathers together the elements of traditional doxology. Pindar's ode is characterized by sharp, unmotivated transitions of the associative type, which gave the work a particularly difficult, "priestly" character. With the collapse of the old ideology, this "poetic eloquence" gave way to prose, and the social function of the ode passed to laudatory speech ("encomium"). The archaic features of Pindar's ode during the era of French classicism were perceived as "lyrical confusion" and "lyrical delight".

The name "ode" in ancient times was assigned to the lyrics of Horace, a characteristic parting address to a certain person; the Epicurean motifs prevailing in it formed the basis of the future Horatian ode. Horace used the meters of the Aeolian lyric poetry, primarily the Alcaean stanza, adapting them to the Latin language. The collection of these works in Latin is called Carmina - "songs" (they began to be called odes later).

Horace (I century BC) dissociates himself from "Pindarization" and seeks to revive the melic lyric poetry of the Aeolian poets on Roman soil, preserving its external forms as a fiction. Horace's ode is usually addressed to some real person, on whose will the poet allegedly intends to influence. The poet often wants to create the impression that the poem is actually spoken or even sung. In fact, Horatian lyrics of book origin. Capturing a wide variety of topics, Horace's odes are very far from any "high style" or overextension of means of expression (the exception is the so-called "Roman" odes, where Horace acts as the ideologist of Augustus's politics); his odes are dominated by a secular tone, sometimes with a slight admixture of irony. The term "ode", applied by ancient grammarians to the lyrics of Horace, was the source of a number of difficulties for theorists of classical poetics, who built the theory of the odic genre simultaneously on Pindar and Horatian material.

2 . new time

In the Middle Ages, there was no ode genre as such. This genre arose in European literature during the Renaissance and developed in the system of the literary movement of classicism. In Russian literature, it begins its development with the domestic tradition of panegyrics.

Elements of a solemn and religious ode are already present in the literature of southwestern and Muscovite Rus' at the end of the 16th-17th centuries. (panegyrics and verses in honor of noble persons, the "welcome" of Simeon of Polotsk, etc.). The appearance of the ode in Russia is directly related to the emergence of Russian classicism and the ideas of enlightened absolutism. In Russia, the ode is less associated with classicist traditions; it carries out a struggle of contradictory stylistic tendencies, on the outcome of which the direction of lyric poetry as a whole depended.

The first attempts to introduce the genre of “classical” ode into Russian poetry belong to A.D. Kantemir, but the ode first entered Russian poetry with the poetry of V.K. Trediakovsky. The term itself was first introduced by Trediakovsky in his “Solemn Ode on the Surrender of the City of Gdansk” in 1734. In this ode, the Russian army and Empress Anna Ioannovna are sung. In another poem, "Praise to the Izherskaya land and the reigning city of St. Petersburg", the solemn praise of the Northern capital of Russia sounds for the first time. Subsequently, Trediakovsky composed a number of “odes laudable and divine” and, following Boileau, gave the following definition to the new genre: the ode “is a high piitic kind ... consists of stanzas and sings the highest noble, sometimes even gentle matter.”

The main role in the Russian solemn ode of the 18th century is played by rhythm, which, according to Trediakovsky, is the “soul and life” of all versification. The poet was not satisfied with the syllabic verses existing at that time. He felt that only the correct alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables, which he noticed in Russian folk songs, can give a special rhythm and musicality to a verse. Therefore, he carried out further reformation of Russian versification on the basis of folk verse.

Thus, when creating a new genre, the poet was guided by the traditions of antiquity, the ode genre that had already come into use in many European countries, and Russian folk traditions. “I owe French version a bag, and old Russian poetry all a thousand rubles,” he said.

The ode genre introduced by Trediakovsky soon gained many supporters among Russian poets. Among them were such outstanding literary figures as M.V. Lomonosov, V.P. Petrov, A.P. Sumarokov, M.M. Kheraskov, G.R. Derzhavin, A.N. Radishchev, K.F. Ryleev and others. At the same time, in the Russian ode there was a constant struggle between two literary trends: close to the traditions of the Baroque, the “enthusiastic” ode of Lomonosov and the “rationalistic”, adhering to the principle of “naturalness” ode of Sumarokov or Kheraskov.

A.P. School Sumarokova, striving for the "naturalness" of the style, put forward an anacreontic ode, close to the song. Synthetic odes by G.R. Derzhavin (ode-satire, ode-elegy) opened up the possibility of combining words of different stylistic origin, ceasing the existence of the ode as a specific genre. For all their differences, supporters of both directions remained united in one thing: all Russian poets, creating works in the genre of odes, adhered to the traditions of citizenship, patriotism (odes “Liberty” by Radishchev, “Civil Courage” by Ryleev, etc.).

The best Russian odes are fanned by the mighty spirit of love of freedom, imbued with love for their native land, for their native people, they breathe an incredible thirst for life. Russian poets of the 18th century sought to fight against the obsolete forms of the Middle Ages in various ways and means of the artistic word. All of them stood up for the further development of culture, science, literature, believed that progressive historical development could be carried out only as a result of the educational activities of the king, vested with autocratic power and therefore capable of carrying out the necessary transformations. This belief found its artistic embodiment in such works as "Poems of Praise for Russia" by Trediakovsky, "Ode on the Day of Accession to the All-Russian Throne of Her Majesty Empress Elisaveta Petrovna, 1747" by Lomonosov and many others.

The solemn ode became that new genre that the leading figures of Russian literature of the 18th century were looking for for a long time, which made it possible to embody a huge patriotic and social content in poetry. Writers and poets of the 18th century were looking for new artistic forms, means, techniques, with the help of which their works could serve the “benefit of society”. State needs, duty to the fatherland, in their opinion, should have prevailed over private, personal feelings and interests. In this regard, they considered the most perfect, classical examples of beauty to be the wonderful creations of ancient art, glorifying the beauty, strength and valor of man.

But the Russian ode is gradually moving away from ancient traditions, acquiring an independent sound, glorifying, first of all, its state and its heroes. In “A Conversation with Anacreon,” Lomonosov says: “The strings involuntarily sound like a hero’s noise to me. Do not revolt Bole, Love thoughts, mind; Although I am not deprived of tenderness of the heart In love, I am more admired by Heroes with eternal glory.

The reform of Russian versification begun by Trediakovsky was brought to an end by the brilliant Russian scientist and poet M.V. Lomonosov. He was the true founder of the Russian ode, who established it as the main lyrical genre of the feudal-noble literature of the 18th century. The purpose of Lomonosov's odes is to serve in every way to exalt the feudal-noble monarchy of the 18th century. in the face of its leaders and heroes. Because of this, the main type cultivated by Lomonosov was the solemn pindaric ode; all elements of her style should serve to reveal the main feeling - enthusiastic surprise, mixed with reverent horror at the greatness and power of state power and its bearers.

This determined not only the “high” - “Slavic Russian” - the language of the ode, but even its meter - according to Lomonosov, a 4-foot iambic without pyrrhic (which has become the most canonical), for pure “iambic verses rise up matter, nobility, magnificence and height multiply." Solemn ode at M.V. Lomonosov developed a metaphorical style with a distant associative connection of words.

The bold innovator extended the tonic principle of his predecessor to all types of Russian verse, thus creating a new system of versification, which we call syllabo-tonic. At the same time, Lomonosov placed iambic above all poetic meters, considering it the most sonorous and giving the verse the greatest strength and energy. It was in iambic that a laudatory ode was written in 1739, glorifying the capture of the Turkish fortress Khotyn by the Russian army. In addition, having distributed the entire vocabulary of the “Slavic-Russian language” into three groups - “calms”, M.V. Lomonosov attached certain literary genres to each "calm". The genre of the ode was attributed by him to the “high calm”, due to its solemnity, elation, which stands out sharply from simple, ordinary speech. In this genre, Church Slavonic and obsolete words were allowed to be used, but only those that were "intelligible to the Russians." These words reinforced the solemn sound of such works. An example is "Ode on the Day of Ascension ...". "High" genres and "high calm", state and heroic-patriotic themes prevailed in the work of Lomonosov, since he believed that the highest joy of the writer is to work "for the benefit of society."

The rhetorically solemn odes of Lomonosov, proclaimed by his contemporaries as the “Russian Pindar” and “of our countries Malherbe”, provoked a reaction from Sumarokov (parody and “absurd odes”), who gave samples of a reduced ode that met to a certain extent the requirements of clarity, naturalness put forward by him and simplicity. The struggle between the traditions of Lomonosov and Sumarokov's "Aude" spanned a number of decades, especially escalating in the 50-60s of the 18th century. The most skillful imitator of the first is the singer of Catherine II and Potemkin - Petrov.

Of the Sumarokovites, M.M. has the greatest significance in the history of the genre. Kheraskov is the founder of the Russian "philosophical ode". Among the "Sumarokovtsy" the Anacreontic ode without rhyme was especially developed. This struggle was a literary expression of the struggle of two groups of the feudal nobility: one - politically leading, the most stable and socially "healthy", and the other - departing from social activities, satisfied with the achieved economic and political dominance.

In general, the "high" tradition of Lomonosov won at this stage. It was his principles that were the most specific for the genre of Russian ode as such.

It is indicative in this respect that Derzhavin substantiated his theoretical "Discourse on Lyric Poetry or on an Ode" almost entirely on Lomonosov's practice. Derzhavin fully followed the code of Boileau, Batteux and their followers in his rules of odosnation. However, in his own practice, he goes far beyond them, creating on the basis of the "Horatian ode" a mixed kind of ode-satire, combining the exaltation of the monarchy with satirical attacks against the courtiers and written in the same mixed "high-low" language. Along with the high "Lomonosov" mixed "Derzhavin" ode is the second main type of the Russian ode genre in general.

Derzhavin's work, which marked the highest flowering of this genre on Russian soil, is distinguished by exceptional diversity. Of particular importance are his denunciatory odes (The Nobleman, To Rulers and Judges, etc.), in which he is the founder of Russian civil lyrics.

The heroism of the time, the brilliant victories of the Russian people and, accordingly, the “high” genre of the solemn ode were also reflected in the poetry of G.R. Derzhavin, who most of all appreciated the "greatness" of the spirit, the greatness of his civil and patriotic deeds in a person. In such victorious odes as “To the Capture of Ishmael”, “To the Victories in Italy”, “To the Crossing of the Alpine Mountains”, the writer gives the brightest examples of grandiose battle lyrics, glorifying in them not only the wonderful commanders - Rumyantsev and Suvorov, but also simple Russian soldiers - "in the light of the first fighters." Continuing and developing the heroic motives of Lomonosov's poems, at the same time he vividly recreates the private life of the people, draws pictures of nature sparkling with all colors.

Social processes in Russia in the 18th century had a significant impact on literature, including poetry. Especially significant changes occurred after the Pugachev uprising, directed against the autocratic system and the class of noble landowners.

The social orientation, which is a characteristic feature of the ode as a genre of feudal-noble literature, allowed bourgeois literature at the earliest stage of its formation to use this genre for its own purposes. Poets actively picked up the revolutionary wave, recreating vivid social and social events in their work. And the genre of the ode perfectly reflected the moods that prevailed among the leading artists.

In "Liberty" by Radishchev, the main social function of the ode changed diametrically: instead of enthusiastic chanting of "kings and kingdoms", the ode was a call to fight against the tsars and glorify their execution by the people. Russian poets of the 18th century praised monarchs, while Radishchev, for example, in his ode "Liberty", on the contrary, sings of tyrant-fighters, whose free invocative voice horrifies those who sit on the throne. But this kind of use of foreign weapons could not give significant results. The ideology of the Russian bourgeoisie differed significantly from that of the feudal-gentry, which underwent significant changes under the influence of the growth of capitalism.

The solemn ode in Russia of the 18th century became the main literary genre capable of expressing the moods and spiritual impulses of the people. The world was changing, the socio-political system was changing, and the loud, solemn, calling forward voice of Russian poetry invariably sounded in the minds and hearts of all Russian people. Introducing progressive enlightening ideas into the minds of the people, inflaming people with lofty civic-patriotic feelings, the Russian ode came closer and closer to life. She did not stand still for a minute, constantly changing and improving.

From the end of the 18th century, along with the beginning of the fall of Russian classicism as a literary ideology of the feudal nobility, it began to lose its hegemony and the genre of ode, giving way to the newly emerging verse genres of ellegy and ballad. A crushing blow to the genre was dealt by satire I.I. Dmitriev's "Alien Sense", directed against the poets-odists, "pindaring" in their yawn-inducing verses for the sake of "an award with a ring, a hundred rubles, or friendship with the prince."

However, the genre continued to exist for quite a long time. The ode correlates with "high" archaic poetry, mainly. civil content (V.K. Kuchelbecker in 1824 contrasts her romantic elegies). Features of the odic style are preserved in the philosophical lyrics of E.A. Baratynsky, F.I. Tyutchev, in the 20th century. - from O.E. Mandelstam, N.A. Zabolotsky, as well as in the journalistic lyrics of V.V. Mayakovsky, for example. "Ode to the Revolution".

Solemn odes were also written by Dmitriev himself. Oda began the activities of Zhukovsky, Tyutchev; We find an ode in the work of the young Pushkin. But basically, the genre more and more passed into the hands of mediocre epigones like the notorious Count Khvostov and other poets grouped around Shishkov, and Conversations of Lovers of the Russian Word.

The last attempt to revive the genre of the "high" ode came from a group of so-called "junior archaists". Since the end of the 20s. The ode has almost completely disappeared from Russian poetry. Separate attempts to revive it, which took place in the work of the Symbolists, were, at best, in the nature of more or less successful stylization (for example, Bryusov's ode to "Man"). It is possible to consider some poems of modern poets as an ode, even if they themselves are so-called (for example, Mayakovsky's "Ode to the Revolution"), only by way of a very distant analogy.

ode poem lyrics classicism

Bibliography

1. "A new and brief way to add Russian poetry", 1735;

2. Works of Derzhavin, vol. VII, 1872;

3. Art. Kuchelbecker "On the direction of our poetry, especially lyrical, in the last decade" in "Mnemosyne", part 2, 1824;

4. Ostolopov N., Dictionary of ancient and new poetry, part 2, 1821;

5. Gringmut V., A few words about the rhythmic structure of Pindar's odes, in the book: Brief Greek anthology from the poems of Sappho, Anacreon and Pindar, 1887;

6. Pokotilova O., Lomonosov's predecessors in Russian poetry of the 17th and early 18th centuries, in the book: Lomonosov, Collection of articles, 1911;

7. Gukovsky G., From the history of the Russian ode of the XVIII century. Experience in interpreting parody, "Poetics", 1927.

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The ode, in its form and meaning, which it received from the mid-1730s from Trediakovsky and then from Lomonosov, is usually considered as a genre that reflects to the maximum extent the impersonal, anti-individual essence of classicism literature.
Peter's reforms introduced many new concepts into Russian life and flooded the language with foreign words, with which representatives of the ruling classes, as well as the most enlightened people of that time, indiscriminately began to speak. Along with this, the rapidity of growth, the radicalness of the transformations and the inspiration from military and diplomatic successes were looking for expression in art. These circumstances largely determined the direction and priorities of the literature of that time, its methodology and style. The degree of manifestation in each genre of the author's emphasized, tangible, undisguised attitude to his theme, to the subject of presentation, the problems and style of creating odes, I want to consider using the example of the work of M.Yu. Lomonosov and A.P. Sumarokov.
Lomonosov's poetic style developed in the course of a complex interaction of his creative searches and their theoretical understanding. In the common cause of creating a new Russian poetry, Lomonosov worked side by side with his contemporaries, both older (Trediakovsky) and younger (Sumarokov), now converging with them in solving some literary and aesthetic issues, then diverging and feuding in opinions on others, general and particular problems of the aesthetics of classicism and its embodiment by Russian poetic thought. In the course of this literary struggle, the positions of the parties were clarified and substantiated, decisions were made and canceled, milestones were outlined on the way to new goals.
The literary struggle of the great workers of Russian poetry in the 1740s and 1750s changed depending on the nature of the tasks that were put forward by social development. From the fight against a common enemy - court literature - Lomonosov and his associates moved on to disputes among themselves, to disputes within the camp of progressive literature, since the development of literature confronted each of the then writers with the need to give his own, and, as it seemed to him, the only correct answer to the questions posed. life questions. In the course of comparing these answers, in the struggle of opinions and disputes, their own decisions were clarified and the process that we call the formation of poetic style took place. Therefore, it seems possible to approach the literary polemical struggle of the late 1740s and early 1750s precisely as an expression of the course of development and maturation of Russian aesthetic thought, which was created and formed in close connection with the development of poetry itself. It is from this side that the circle of historical and literary phenomena can be considered, a significant part of which was carefully studied in the works of G. A. Gukovsky and P. N. Berkov, especially in the latter’s famous book about “Lomonosov and the literary controversy of his time.” At the same time, we can understand Lomonosov's solutions to certain problems of aesthetic development in their historical conditionality only in relation to a number of phenomena, sometimes not directly related to Lomonosov. Comparing his work with the general course of the literary and theoretical disputes of the era, we will be able to better understand his own position, reflected in direct statements, and, most importantly, in new genres for his work, and, perhaps, in new stylistic trends.

Sumarokov cites Lomonosov’s line “The fodder of the inter-water bowels flies” and continues: “Why did he, Mr. Lomonosov, “fly the fodder of the inter-water bowels” put, he himself will not deny that he took it from me. Apparently, Sumarokov believed that Lomonosov “took” as a model a line from his ode “Elisaveta Petrovna on the 25th day of November 1743”, from the stanza that speaks of the Russian fleet:
Putting a foot on a formidable shaft,
Went between the noisy water bowels
And laying a road in the seas,
Shafts and wind took over the region.
Sumarokov again mentions Lomonosov's criticisms after he quotes a line from the 1747 ode “In silence, listen, universe” with his following comment: “The universe is used by liberty instead of the universe, which liberty is very insensitive: however, why does the writer of this ode in did he criticize this freedom in my poems when he himself uses it?
The truncated form of the universe instead of the universe is indeed found in the early odes of Sumarokov:
When the universe trembled
With fear, keeping your charter.
(Ode composed in the early years of my exercise in poetry, 1740-1743)
Her deeds of glorious loud noise
Thundering in all ends of the universe.
(Ode 1743)
And thinks, having reached the edge of the universe,
Direct thoughts aspiring
Against the sun and moon.
(Ibid.)
Lomonosov, as Sumarokov writes, criticized in his odes another kind of poetic liberty - the use of the dative instead of the accusative. Citing Lomonosov’s line “the great luminary of the world,” Sumarokov continues: “I’m not saying that ‘peace’ is put here in the dative, not accusative case, and I take it for the poetic liberty that use gives us, and I myself use this liberty: however when someone uses that liberty himself, without putting him in a vice, then it is not necessary to criticize it even from another. It’s all the same that instead of the luminary of the world, the luminary of the world is said, that instead I don’t remember my kind - my kind, or instead of the throne - the throne? Well.

Sumarokov directs the main blow precisely against the most characteristic feature of Lomonosov's high style - against the tendency to "distraction", to the transformation of concrete concepts into abstract poetic symbols. From the point of view of Sumarokov, Lomonosov is wrong when, in the ode of 1747, a very specific concept of silence (calm, peace, peaceful prosperity in the country) turns into a completely indefinite in meaning, a comprehensive concept-image, even a symbol.
Bearing in mind the following stanza of Lomonosov:
Great light of the world
Shining from the eternal height
For beads, gold and purple -
To all earthly beauties,
He raises his gaze to all countries,
But more beautiful in the world does not find
Elizabeth and you...
Sumarokov categorically objects to Lomonosov’s transformation of silence into a kind of mythological creature: “That the sun looks at beads, gold and purple is true, but that it looks at silence, wisdom, conscience, is against our concept. The sun can look at the war, where it sees weapons, winners and vanquished, atishina has no creature, and here it does not appear in any way, as, for example, in epic poems of virtue and so on.
Sumarokov would not mind if Lomonosov's silence turned into Silence, into an allegorical personification, of which Voltaire introduced many into his Henriade. But the fact of the matter is that in Lomonosov silence turned from a concept, or rather strove to turn into an image, into a poetic clot of meanings, which did not at all satisfy the basic requirement of Sumarokov's declaration of 1747 - clarity. Analyzing another stanza of this ode to Lomonosov, Sumarokov expressed this: “You can guess what this is written for: however, it is so dark that I don’t think anyone reading it could soon imagine. And why in this place clarity is destroyed and, moreover, stretched, it is immediately convenient to consider. A comparison was needed to compare our spirit with a swimmer.
And the comparison of our spirit with a swimmer is very ugly, and I don’t know if it was worth it to destroy clarity for him.
Lomonosov's odes were an expression of the program of enlightened absolutism, although the question of which aspects of this "program" became decisive for Lomonosov continues to be debatable in the literary science of recent years. The laudatory odes of Lomonosov undoubtedly expressed the idealizing tendencies of the era and suffered from an overestimation of the capabilities and merits of an enlightened monarch. But they were always sincere and did not express the simple point of view of Lomonosov - a poet and scientist, but reflected the "aspirations and aspirations" of the entire nation, concerned "not individual details of political life, but its general direction." Along with idealizing motives, Lomonosov will also hear publicistic motives. They do not appear immediately - at the end of the creative path and will find expression in parting words and instructions to the monarch to be fair and merciful to his subjects. They will be especially clearly expressed in the ode to Elizabeth on her birthday (1757), and the ode dedicated to the accession to the throne of Catherine (1762). Prior to these odes, Lomonosov had publicistic motives, but they, as a rule, were either the poet’s appeal to young members of society to give their strength for the common good, or the glorification of various sciences that help a person penetrate the secrets of nature, master its riches. In these odes, journalistic motives acquired a political coloring, but they were aimed at affirming the idea of ​​an enlightened monarchy, for the prosperity of Russia was associated by Lomonosov with the power of an enlightened autocrat. Therefore, one can hardly see in the verses from his odes of 1757 and 1762. the transformation of the poet "into an angry prophet, denouncing, punishing, threatening, with a verb that burns people's hearts." One should not see in them a turn of "Lomonosov's attention to the search for specific reasons for the weakness and imperfection of the absolute system." Lomonosov rather expressed here the positive program of enlightened absolutism, believing, as Sumarokov later did, "because of the reasonable civic activity and good power of the autocratic sovereign and his associates." In this respect, as G.N. Pospelov, his odes were largely civil "utopias".
Sumarokov's odes were created in line with his older contemporary, and made some significant changes to the problem of the genre. Like Lomonosov, they were dedicated to a certain person, contained traditional praises of enlightenment, Russia, empresses, and revealed in their author an adherent of enlightened absolutism. At the same time, the first odes of Sumarokov were, in terms of their content, much poorer than the odes of Lomonosov. If Lomonosov, praising Peter, expressed his cherished dreams related to the fate of his country, then the first odes of Sumarokov essentially contained only “praise”: Anna - that she rules “wisely”, Elizabeth - that the “deeds” of her father “resumed and his spirit in contained”, brought with her reign “sweet peace” and “silence”. In an ode of 1755. the image of an ideal monarch is reproduced, based on the general concept of an enlightened monarch. Therefore, one cannot but agree with the statement of P.N.
However, as already mentioned, with the establishment of absolutism, shifts took place in the public consciousness. They are caused by a feeling of a gap between the ideal developed by theoretical thought and reality, not reality, which does not justify the hopes and aspirations of the best representatives of the nobility associated with it. This process is reflected in all genres - tragedy, comedy, fable, satire. In the ode, this is expressed in the growth of journalistic motives. They were also characteristic of Lomonosov. But in his ode they were predominantly of a general educational orientation. Sumarokov's journalistic material turned out to be connected mainly with the presentation of the concept of an enlightened monarch. This presentation was accompanied by a direct and indirect comparison of the monarch - "father" and the monarch-tyrant. So, in Catherine's ode of 1762, along with the traditional praises of the new empress and the expression of hopes connected with her and her reign, befitting the event, Sumarokov, on behalf of Catherine herself, gives an exposition of the program of enlightened absolutism. Here are assurances that for her, the monarch, there is “no other fun than the happiness of people” and observance of the “common benefit”, and a promise to take care of the education of her subjects, and a firm intention to be their support and support. Sumarokov was sometimes not opposed to monarchical power. However, he is not inclined to justify or defend any ruler. He is for a "reasonable" monarch who respects the "good of the fatherland." Hence the appearance of instructive intonations in his odes of the last period of creativity. So, in the ode of 1771, dedicated to Paul, he expresses the hope to see in him in the future an enlightened monarch who is not indifferent to the fate of his “people”. At the same time, he warns the future tsar, teaches him a “lesson” about what a tsar should be and should not be, expresses in a sharp, categorical form his rejection of a despot monarch. He compares it with a tiger, a lion, a snake - those who "weep their stomachs." The ode contains a frank lecture to the future monarch, ending with a categorical statement: "When the monarch forcibly heeds, He is an enemy of the people, and not a king." These thoughts vary in the "commendable" ode to Paul in 1774. The main thing in it is also not praise, but instructions, teachings and even warnings, which have a very definite political coloring. And although all these teachings had the ultimate goal of defending the idea of ​​an "enlightened sovereign", that is, they gave a narrow-class solution to the problem, in their general humanistic, enlightening pathos directed against despotism, it corresponded to the most progressive moods of the pre-Pugachev era. The ode was essentially transformed by Sumarokov into a means of influencing the “higher” power, but a means of educating civic consciousness and shaping public opinion. In this respect, Sumarokov went further than Lomonosov. However, he did not allow direct attacks against the reigning empress. The critical attitude towards Catherine's "autocracy" that emerged over time found an indirect expression. If in the first odes he proceeded in his “praise” from the unconditional recognition of her as a virtuous, enlightened monarch (ode, for example, 1762), then in the odes of the 70s, dedicated to the heir, he refuses his premises and takes upon himself the courage to teach already speaks of what a monarch should not be. Thus, avoiding a direct assessment, he expressed his dissatisfaction with the current government, the reign of Catherine.
The appeal of the ode of the last third of the century to a wide range of people ultimately contributed to the convergence of the "high" genre with the specific life of the era. Because of this, the artistic content of the ode has expanded. Unexpectedly for this genre, in nm, the public, civic principle begins to coexist with the private, domestic, even everyday, essentially devoid of the halo of “elevation”. Overgrown with "realities", the ode lost its programmatic character. The latter happened also because her journalistic motives acquired in her an increasingly negative, critical character. This is already noticeable in the last odes of Sumarokov, but it was especially evident in the ode of the last third of the century, where these motifs develop into satirical tendencies. Last first. It manifested itself in relation to political phenomena. And the events of the era, but also autocratic reality in general. If Sumarokov stubbornly and persistently defended the idea of ​​an enlightened monarch, opposing the true monarchy to despotism, while in no way in the last period of his work did he equate the true monarchy and Catherine's "autocracy", then the poets of the younger generation, remaining in the position of recognizing monarchy as the best form of power, split into two camps.
One of the main differences between the Lomonosov and Sumarokov odes is the dates. Lomonosov's odes almost without exception belong to the court calendar cycle, on a birthday, on the day of ascension, on the day of the namesake, this itself sets them the uniformity of content, and through it the uniformity of form. Sumarokov, from the very beginning, takes advantage of opportunities to get out of this circle, writing not on dates, but on events, first on the Prussian war, then on the Turkish war, and this introduces new material into the ode and makes him experiment with methods of such input.
So, it would be wrong to explain Sumarokov's attacks by personal hostility. His poetic talent was organically alien to the lush, lyrically intense poetry of Lomonosov, to which he tried to oppose a rationalistically thought-out style.

List of used literature

Zapadov V.A., Russian literature of the XVIII century, 1700-1775: Reader, "Enlightenment", 1979
Moskvicheva G.V., Genres of Russian classicism, part II, Gorky, 1974
Serman I.Z., Russian classicism, "Science", Leningrad, 1973
Serman I.Z., Lomonosov's poetic style, "Science", Leningrad-Moscow, 1966.
Lebedev P., Lomonosov, Trediakovsky, Sumarkov - dispute about style, article from the site http://www.proza.ru/2008/04/ 11/213

(Date of access 01.12.2012. 14.40)

Gasparov M.L., Lomonosov style and Sumarokov style - some corrections, article from the site http://magazines.russ.ru/nlo/ 2003/59/gaspar.html

(date of access 01.12.2012, 14.45)

Authors: N. T. Pakhsaryan (General Works, Literature), T. G. Yurchenko (Literature: Classicism in Russia), A. I. Kaplun (Architecture and Fine Arts), Yu. K. Zolotov (Architecture and Fine Arts: European Fine Arts), E. I. Gorfunkel (Theatre), P. V. Lutsker (Music)Authors: N. T. Pakhsaryan (General Works, Literature), T. G. Yurchenko (Literature: Classicism in Russia), A. I. Kaplun (Architecture and Fine Arts); >>

CLASSICISM (from Latin classicus - exemplary), style and art. direction in literature, architecture and art 17 - early. 19th centuries K. is successively associated with the era Renaissance; occupied, along with baroque, an important place in the culture of the 17th century; continued its development during the Enlightenment. The origin and spread of k. is associated with the strengthening of the absolute monarchy, with the influence of the philosophy of R. Descartes, with the development of the exact sciences. At the heart of rationalism aesthetics K. - the desire for balance, clarity, logicality of the artist. expressions (largely taken from the aesthetics of the Renaissance); belief in the existence of universal and eternal, not subject to historical. changes in the rules of art. creativity, which are interpreted as skill, skill, and not a manifestation of spontaneous inspiration or self-expression.

Having perceived the idea of ​​creativity, which goes back to Aristotle, as an imitation of nature, the classicists understood nature as an ideal norm, which had already been embodied in the works of ancient masters and writers: an orientation towards “beautiful nature”, transformed and ordered in accordance with the immutable laws of art, thus assumed imitation of antique models and even competition with them. Developing the idea of ​​art as a rational activity based on the eternal categories of “beautiful”, “appropriate”, etc., K. more than other artists. directions contributed to the emergence of aesthetics as a generalizing science of beauty.

Center. the concept of K. - plausibility - did not imply an accurate reproduction of empirical. reality: the world is recreated not as it is, but as it should be. The preference for the universal norm as “due” to everything private, accidental, and concrete corresponds to the ideology of the absolutist state expressed by K., in which everything personal and private is subject to the indisputable will of the state. power. The classicist portrayed not a specific, single personality, but an abstract person in a situation of a universal, non-historical one. moral conflict; hence the orientation of the classicists to ancient mythology as the embodiment of universal knowledge about the world and man. Ethical ideal K. assumes, on the one hand, the subordination of the personal to the common, passions - duty, reason, resistance to the vicissitudes of life; on the other - restraint in the manifestation of feelings, compliance with the measure, appropriateness, the ability to please.

K. strictly subordinated creativity to the rules of the genre-style hierarchy. "High" (for example, epic, tragedy, ode - in literature; historical, religious, mythological genre, portrait - in painting) and "low" (satire, comedy, fable; still life in painting) genres were distinguished, which corresponded to a certain style, range of topics and characters; a clear delineation of the tragic and the comic, the sublime and the base, the heroic and the mundane was prescribed.

From Ser. 18th century K. was gradually replaced by new currents - sentimentalism , pre-romanticism, romanticism. Traditions of K. in con. 19 - beg. 20th century were resurrected in neoclassicism .

The term "classicism", which goes back to the concept of classics (exemplary writers), was first used in 1818 by the Italian. critic G. Visconti. It was widely used in the polemics of the classicists and romantics, and among the romantics (J. de Stael, V. Hugo, and others) it had a negative connotation: classicism and the classics, which imitated antiquity, were opposed to the innovative romanticism. literature In literary criticism and art history, the concept of "K." began to be actively used after the works of scientists cultural and historical school and G. Wölfflin.

Stylistic trends similar to those of the 17th and 18th centuries are seen by some scholars in other epochs as well; in this case, the concept of "K." is interpreted in expand. sense, denoting stylistic. constant, periodically updated on decomp. stages of the history of art and literature (for example, “ancient K.”, “Renaissance K.”).

Literature

The origins of lit. K. - in normative poetics (Yu. Ts. Scaliger, L. Castelvetro, etc.) and in Italian. literature of the 16th century, where a genre system was created, correlated with the system of linguistic styles and oriented towards antique samples. The highest flourishing of K. is associated with the French. lit-roy 17th c. The founder of the poetics of K. was F. Malerbe, who carried out the regulation of lit. language based on live colloquial speech; the reform he carried out was consolidated by Franz. academy. In its most complete form, the principles of lit. K. were outlined in the treatise "Poetic Art" by N. Boileau (1674), who generalized the artist. practice of his contemporaries.

Classical writers regard literature as an important mission of translating into words and conveying to the reader the requirements of nature and reason, as a way of "teaching while entertaining." Lit-ra K. is striving for a clear expression of significant thought, meaning (“... meaning always lives in my creation” - F. von Logau), she refuses stylistic. sophistication, rhetoric jewelry. The classicists preferred laconicism, metaphoricism to verbosity. complexity - simplicity and clarity, extravagant - decent. Following the established norms did not mean, however, that the classicists encouraged pedantry and ignored the role of the artist. intuition. Although the rules were presented to the classicists as a way to keep creativity. freedom within the boundaries of reason, they understood the importance of intuitive insight, forgiving talent for deviation from the rules, if it is appropriate and artistically effective.

The characters of characters in K. are built on the allocation of one dominant feature, which contributes to their transformation into universal universal types. Favorite collisions are the clash of duty and feelings, the struggle of reason and passion. In the center of the works of the classicists - heroic. personality and at the same time a well-bred person who stoically seeks to overcome his own. passions and affects, to curb or at least realize them (like the heroes of the tragedies of J. Racine). Descartes' "I think, therefore, I exist" plays in the attitude of the characters of K. the role of not only philosophical and intellectual, but also ethical. principle.

Based on Lit. theories of K. - hierarchical. genre system; analytical breeding for different works, even artistic. worlds, "high" and "low" heroes, and that is combined with the desire to ennoble the "low" genres; for example, rid satire of rough burlesque, comedy - of farcical features ("high comedy" Molière).

Ch. a place in the literature of K. was occupied by a drama based on the rule of three unities (see. Three unities theory). Tragedy became its leading genre, the highest achievements of which are the works of P. Corneille and J. Racine; in the first, tragedy becomes heroic, in the second, lyrical. character. Dr. "high" genres play a much smaller role in literature. process (the unsuccessful experience of J. Chaplin in the genre of the epic poem was subsequently parodied by Voltaire; solemn odes were written by F. Malherbe and N. Boileau). Meaning at the same time. "low" genres are developing: heroic poem and satire (M. Renier, Boileau), fable (J. de La Fontaine), comedy. Small didactic genres are being cultivated. prose - aphorisms (maxims), "characters" (B. Pascal, F. de La Rochefoucauld, J. de La Bruyère); oratorical prose (J. B. Bossuet). Although the theory of K. did not include the novel in the system of genres worthy of serious criticism. comprehension, psychological masterpiece M. M. Lafayette "Princess of Cleves" (1678) is considered an example of classicism. novel.

In con. 17th century there has been a decline. K., but archeological. interest in antiquity in the 18th century, the excavations of Herculaneum, Pompeii, the creation of I.I. Winkelmann the ideal image of the Greek antiquity as "noble simplicity and calm grandeur" contributed to its new rise in the Enlightenment. Ch. Voltaire was the representative of the new C., in whose work rationalism, the cult of reason served to justify not the norms of absolutist statehood, but the right of the individual to be free from the claims of church and state. Enlightenment K., actively interacting with other lit. trends of the era, is not based on "rules", but rather on the "enlightened taste" of the public. The appeal to antiquity becomes a way of expressing the heroism of Franz. revolutions of the 18th century in the poetry of A. Chenier.

in France in the 17th century. K. developed into a powerful and consistent artist. system, had a noticeable impact on the literature of the Baroque. In Germany, poetry, having arisen as a conscious cultural effort to create a “correct” and “perfect” poetic literature worthy of other European literatures. school (M. Opitz), on the contrary, the baroque was drowned out, the style of which was more in line with the tragic. the era of the Thirty Years' War; a belated attempt by I.K. Gottsched in the 1730s–40s. send him. lit-ru along the path of the classic. canons caused fierce controversy and was generally rejected. Independent. aesthetic phenomenon is Weimar classicism J. W. Goethe and F. Schiller. In Great Britain, early K. is associated with the work of J. Dryden; its further development proceeded in line with the Enlightenment (A. Pope, S. Johnson). To con. 17th century K. in Italy existed in parallel with Rococo and sometimes intertwined with it (for example, in the work of the poets of Arcadia - A. Zeno, P. Metastasio, P. Ya. Martello, S. Maffei); Enlightenment culture is represented by the work of V. Alfieri.

In Russia, k. was established in the 1730s-1750s. under the influence of Western European. K. and the ideas of the Enlightenment; however, it clearly traces the connection with the baroque. Distinguish. features of Russian K. - pronounced didacticism, accusatory, socially critical. orientation, national-patriotic. pathos, reliance on nar. creativity. One of the first principles of K. in Russian. the soil was transferred by A. D. Kantemir. In his satires, he followed N. Boileau, but, creating generalized images of human vices, he adapted them to the fatherland. reality. Kantemir introduced into Russian. lit-ru new poems. genres: transcriptions of psalms, fables, heroics. poem ("Petris", not finished). The first example of a classic laudatory ode was created by V.K. Trediakovsky(“A solemn ode on the surrender of the city of Gdansk”, 1734), which accompanied her theoretical. “Reasoning about the ode in general” (both one and the other - following Boileau). The influence of baroque poetics marked the odes of M. V. Lomonosov. The most complete and consistent Russian. K. is represented by the work of A. P. Sumarokov. Outlining the main position of the classic doctrine written in imitation of Boileau's treatise "Epistole on Poetry" (1747), Sumarokov sought to follow them in his works: tragedies focused on the work of the French. classicists of the 17th century. and the dramaturgy of Voltaire, but converted preim. to the events of the national history; partly - in comedies, the model for which was the work of Moliere; in satires, as well as fables that brought him the glory of the "northern Lafontaine". He also developed the genre of the song, which was not mentioned by Boileau, but was included by Sumarokov himself in the list of poetic. genres. Until con. 18th century the classification of genres proposed by Lomonosov in the preface to the collected works of 1757 - "On the Usefulness of Church Books in the Russian Language", which correlated three styles theory with specific genres, linking heroic with a high "calm". poem, ode, solemn speeches; with the middle - tragedy, satire, elegy, eclogue; with low - comedy, song, epigram. An example of a heroic poem was created by V. I. Maikov (“Elisha, or the Irritated Bacchus”, 1771). The first completed heroic “Rossiyada” by M. M. Kheraskov (1779) became an epic. In con. 18th century classic principles. dramaturgy manifested itself in the work of N. P. Nikolev, Ya. B. Knyazhnin, V. V. Kapnist. At the turn of the 18-19 centuries. K. is gradually being replaced by new trends in lit. developments associated with pre-romanticism and sentimentalism, but for some time retains its influence. Its traditions can be traced back to the 1800s–20s. in the work of Radishchev poets (A. Kh. Vostokov, I. P. Pnin, V. V. Popugaev), in lit. criticism (A. F. Merzlyakov), in literary and aesthetic. program and genre-stylistic. practice of the Decembrist poets, in the early work of A. S. Pushkin.

Architecture and fine arts

K. trends in Europe. lawsuit-ve were outlined already in the 2nd floor. 16th century in Italy - in archit. theory and practice A. Palladio, theoretical. treatises by G. da Vignola, S. Serlio; more consistently - in the writings of J. P. Bellori (17th century), as well as in the aesthetic. academic standards Bolognese school. However, in the 17th century K., which developed in acute polemic. interaction with the Baroque, only in French. artistic culture has developed into a coherent stylistic system. Prem. in France, K. 18 was also formed - early. 19th century, which became a pan-European style (the latter is often referred to as neoclassicism in foreign art history). The principles of rationalism underlying the aesthetics of K. determined the view of the artist. the work as the fruit of reason and logic, triumphing over the chaos and fluidity of sensually perceived life. Orientation to a reasonable beginning, to enduring patterns, and determined the normative requirements of the aesthetics of K., the regulation of the artist. rules, a strict hierarchy of genres in depict. art-ve (the “high” genre includes works on mythological and historical subjects, as well as “ideal landscape” and ceremonial portrait; the “low” genre includes still life, everyday genre, etc.). Consolidation of the theoretical The doctrines of K. were promoted by the activities of the royal academies founded in Paris - painting and sculpture (1648) and architecture (1671).

Architecture K., in contrast to the baroque with its dramatic. conflict of forms, energetic interaction of volume and spatial environment, is based on the principle of harmony and internal. completion as a separate buildings and the ensemble. The characteristic features of this style are the desire for clarity and unity of the whole, symmetry and balance, certainty of plasticity. forms and spatial intervals that create a calm and solemn rhythm; a system of proportioning based on multiple ratios of integers (a single module that determines the patterns of shaping). The constant appeal of the masters of K. to the heritage of ancient architecture meant not only the use of its otd. motives and elements, but also the comprehension of the general laws of its architectonics. The basis of architecture. language K. became architectural order, proportions and forms closer to antiquity than in the architecture of previous eras; in buildings, it is used in such a way that it does not obscure the overall structure of the building, but becomes its subtle and restrained accompaniment. The interiors of K. are characterized by clarity of spatial divisions, softness of colors. Widely using perspective effects in monumental and decorative painting, the masters of K. fundamentally separated the illusory space from the real.

An important place in the architecture of Kazakhstan belongs to the problems urban planning. Projects of "ideal cities" are being developed, a new type of regular absolutist city-residence is being created (Versailles). K. strives to continue the traditions of antiquity and the Renaissance, laying in the basis of his decisions the principle of proportionality to man and at the same time - the scale that gives archit. image of a heroically upbeat sound. And although the rhetoric the splendor of the palace decor comes into conflict with this dominant trend; the stable figurative structure of K. retains the unity of style, no matter how diverse its modifications in the process of historical development. development.

Formation of K. in French. architecture is associated with the work of J. Lemercier and F. Mansart. The appearance of buildings and builds. receptions at first resemble the architecture of castles of the 16th century; a decisive turning point occurred in the work of L. Levo - primarily in the creation of the palace and park ensemble of Vaux-le-Viscount, with a solemn enfilade of the palace itself, imposing murals by C. Lebrun and the most characteristic expression of new principles - the regular parterre park of A. Le Nôtre. East became the program product of architecture of K. facade of the Louvre, carried out (since the 1660s) according to the plan of C. Perrault (it is characteristic that the projects of J. L. Bernini and others in the Baroque style were rejected). In the 1660s L. Levo, A. Lenotre and C. Lebrun began to create an ensemble of Versailles, where the ideas of K. are expressed with particular completeness. From 1678 the construction of Versailles was led by J. Hardouin-Mansart; according to his projects, the palace was significantly expanded (wings were attached), the center. the terrace was converted into the Mirror Gallery - the most representative part of the interior. He also built the Grand Trianon Palace and other structures. The ensemble of Versailles is characterized by a rare stylistic. integrity: even the jets of fountains were connected into a static form, similar to a column, and trees and shrubs were trimmed in the form of geometric shapes. figures. The symbolism of the ensemble is subordinated to the glorification of the "Sun King" Louis XIV, but its artistic and figurative basis was the apotheosis of reason, imperiously transforming the natural elements. At the same time, the emphasized decorativeness of the interiors justifies the use of the stylistic term “baroque classicism” in relation to Versailles.

In the 2nd floor. 17th century new methods of planning are emerging, providing for organic. mountain connection. buildings with elements of the natural environment, the creation of open areas, spatially merging with the street or the embankment, ensemble solutions for the key elements of the mountains. structures (Square of Louis the Great, now Vendome, and Sq. Pobedy; architectural ensemble Homes for the disabled, all - J. Hardouin-Mansart), triumphal entrance arches (Saint-Denis gate designed by N. F. Blondel; all - in Paris).

Traditions of C. in France in the 18th century. almost never interrupted, but in the 1st floor. centuries, the rococo style prevailed. All R. 18th century K.'s principles were transformed in the spirit of the aesthetics of the Enlightenment. In architecture, the appeal to "naturalness" put forward the requirement for constructive justification of the order elements of the composition, in the interior - the need to develop a flexible layout of a comfortable residential building. The landscape (landscape) environment became the ideal environment for the house. Huge influence on K. 18 century. had a rapid development of knowledge about the Greek. and Rome. antiquities (excavations of Herculaneum, Pompeii, etc.); The works of J. I. Winkelman, J. W. Goethe, and F. Militsia made their contribution to the theory of cosmic calculus. In the French K. 18th century new architects were determined. types: an exquisitely intimate mansion ("hotel"), a ceremonial society. building, open area connecting the main. highways of the city (Louis XV Square, now Concorde Square, in Paris, architect J. A. Gabriel; he also built the Petit Trianon Palace in Versailles Park, combining the harmonious clarity of forms with the lyrical refinement of the drawing). J. J. Souflo carried out his project c. Sainte-Genevieve in Paris, based on the experience of the classic. architecture.

In the era preceding Franz. revolutions of the 18th century, architecture manifested a striving for severe simplicity, a bold search for the monumental geometrism of a new, orderless architecture (K. N. Ledoux, E. L. Bulle, J. J. Lekeu). These searches (noted also by the influence of the architect. Etchings J. B. Piranesi) served as the starting point for the late phase of K. - French. Empire (1st third of the 19th century), in which lush representativeness is growing (C. Percier, P. F. L. Fontaine, J. F. Chalgrin).

At 17 - beg. 18th century K. was formed in the architecture of Holland (J. van Kampen, P. Post), which gave rise to a particularly restrained version of it. Cross-links with French and goll. K., as well as with the early Baroque, affected the short heyday of K. in the architecture of Sweden at the end of the 17th - early. 18th century (N. Tessin the Younger). At 18 - beg. 19th centuries K. also established itself in Italy (G. Piermarini), Spain (X. de Villanueva), Poland (J. Kamsetzer, H. P. Aigner), and the USA (T. Jefferson, J. Hoban). For him. architecture K. 18 - 1st floor. 19th centuries the strict forms of the Palladian F. W. Erdmansdorf, the “heroic” Hellenism of C. G. Langhans, D. and F. Gilly, and the historicism of L. von Klenze are characteristic. In the work of K.F. Shinkel the severe monumentality of the images is combined with the search for new functional solutions.

K ser. 19th century the leading role of K. is coming to naught; to replace him historical styles(see also neo-greek style, Eclecticism). At the same time, the artist the K. tradition comes to life in the neoclassicism of the 20th century.

fine arts. regulatory; its figurative structure is characterized by clear signs of social utopia. The iconography of K. is dominated by ancient legends, heroic. deeds, historical plots, that is, interest in the fate of human communities, in the "anatomy of power." Not satisfied with a simple "portraiting of nature," K. artists strive to rise above the concrete, the individual - to the universally significant. The classicists defended their idea of ​​the artist. truth, which did not coincide with the naturalism of Caravaggio or small Dutch. The world of rational deeds and bright feelings in the art of K. towered over the imperfect everyday life as the embodiment of a dream of the desired harmony of being. Orientation to the lofty ideal gave rise to the choice of "beautiful nature". K. avoids the casual, the deviant, the grotesque, the crude, the repulsive. Tectonic clarity of the classic architecture corresponds to a clear delineation of plans in sculpture and painting. K.'s plastic surgery, as a rule, is designed for fixers. point of view, differs in smoothness of forms. The moment of movement in the poses of figures usually does not violate their plasticity. isolation and calm statuary. In painting, K. Osn. form elements - line and chiaroscuro; local colors clearly reveal objects and landscape plans, which brings the spatial composition of the painting closer to the composition of the stage. sites.

The founder and greatest master of K. 17th century. was French. thin N. Poussin, whose paintings are marked by the elevation of philosophical and ethical. content, rhythmic harmony. building and color. High development in the painting of K. 17th century. received an “ideal landscape” (N. Poussin, C. Lorrain, G. Duguet), which embodied the dream of the classicists of the “golden age” of mankind. Most means. French masters. K. in sculpture 17 - beg. 18th century were P. Puget (heroic theme), F. Girardon (search for harmony and laconism of forms). In the 2nd floor. 18th century French sculptors again turned to socially significant topics and monumental solutions (J. B. Pigalle, M. Clodion, E. M. Falcone, J. A. Houdon). Citizenship pathos and lyricism were combined in mythological. paintings by J. M. Vienne, decorative landscapes by J. Robert. Painting so-called. revolutionary K. in France is represented by the works of J. L. David, historical. and whose portrait images are marked by courageous drama. In the late French period K. painting, despite the appearance of otd. major masters (J. O. D. Ingres), degenerates into an official apologetic. or salon art .

International Center K. 18 - beg. 19th centuries became Rome, where the suit-ve dominated the academic. a tradition with a combination of nobility of forms and cold, abstract idealization, often for academicism (painters A. R. Mengs, J. A. Koch, V. Camuccini, sculptors A. Canova and B. Thorvaldsen). In picture claim-ve it. K., contemplative in spirit, stand out portraits of A. and V. Tishbeinov, mythological. cardboards by A. Ya. Carstens, plastics by I. G. Shadov, K. D. Raukh; in arts and crafts - D. Roentgen's furniture. In the UK, graphics and sculpture by J. Flaxman are close to K., in arts and crafts - ceramics by J. Wedgwood and the masters of the factory in Derby.

The heyday of K. in Russia belongs to the last third of the 18th - the first third of the 19th centuries, although already early. 18th century noted creative. appeal to the city planner. French experience. K. (the principle of symmetrical-axial planning systems in the construction of St. Petersburg). Rus. K. embodied a new, unprecedented for Russia in scope and ideological content of historical. heyday of the Russian secular culture. Early Russian. K. in architecture (1760–70s; J. B. Wallen Delamotte, A. F. Kokorinov, Yu. M. Felten, K. I. Blank, A. Rinaldi) still retains plasticity. enrichment and dynamics of forms inherent in baroque and rococo.

The architects of the mature period of K. (1770–90s; V. I. Bazhenov, M. F. Kazakov, I. E. Starov) created the classic. types of the capital's palace-estate and a comfortable residential building, which became models in the extensive construction of suburban noble estates and in the new, front building of cities. The art of the ensemble in country park estates is a major contribution of the Rus. K. in the world art. culture. In the estate construction, the Russian. a variant of Palladianism (N. A. Lvov), a new type of chamber palace developed (C. Cameron, J. Quarenghi). Feature of the Russian K. - an unprecedented scale of the state. urban planning: regular plans were developed for more than 400 cities, ensembles of the centers of Kaluga, Kostroma, Poltava, Tver, Yaroslavl, etc. were formed; the practice of "regulating" the mountains. plans, as a rule, successively combined the principles of K. with the historically established planning structure of the old Russian city. Turn of the 18th–19th centuries marked by the largest urban planners. achievements in both capitals. A grandiose ensemble of the center of St. Petersburg was formed (A. N. Voronikhin, A. D. Zakharov, J. F. Thomas de Thomon, later K. I. Rossi). On other urban planners. In the beginning, “classical Moscow” was formed, which was built up during its restoration after a fire in 1812 with small mansions with cozy interiors. The beginnings of regularity here were consistently subordinated to the general pictorial freedom of the spatial structure of the city. The most prominent architects of late Moscow. K. - D. I. Gilardi, O. I. Bove, A. G. Grigoriev. Buildings of the 1st third of the 19th century. belong to the Russian style. Empire (sometimes called Alexander classicism).

In picture art-ve development of Russian. K. is closely connected with St. Petersburg. Academy of Arts (founded in 1757). Sculpture is represented by "heroic" monumental-decorative plasticity, which forms a finely thought-out synthesis with architecture, filled with civil. pathos monuments imbued with elegich. enlightenment with tombstones, easel plastics (I. P. Prokofiev, F. G. Gordeev, M. I. Kozlovsky, I. P. Martos, F. F. Shchedrin, V. I. Demut-Malinovsky, S. S. Pimenov, I. I. Terebenev). In painting, K. most clearly manifested itself in the works of the historical. and mythological. genre (A. P. Losenko, G. I. Ugryumov, I. A. Akimov, A. I. Ivanov, A. E. Egorov, V. K. Shebuev, early A. A. Ivanov; in scenography - in creativity P. di G. Gonzago). Some features of K. are also inherent in the sculptural portraits of F. I. Shubin, in painting - portraits of D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky, landscapes by F. M. Matveev. In arts and crafts, Russian. K. stand out artist. modeling and carved decor in architecture, bronze products, cast iron, porcelain, crystal, furniture, damask fabrics, etc.

Theater

The formation of theater theater began in France in the 1630s. The activating and organizing role in this process belonged to literature, thanks to which the theater established itself among the "high" arts. The French saw samples of theatrical art in Italian. "learned theater" of the Renaissance. Since the court society was the legislator of tastes and cultural values, then on the stage. the style was also influenced by court ceremonial and festivities, ballets, and ceremonial receptions. The principles of theatrical cinematography were worked out on the stage in Paris: in the Marais theater headed by G. Mondori (1634) and in the Palais-Cardinal (1641; from 1642 the Palais-Royal) built by Cardinal Richelieu, whose structure met the high requirements of the Italian theater. scenic technology; in the 1640s The Burgundy Hotel became the site of theatrical K.. Simultaneous decoration gradually, towards the middle. 17th century, was replaced by a picturesque and uniform perspective scenery (palace, temple, house, etc.); a curtain appeared, which rose and fell at the beginning and at the end of the performance. The scene was framed like a painting. The game took place only on the proscenium; the performance was centered by several figures of protagonist characters. Archite. a backdrop, a single scene of action, a combination of acting and pictorial plans, a common three-dimensional mise-en-scene contributed to the creation of the illusion of plausibility. In the stage K. 17th century there was a concept of the "fourth wall". “He acts like this,” F. E. d’Aubignac wrote about the actor (“The Practice of the Theater”, 1657), “as if the audience does not exist at all: his characters act and speak as if they really are kings, and not Mondori and Belrose, as if they were in the palace of Horace in Rome, and not in the Burgundy hotel in Paris, and as if only those who are present on the stage (i.e., in the depicted place) see and hear them.

In the high tragedy of C. (P. Corneille, J. Racine), the dynamics, entertainment, and adventure plots of the plays by A. Hardy (the repertoire of the first permanent French troupe of V. Leconte in the first third of the 17th century) were replaced by static and in-depth attention to the spiritual world of the hero, the motives of his behavior. The new dramaturgy demanded changes in the performing arts. The actor became the embodiment of ethical. and aesthetic the ideal of the era, creating a close-up portrait of a contemporary with his game; his costume, stylized as antiquity, corresponded to modern. fashion, plastic obeyed the requirements of nobility and grace. The actor had to have the pathos of a speaker, a sense of rhythm, musicality (for the actress M. Chanmele, J. Racine inscribed notes above the lines of the role), the skill of an eloquent gesture, the skills of a dancer, even physical. power. Dramaturgy K. contributed to the emergence of the stage school. recitation, which united the entire set of performing techniques (reading, gesture, facial expressions) and became the main. will express. means of the French actor. A. Vitez called the declamation of the 17th century. "prosodic architecture". The performance was built in a logical way. interaction of monologues. With the help of the word, the technique of excitation of emotion and its control was worked out; the success of the performance depended on the strength of the voice, its sonority, timbre, possession of colors and intonations.

The division of theatrical genres into "high" (tragedy in the Burgundy hotel) and "low" (comedy in the "Palais Royal" of the time of Molière), the emergence of roles fixed the hierarchical. the structure of the theater K. Remaining within the boundaries of "ennobled" nature, the design of the performance and the outlines of the image were determined by the individuality of the major actors: the manner of recitation by J. Floridor was more natural than that of the excessively posing Belrose; M. Chanmelet was characterized by a sonorous and melodious "recitation", and Montfleury did not know equal in the affects of passion. The conception of the canon of theatrical cinema that developed later, which consisted of standard gestures (surprise was depicted with hands raised to shoulder level and palms facing the audience; disgust - with the head turned to the right, and hands repelling the object of contempt, etc. ), refers to the era of decline and degeneration of style.

In the 20th century French the director's theater became close to the European one, the stage. style lost nat. specifics. Nevertheless, it means. events in French theater in the 20th century Correlate with the traditions of C.: performances by J. Copeau, J. L. Barrot, L. Jouvet, J. Vilard, Vitez's experiments with the classics of the 17th century, productions by R. Planchon, J. Desart, and others.

Lost in the 18th century. the importance of the dominant style in France, K. found successors in other European countries. countries. J. W. Goethe consistently introduced the principles of cinematography in the Weimar theater he directed. Actress and entrepreneur F. K. Neuber and actor K. Eckhoff in Germany, eng. actors T. Betterton, J. Quinn, J. Kemble, S. Siddons promoted K., but their efforts, despite their personal creativity. achievements proved to be of little effect and were ultimately rejected. Stage K. became the object of a pan-European controversy and thanks to the German, and after them the Russian. Theorists of the theater received the definition of "false-classical theater".

musical tragedy 2nd floor. 17 - 1st floor. 18th century (creative community of librettist F. Kino and comp. J. B. Lully, operas and opera-ballets J. F. Rameau) and in Italian. opera seria, which has taken a leading position among musical drama. genres of the 18th century (in Italy, England, Austria, Germany, Russia). The rise of the French music The tragedy occurred at the beginning of the crisis of absolutism, when the ideals of heroism and citizenship of the period of the struggle for a nationwide state were replaced by the spirit of festivity and ceremonial officialdom, an attraction to luxury and refined hedonism. The sharpness of the conflict of feelings and duty typical for K. in the conditions of mythological. or knightly-legendary plot of muses. tragedy decreased (especially in comparison with the tragedy in the dramatic theater). The requirements of genre purity (the absence of comedic and everyday episodes), unity of action (often also place and time), and a “classical” five-act composition (often with a prologue) are associated with the norms of cinematography. Center. position in music dramaturgy is occupied by recitative - the element closest to rationalistic. verbal-conceptual logic. In intonation. sphere is dominated by those associated with natures. human speech declamatory-pathetic. formulas (interrogative, imperative, etc.), however, are excluded rhetorical. and symbolic. figures characteristic of baroque opera. Extensive choral and ballet scenes with fantastic and pastoral-idyllic. theme, the general orientation towards spectacle and entertainment (which eventually became dominant) was more in line with the traditions of the Baroque than with the principles of classicism.

Traditional for Italy were the cultivation of singing virtuosity and the development of a decorative element inherent in the opera seria genre. In line with the requirements of K., put forward by some representatives of Rome. Academy "Arcadia", North-Italian. librettists 18th century (F. Silvani, G. Fridzhimelika-Roberti, A. Zeno, P. Pariati, A. Salvi, A. Piovene) expelled the comedian from serious opera. and everyday episodes, plot motifs associated with the intervention of the supernatural or fantastic. forces; the circle of plots was limited to historical and historical-legendary, moral and ethical were brought to the fore. problems. In the center of art. concepts of the early opera seria - sublime heroic. the image of the monarch, less often the state. figure, courtier, epic. a hero demonstrating positive. qualities of an ideal personality: wisdom, tolerance, generosity, devotion to duty, heroic. enthusiasm. The traditional Italian was preserved. operas have a 3-act structure (5-act dramas remained experiments), but the number of actors decreased, intonations were typified in music. will express. means, forms of overture and aria, structure of vocal parts. A type of dramaturgy, entirely subordinate to music. tasks, was developed (since the 1720s) by P. Metastasio, whose name is associated with the apex stage in the history of the opera seria. In his stories, the classicist pathos is noticeably weakened. The conflict situation, as a rule, arises and deepens because of the protracted "delusion" of Ch. actors, and not because of a real conflict of interests or principles. However, a special predilection for an idealized expression of feelings, for the noble impulses of the human soul, albeit far from a strict rational justification, provided an exception. the popularity of Metastasio's libretto for over half a century.

The culmination in the development of music. K. of the Enlightenment (in the 1760s–70s) became creative. the commonwealth of K. V. Gluck and the librettist R. Calzabidgi. In Gluck's operas and ballets, classicist tendencies were expressed in an accentuated attention to the ethical. problems, the development of ideas about heroism and generosity (in the musical dramas of the Parisian period - in a direct appeal to the theme of duty and feelings). The norms of K. also corresponded to genre purity, the desire for max. concentration of action, reduced to almost one dramatic. collisions, strict selection will express. funds in accordance with the objectives of a particular drama. situations, the ultimate limitation of a decorative element, a virtuoso beginning in singing. The enlightening nature of the interpretation of the images was reflected in the interweaving of the noble qualities inherent in the classic heroes, with the naturalness and freedom of expression of feelings, reflecting the influence of sentimentalism.

In the 1780s–90s. in French music theater find expression of the trend of the revolution. K., reflecting the ideals of Franz. revolutions of the 18th century Genetically related to the previous stage and presented by Ch. arr. a generation of composers - followers of Gluck's opera reform (E. Megül, L. Cherubini), revolutionary. K. emphasized above all the civic, tyrannical pathos that had previously been characteristic of the tragedies of P. Corneille and Voltaire. Unlike the works of the 1760s and 70s, in which the resolution of the tragic. the conflict was difficult to achieve and required the intervention of external forces (the tradition of "deus ex machina" - Latin "God from the machine"), for the writings of the 1780s-1790s. became a characteristic denouement through the heroic. an act (refusal of obedience, protest, often an act of retribution, the murder of a tyrant, etc.), which created a bright and effective release of tension. This type of dramaturgy formed the basis of the genre "opera of salvation" that appeared in the 1790s. at the intersection of the traditions of classical opera and realistic. bourgeois drama .

In Russia, in music. in the theater, original manifestations of k. are single (the opera “Cefal and Prokris” by F. Araya, the melodrama “Orpheus” by E. I. Fomin, the music by O. A. Kozlovsky for the tragedies of V. A. Ozerov, A. A. Shakhovsky and A. N . Gruzintseva).

Relative to comic opera, as well as instrumental and vocal music of the 18th century, not associated with theatrical action, the term "K." applied in means. measure conditionally. It is sometimes used in expand. sense to denote the initial stage of the classical-romantic. era, gallant and classical styles (see Art. Vienna Classical School, Classics in music), in particular, in order to avoid evaluativeness (for example, when translating the German term “Klassik” or in the expression “Russian classicism”, which applies to all Russian music of the 2nd half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. ).

In the 19th century K. in music. theater gives way to romanticism, although otd. features of classicist aesthetics are sporadically revived (by G. Spontini, G. Berlioz, S. I. Taneyev and others). In the 20th century classical artists. principles were resurrected in neoclassicism.

This paper examines the features of classicism in the works of poets of the 18th and 19th centuries M.V. Lomonosov and G.R. Derzhavin.

Classicism is an artistic method, a trend that existed in the literature of European countries in the 17th-19th centuries, based on the imitation of antique samples. This direction had its own strict rules and principles. For example, the observance of the three unities: place, time and action. Heroes are clearly divided into negative and positive characters. The works should have an educational orientation, that is, serve the main goal - to be useful to the Fatherland in the upbringing of the younger generation. The main conflict in the works of the classicists is the conflict between duty and feeling. We find examples from such authors as D.I. Fonvizin and G.R. Derzhavin.

Genres were used by classicist writers in strict accordance with the style (according to the methodology developed by Lomonosov). In genres such as odes or tragedies, the “high style” was used, while in comedies, fables, and satires, “low” was used.

We find the features of classicism in the poetry of M.V. Lomonosov, who proposed a reform of versification and embodied it in his work. His favorite genre was an ode, which marked the beginning of the poetry of public service, where the hero can be an enlightened monarch or another ideal person who served the public good in the name of the prosperity of the Fatherland.

An example of such a typically classical work is "Ode on the day of accession to the All-Russian throne ... Empress Elizabeth Petrovna 1747".
Lomonosov, who had high hopes for the daughter of Peter I in spreading education in Russia, wishes her to become a worthy successor to her father and therefore solemnly sings of her merits, already accomplished deeds: thanks to Elizabeth, there is “bliss of villages, cities, fences”, and she also “put the war on end".

Praising Elizabeth, the author reminds her and the Russians of Peter I, the great reformer, enlightened monarch, and calls on Elizabeth to be the patroness of sciences and crafts in order to master and use the wealth of Russia for the well-being and prosperity of the state.

The civic content of the ode corresponds to the monumentality of the work, high style, and strict composition. High style is created using certain vocabulary:
1) old Slavonicisms (“head, crowned with victories”; “advertisement”; “look”);
2) the words "this, this, only";
3) truncated adjectives (encouraged, exalted);
4) archaic words (smiling).

The solemnity and monumentality of the ode is given by metaphors, personifications, hyperbole and other means of artistic expressiveness of speech. Especially characteristic of the style of the classical ode are rhetorical questions, exclamations, appeals (Oh, you who are waiting for ...).
This work is distinguished by high ideological content and special pathos: solemn, civic-patriotic.

A peculiar genre of scientific and philosophical lyrics are the spiritual odes of M.V. Lomonosov: "Morning reflection on God's majesty", "Evening reflection ...". The poet and scientist expresses faith in science and the human mind, but speaks of nature as God's creation. Lomonosov, being engaged in astronomy and physics, would like to describe his scientific ideas about the structure of the world with the help of poetry, therefore, the solar surface is presented to him as “an ever-burning Ocean”, where “fiery whirlwinds are spinning”. Lomonosov surprisingly accurately conveyed the admiration and confusion of human feelings before the vastness of the world, the inability to comprehend the essence of the universe:

The abyss has opened, full of stars,
The stars have no number, the abyss of the bottom ...

Lomonosov's desire to know the "secrets of many worlds" does not contradict his admiration for the grandeur of the Creator's deeds, for the power and strength of the processes taking place in the world order: "Great is the Builder of our Lord!"
The spiritual odes of M.V. Lomonosov are considered by many critics to be the most perfect in artistic terms.

In creating works in the style of classical genres, M.V. Lomonosov found a worthy follower in the person of G.R. Derzhavin. But Derzhavin contributed a lot to the classical ode. He fills the odes with specific content; along with the laudatory song, features of realism with elements of satire appear in them, which affects the language. "High" style is diluted with colloquial and even colloquial vocabulary.

Felitsa by Derzhavin is a laudatory ode combined with a socio-political pamphlet. The poet drew a virtuous image of Empress Catherine and contrasted it with the images of nobles, court nobility with their swagger, arrogance, love of luxury and idleness. That is why Derzhavin resorts to the "funny style" to depict those who put personal interests in the first place and above all else. This created a contrast against the background of the glorification of the activities of the true sons of Russia, as well as in comparison with the deeds of the queen, with her labors for the good of the Fatherland.

Derzhavin also dedicates his odes to Potemkin, Zubov, and other statesmen. His poetry, as required by the canons of classicism, has a civic orientation and serves the interests of society and the state.

The works of M.V. Lomonosov and G.R. Derzhavin are the best examples of Russian classicism, examples of the literary work of Russian poets of the 18th and early 19th centuries.

Reviews

Zoya, very interesting and informative article.

You begin to understand poetry and literature better when you yourself try to write and see the variety of possibilities for literary expression, you better understand the directions of literary art in practice. That's when it's quite interesting to re-read articles about these directions.

I really liked your article about classicism in Russian poetry, about the common and different in the work of its two strong representatives - Lomonosov (truly Russian titan) and Derzhavin. Lomonosov is more lyrical, while Derzhavin, following Lomonosov in this genre, brings more sobriety and realism. But the common thing is chanting, thanksgiving, glorification of creators and creations. This genre is close to me.

Zoya, the article is interesting, useful, clearly and structured. I got an indescribable pleasure from reading.

Thanks a lot.

Happy holidays, Zoya.

Peace, good luck and all the best to you.

Hello Igor!
Thank you for your congratulations and wishes, and Happy Easter to you,
Happy May Holidays! I wish you well-being, good luck, love and happiness!
I am very grateful to you for your kind words, as we have
much in common in the understanding of Russian classics.
With warmth and respect

In the Middle Ages, there was no ode genre as such. This genre arose in European literature during the Renaissance and developed in the system of the literary movement of classicism. In Russian literature, it begins its development with the domestic tradition of panegyrics.

Elements of a solemn and religious ode are already present in the literature of southwestern and Muscovite Rus' at the end of the 16th-17th centuries. (panegyrics and verses in honor of noble persons, the "welcome" of Simeon of Polotsk, etc.). The appearance of the ode in Russia is directly related to the emergence of Russian classicism and the ideas of enlightened absolutism. In Russia, the ode is less associated with classicist traditions; it carries out a struggle of contradictory stylistic tendencies, on the outcome of which the direction of lyric poetry as a whole depended.

The first attempts to introduce the genre of “classical” ode into Russian poetry belong to A.D. Kantemir, but the ode first entered Russian poetry with the poetry of V.K. Trediakovsky. The term itself was first introduced by Trediakovsky in his “Solemn Ode on the Surrender of the City of Gdansk” in 1734. In this ode, the Russian army and Empress Anna Ioannovna are sung. In another poem, "Praise to the Izherskaya land and the reigning city of St. Petersburg", the solemn praise of the Northern capital of Russia sounds for the first time. Subsequently, Trediakovsky composed a number of “odes laudable and divine” and, following Boileau, gave the following definition to the new genre: the ode “is a high piitic kind ... consists of stanzas and sings the highest noble, sometimes even gentle matter.”

The main role in the Russian solemn ode of the 18th century is played by rhythm, which, according to Trediakovsky, is the “soul and life” of all versification. The poet was not satisfied with the syllabic verses existing at that time. He felt that only the correct alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables, which he noticed in Russian folk songs, can give a special rhythm and musicality to a verse. Therefore, he carried out further reformation of Russian versification on the basis of folk verse.

Thus, when creating a new genre, the poet was guided by the traditions of antiquity, the ode genre that had already come into use in many European countries, and Russian folk traditions. “I owe French version a bag, and old Russian poetry all a thousand rubles,” he said.

The ode genre introduced by Trediakovsky soon gained many supporters among Russian poets. Among them were such outstanding literary figures as M.V. Lomonosov, V.P. Petrov, A.P. Sumarokov, M.M. Kheraskov, G.R. Derzhavin, A.N. Radishchev, K.F. Ryleev and others. At the same time, in the Russian ode there was a constant struggle between two literary trends: close to the traditions of the Baroque, the “enthusiastic” ode of Lomonosov and the “rationalistic”, adhering to the principle of “naturalness” ode of Sumarokov or Kheraskov.

A.P. School Sumarokova, striving for the "naturalness" of the style, put forward an anacreontic ode, close to the song. Synthetic odes by G.R. Derzhavin (ode-satire, ode-elegy) opened up the possibility of combining words of different stylistic origin, ceasing the existence of the ode as a specific genre. For all their differences, supporters of both directions remained united in one thing: all Russian poets, creating works in the genre of odes, adhered to the traditions of citizenship, patriotism (odes “Liberty” by Radishchev, “Civil Courage” by Ryleev, etc.).

The best Russian odes are fanned by the mighty spirit of love of freedom, imbued with love for their native land, for their native people, they breathe an incredible thirst for life. Russian poets of the 18th century sought to fight against the obsolete forms of the Middle Ages in various ways and means of the artistic word. All of them stood up for the further development of culture, science, literature, believed that progressive historical development could be carried out only as a result of the educational activities of the king, vested with autocratic power and therefore capable of carrying out the necessary transformations. This belief found its artistic embodiment in such works as "Poems of Praise for Russia" by Trediakovsky, "Ode on the Day of Accession to the All-Russian Throne of Her Majesty Empress Elisaveta Petrovna, 1747" by Lomonosov and many others.

The solemn ode became that new genre that the leading figures of Russian literature of the 18th century were looking for for a long time, which made it possible to embody a huge patriotic and social content in poetry. Writers and poets of the 18th century were looking for new artistic forms, means, techniques, with the help of which their works could serve the “benefit of society”. State needs, duty to the fatherland, in their opinion, should have prevailed over private, personal feelings and interests. In this regard, they considered the most perfect, classical examples of beauty to be the wonderful creations of ancient art, glorifying the beauty, strength and valor of man.

But the Russian ode is gradually moving away from ancient traditions, acquiring an independent sound, glorifying, first of all, its state and its heroes. In “A Conversation with Anacreon,” Lomonosov says: “The strings involuntarily sound like a hero’s noise to me. Do not revolt Bole, Love thoughts, mind; Although I am not deprived of tenderness of the heart In love, I am more admired by Heroes with eternal glory.

The reform of Russian versification begun by Trediakovsky was brought to an end by the brilliant Russian scientist and poet M.V. Lomonosov. He was the true founder of the Russian ode, who established it as the main lyrical genre of the feudal-noble literature of the 18th century. The purpose of Lomonosov's odes is to serve in every way to exalt the feudal-noble monarchy of the 18th century. in the face of its leaders and heroes. Because of this, the main type cultivated by Lomonosov was the solemn pindaric ode; all elements of her style should serve to reveal the main feeling - enthusiastic surprise, mixed with reverent horror at the greatness and power of state power and its bearers.

This determined not only the “high” - “Slavic Russian” - the language of the ode, but even its meter - according to Lomonosov, a 4-foot iambic without pyrrhic (which has become the most canonical), for pure “iambic verses rise up matter, nobility, magnificence and height multiply." Solemn ode at M.V. Lomonosov developed a metaphorical style with a distant associative connection of words.

The bold innovator extended the tonic principle of his predecessor to all types of Russian verse, thus creating a new system of versification, which we call syllabo-tonic. At the same time, Lomonosov placed iambic above all poetic meters, considering it the most sonorous and giving the verse the greatest strength and energy. It was in iambic that a laudatory ode was written in 1739, glorifying the capture of the Turkish fortress Khotyn by the Russian army. In addition, having distributed the entire vocabulary of the “Slavic-Russian language” into three groups - “calms”, M.V. Lomonosov attached certain literary genres to each "calm". The genre of the ode was attributed by him to the “high calm”, due to its solemnity, elation, which stands out sharply from simple, ordinary speech. In this genre, Church Slavonic and obsolete words were allowed to be used, but only those that were "intelligible to the Russians." These words reinforced the solemn sound of such works. An example is "Ode on the Day of Ascension ...". "High" genres and "high calm", state and heroic-patriotic themes prevailed in the work of Lomonosov, since he believed that the highest joy of the writer is to work "for the benefit of society."

The rhetorically solemn odes of Lomonosov, proclaimed by his contemporaries as the “Russian Pindar” and “of our countries Malherbe”, provoked a reaction from Sumarokov (parody and “absurd odes”), who gave samples of a reduced ode that met to a certain extent the requirements of clarity, naturalness put forward by him and simplicity. The struggle between the traditions of Lomonosov and Sumarokov's "Aude" spanned a number of decades, especially escalating in the 50-60s of the 18th century. The most skillful imitator of the first is the singer of Catherine II and Potemkin - Petrov.

Of the Sumarokovites, M.M. has the greatest significance in the history of the genre. Kheraskov is the founder of the Russian "philosophical ode". Among the "Sumarokovtsy" the Anacreontic ode without rhyme was especially developed. This struggle was a literary expression of the struggle of two groups of the feudal nobility: one - politically leading, the most stable and socially "healthy", and the other - departing from social activities, satisfied with the achieved economic and political dominance.

In general, the "high" tradition of Lomonosov won at this stage. It was his principles that were the most specific for the genre of Russian ode as such.

It is indicative in this respect that Derzhavin substantiated his theoretical "Discourse on Lyric Poetry or on an Ode" almost entirely on Lomonosov's practice. Derzhavin fully followed the code of Boileau, Batteux and their followers in his rules of odosnation. However, in his own practice, he goes far beyond them, creating on the basis of the "Horatian ode" a mixed kind of ode-satire, combining the exaltation of the monarchy with satirical attacks against the courtiers and written in the same mixed "high-low" language. Along with the high "Lomonosov" mixed "Derzhavin" ode is the second main type of the Russian ode genre in general.

Derzhavin's work, which marked the highest flowering of this genre on Russian soil, is distinguished by exceptional diversity. Of particular importance are his denunciatory odes (The Nobleman, To Rulers and Judges, etc.), in which he is the founder of Russian civil lyrics.

The heroism of the time, the brilliant victories of the Russian people and, accordingly, the “high” genre of the solemn ode were also reflected in the poetry of G.R. Derzhavin, who most of all appreciated the "greatness" of the spirit, the greatness of his civil and patriotic deeds in a person. In such victorious odes as “To the Capture of Ishmael”, “To the Victories in Italy”, “To the Crossing of the Alpine Mountains”, the writer gives the brightest examples of grandiose battle lyrics, glorifying in them not only the wonderful commanders - Rumyantsev and Suvorov, but also simple Russian soldiers - "in the light of the first fighters." Continuing and developing the heroic motives of Lomonosov's poems, at the same time he vividly recreates the private life of the people, draws pictures of nature sparkling with all colors.

Social processes in Russia in the 18th century had a significant impact on literature, including poetry. Especially significant changes occurred after the Pugachev uprising, directed against the autocratic system and the class of noble landowners.

The social orientation, which is a characteristic feature of the ode as a genre of feudal-noble literature, allowed bourgeois literature at the earliest stage of its formation to use this genre for its own purposes. Poets actively picked up the revolutionary wave, recreating vivid social and social events in their work. And the genre of the ode perfectly reflected the moods that prevailed among the leading artists.

In "Liberty" by Radishchev, the main social function of the ode changed diametrically: instead of enthusiastic chanting of "kings and kingdoms", the ode was a call to fight against the tsars and glorify their execution by the people. Russian poets of the 18th century praised monarchs, while Radishchev, for example, in his ode "Liberty", on the contrary, sings of tyrant-fighters, whose free invocative voice horrifies those who sit on the throne. But this kind of use of foreign weapons could not give significant results. The ideology of the Russian bourgeoisie differed significantly from that of the feudal-gentry, which underwent significant changes under the influence of the growth of capitalism.

The solemn ode in Russia of the 18th century became the main literary genre capable of expressing the moods and spiritual impulses of the people. The world was changing, the socio-political system was changing, and the loud, solemn, calling forward voice of Russian poetry invariably sounded in the minds and hearts of all Russian people. Introducing progressive enlightening ideas into the minds of the people, inflaming people with lofty civic-patriotic feelings, the Russian ode came closer and closer to life. She did not stand still for a minute, constantly changing and improving.

From the end of the 18th century, along with the beginning of the fall of Russian classicism as a literary ideology of the feudal nobility, it began to lose its hegemony and the genre of ode, giving way to the newly emerging verse genres of ellegy and ballad. A crushing blow to the genre was dealt by satire I.I. Dmitriev's "Alien Sense", directed against the poets-odists, "pindaring" in their yawn-inducing verses for the sake of "an award with a ring, a hundred rubles, or friendship with the prince."

However, the genre continued to exist for quite a long time. The ode correlates with "high" archaic poetry, mainly. civil content (V.K. Kuchelbecker in 1824 contrasts her romantic elegies). Features of the odic style are preserved in the philosophical lyrics of E.A. Baratynsky, F.I. Tyutchev, in the 20th century. - from O.E. Mandelstam, N.A. Zabolotsky, as well as in the journalistic lyrics of V.V. Mayakovsky, for example. "Ode to the Revolution".

Solemn odes were also written by Dmitriev himself. Oda began the activities of Zhukovsky, Tyutchev; We find an ode in the work of the young Pushkin. But basically, the genre more and more passed into the hands of mediocre epigones like the notorious Count Khvostov and other poets grouped around Shishkov, and Conversations of Lovers of the Russian Word.

The last attempt to revive the genre of the "high" ode came from a group of so-called "junior archaists". Since the end of the 20s. The ode has almost completely disappeared from Russian poetry. Separate attempts to revive it, which took place in the work of the Symbolists, were, at best, in the nature of more or less successful stylization (for example, Bryusov's ode to "Man"). It is possible to consider some poems of modern poets as an ode, even if they themselves are so-called (for example, Mayakovsky's "Ode to the Revolution"), only by way of a very distant analogy.

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