A well-known Russian business coach and consultant, author of the book "You or You? Professional Exploitation of Subordinates", author of 42 programs and 6 special courses for training managers and managers.


Alexander Fridman was born in 1959 in Riga. Fridman received his education at the Riga Polytechnic Institute, specializing in automation and computing technology. So, having received the profession of an adjustment engineer, Alexander began to work, and since 1988 he got into the so-called cooperative movement, having founded his own company.

Later, in one of his interviews, Friedman said that he was never specifically interested in consulting, but when difficulties arose in the company where he worked, he almost always found the right solution. Later, Alexander began to help his friends and acquaintances, and soon he was almost sure that he had invented the new kind activities. There was no limit to Friedman's surprise when he found out that this sphere - and it was consulting - had been discovered back in the 19th century. So, easily abandoning the primacy of opening a new business, Friedman nevertheless decided to study a new science. Very soon he decided on the direction closest to him - it turned out to be anti-crisis consulting. It is noteworthy that even from his main profession, Friedman did not move far - being an adjuster, he continued the same activity in essence, now "adjusting" somewhat different objects. Actually, he began to engage in consulting in 1993.

In general, Friedman consistently took several advanced training courses, including studying in Germany (Germany), France (France) and Poland (Poland). Subsequently, his main focus in consulting became Organizational Development Management.

To date, Alexander Fridman has organized more than 100 of his own projects; he works in such business segments as Manufacturing, Banking and Finance, Network retail and retail, Insurance and in several other areas.

Fridman's clients include Norilsk Nickel, ROSNO, Salym Petroleum, OJSC Ilim Group, Lukoil Overseas Service, SAVAGE, MIR KNIGI, ABAMET, UPS - Russia, ASKON "," ACCORD POST "," Corporation YUGRANEFT "," AVTOVAZ "," Aeronavigation of the North of Siberia "," Yuzhno-Uralskie Technical Systems Management "," Coffee House "," MUZTORG "," EXTROBANK "," MDM - Bank "," DIATEK "," CD COM "and many others.

"I do not pretend to be innovative, and I also do not reject all other systems, concepts and works. Fortunately, management still does not have a single alphabet, Newton's three laws or, say, the periodic table," says Alexander. seminars, trainings and coaching, I developed my system. The reference points were both the direct reaction of the students and the implementation of projects to optimize corporate governance systems. I was always interested - may my clients forgive me - practical use the principles I have formulated. "

A well-known Russian business coach and consultant, author of the book "You or You? Professional Exploitation of Subordinates", author of 42 programs and 6 special courses for training managers and managers.


Alexander Fridman was born in 1959 in Riga. Fridman received his education at the Riga Polytechnic Institute, specializing in automation and computing technology. So, having received the profession of an adjustment engineer, Alexander began to work, and since 1988 he got into the so-called cooperative movement, having founded his own company.

Later, in one of his interviews, Friedman said that he was never specifically interested in consulting, but when difficulties arose in the company where he worked, he almost always found the right solution. Later, Alexander began to help his friends and acquaintances, and soon he was almost sure that he had invented a new kind of activity. There was no limit to Friedman's surprise when he found out that this sphere - and it was consulting - had been discovered back in the 19th century. So, easily abandoning the primacy of opening a new business, Friedman nevertheless decided to study a new science. Very soon he decided on the direction closest to him - it turned out to be anti-crisis consulting. It is noteworthy that even from his main profession, Friedman did not move far - being an adjuster, he continued the same activity in essence, now "adjusting" somewhat different objects. Actually, he began to engage in consulting in 1993.

In general, Friedman consistently took several advanced training courses, including studying in Germany (Germany), France (France) and Poland (Poland). Subsequently, his main focus in consulting became Organizational Development Management.

To date, Alexander Fridman has organized more than 100 of his own projects; he works in such business segments as Manufacturing, Banking and Finance, Network retail and retail, Insurance and in several other areas.

Fridman's clients include Norilsk Nickel, ROSNO, Salym Petroleum, OJSC Ilim Group, Lukoil Overseas Service, SAVAGE, MIR KNIGI, ABAMET, UPS - Russia, ASKON "," ACCORD POST "," Corporation YUGRANEFT "," AVTOVAZ "," Air Navigation of the North of Siberia "," South Ural Technical Control Systems "," Coffee House "," MUZTORG "" EXTROBANK "," MDM - Bank ", "DIATEK", "CD COM" and many others.

"I do not pretend to be innovative, and I also do not reject all other systems, concepts and works. Fortunately, management still does not have a single alphabet, Newton's three laws or, say, the periodic table," says Alexander. seminars, trainings and coaching, I developed my system. The reference points were both the direct reaction of the students and the implementation of projects to optimize corporate governance systems. I was always interested - may my clients forgive me - the practical application of the principles I have formulated. "

Alexander A. Fridman(June 4 (16), St. Petersburg - September 16, Leningrad) - an outstanding Russian and Soviet mathematician, physicist and geophysicist, creator of the theory of the nonstationary universe, vice-rector (1919-1920), dean of the physics and mathematics faculty (1919) of Perm University. The son of the composer A. A. Fridman.

Biography

After graduating from high school with a gold medal, Fridman entered the Mathematics Department of the Physics and Mathematics Faculty of St. Petersburg University in 1906, from which he graduated in 1910. He was left at the Department of Pure and Applied Mathematics with prof. VA Steklov to prepare for a professorship. Until the spring of 1913, Friedman was engaged in mathematics, and also supervised practical classes in, lectured in. Fridman and Tamarkin, while still students, regularly attended classes in a circle of new theoretical physics organized in 1908 by P.S. Ehrenfest, who had recently arrived from Germany, whom Fridman considered, like Steklov, one of his teachers.

In 1913 he entered the Aerological Observatory in Pavlovsk near St. Petersburg and began to study dynamic meteorology (now this area of ​​science is called geophysical hydrodynamics). In the spring of 1914 he was sent on a business trip to Leipzig, where at that time the famous Norwegian meteorologist Wilhelm Freeman Koren Bjerknes (1862-1951), the creator of the theory of fronts in the atmosphere, lived. In the summer of the same year, Friedman flew in airships, taking part in preparations for observing the solar eclipse in August 1914.

In Kiev, Friedman gave several trial lectures at the University of St. Volodymyr, necessary to obtain the title of assistant professor, and also participated in the activities of the Kiev Physics and Mathematics Society, becoming his full member.

Friedman was the first in Russia to understand the need to create a domestic aircraft instrument industry. During the years of war and devastation, he brought the idea to life, becoming the creator and first director of the Aviapribor plant in Moscow (June 1917).

From April 1918 to 1920 - Professor of the Department of Mechanics of the recently organized (at first as a branch of Petrograd) Perm University.

From August 15 to September 30, 1919, Fridman was the Dean of the Physics and Mathematics Faculty of Perm University. In 1920, he created three departments and two institutes (geophysical and mechanical) at the faculty.

From July 1919 to May 1920 (simultaneously with the duties of the dean) - the vice-rector of the Perm University for economic affairs.

In June 1918, Fridman became one of the founders of the Perm Physics and Mathematics Society (which includes about 60 people), became its secretary and set up the publication of the society's works. From spring to mid-August 1919 he was sent to the Yekaterinburg Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory.

In May 1920 he returned to Petrograd. On July 12, 1920, he became a teacher at the Department of Mathematics and Mechanics of the University, worked at the Main Physical Observatory (since 1924 - the Main Geophysical Observatory named after A.I. railway engineers. On August 2, 1920, he was elected professor of theoretical mechanics at the physical and mechanical faculty of the Petrograd Polytechnic Institute. In addition, Fridman was recruited by A.N.Krylov, the head of the Naval Academy, to teach as an adjunct in the department of mechanics of the academy. Friedman also works for the Atomic Commission, where he calculates models of many-electron atoms and conducts research on adiabatic invariants.

Since 1923 - Chief Editor"Journal of Geophysics and Meteorology". From July to September 1923, Friedman was on a business trip to Germany and Norway. Another trip abroad, to Holland and Germany, took place in April-May 1924.

On February 5, 1925, shortly before his death, Friedman was appointed director of the Main Geophysical Observatory.

During his honeymoon with his young wife in the Crimea in July-August 1925, Fridman contracted typhus. He died in Leningrad from undiagnosed typhoid fever as a result of improperly performed medical procedures on September 16, 1925. According to Fridman himself, he contracted typhus, probably by eating an unwashed pear bought at one of the railway stations on the way from Crimea to Leningrad. Buried at the Smolensk Orthodox cemetery.

According to some sources, in 1931 Fridman was posthumously awarded the V.I.Lenin Prize, the reliability of this is disputed.

Scientific achievements

Friedman's main works are devoted to the problems of dynamic meteorology (the theory of atmospheric vortices and gustiness of the wind, the theory of discontinuities in the atmosphere, atmospheric turbulence), the hydrodynamics of a compressible fluid, the physics of the atmosphere, and relativistic cosmology. In July 1925, for scientific purposes, he flew in an aerostat together with the pilot P.F. introductory part to the course of general theory of relativity. In 1923, his book "The World as Space and Time" (reprinted in 1965) was published, which introduced the general public to the new physics.

Friedman gained world fame by creating models of a non-stationary universe, where he predicted, in particular, the expansion of the universe. The non-stationary solutions of Einstein's equations, obtained by him in 1922-1924 in the study of relativistic models of the Universe, laid the foundation for the development of the theory of a non-stationary Universe. The scientist investigated non-stationary homogeneous isotropic models with a space of first positive and then negative curvature, filled with dust-like matter (with zero pressure). The nonstationarity of the considered models is described by the dependence of the radius of curvature and density on time, and the density changes in inverse proportion to the cube of the radius of curvature. Friedman found out the types of behavior of such models, admitted by the equations of gravitation, and Einstein's model of the stationary Universe turned out to be a special case. Friedman, thus, refuted the opinion that the general theory of relativity requires the finiteness of space. Friedmann's results demonstrated that Einstein's equations do not lead to a single model of the universe, whatever the cosmological constant. From the model of a homogeneous isotropic Universe, it follows that during its expansion, a redshift proportional to the distance should be observed. This was confirmed in 1929 by Edwin Hubble on the basis of astronomical observations: the spectral lines in the spectra of galaxies were shifted towards the red end of the spectrum. Friedmann's theory initially provoked strong opposition from Einstein, but later Einstein admitted the illegality of his model of the Universe, calling the cosmological constant (he introduced into the equations as a means to maintain the stationarity of the Universe) his "biggest scientific mistake." It is possible, however, that Einstein was mistaken precisely in this case: at present, dark energy has been discovered, the properties of which can be described in a model with Einstein's cosmological constant, albeit without the assumed stationarity.

Family

First wife (since 1911) - Ekaterina Petrovna Fridman (nee Dorofeeva).

Second wife (since 1923) - Natalya Evgenievna Fridman (nee Malinina), later Doctor of Physics and Mathematics, director of the Leningrad branch. Their son - Alexander Alexandrovich Fridman (1925-1983) - was born after the death of his father.

Selected works

  • Fridman A.A. Z. Phys. 10 (1922), pp. 377-386.
  • Fridman A.A./ Ed., With approx. N.E. Kochina, with add. Art. B. I. Izvekova, I. A. Kibel, N. E. Kochina. - L .; M .: ONTI State. technical-theoretician. publishing house, 1934 .-- 370 p.
  • Fridman A.A. The world is like space and time. Second edition. - M .: Nauka, 1965.
  • Fridman A.A./ Ed. L. S. Polak. - M .: Nauka, 1966. Series: Classics of science. Sections of the collection: hydromechanics of a compressible fluid; dynamic meteorology and physics of the atmosphere; relativistic cosmology; letters; notes; biography; bibliography.

Memory

see also

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Notes (edit)

  1. Frenkel V. Ya.// UFN, 155, 481-516 (1988)
  2. The family of the musicologist, folklorist and professor of orchestration at the St. Petersburg Conservatory IK Vojacek was of Czech origin from Moravia; his son (uncle A. A. Fridman) - a prominent Soviet otolaryngologist, academician of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, lieutenant general of the medical service, professor of the Leningrad Military Medical Academy Vladimir Ignatievich Voyachek (1876-1971).
  3. : Maria Alexandrovna Fridman was the successor at the birth of her nephew.
  4. : Lived at that time with his father in a house at 35 Moika Embankment.
  5. Tamarkine, Friedmann(fr.) // Mathematische Annalen. - Berlin: Teubner, 1906. - Vol. 62. - P. 409-412.
  6. P. Ya. Polubarinova-Kochina// Advances in physical sciences, 80 345-352 (1963)
  8. State Archives Perm Territory
  9. Professors of Perm State University: (1916-2001) / Ch. ed .: V.V. Malanin. Perm: Publishing house Perm. University, 2001.279 p. P. 124.
  10. V. I. Yakovlev// Bulletin of Perm University. Mathematics. Mechanics. Informatics. 2013. Issue. 2 (21). 126.
  11. Loytsyansky L.G.“From my memories. Notes of a Polytechnic Professor "(1998) ISBN 5-88925-044-2
  12. B.V. Levshin Documents about the first Lenin Prizes // Historical Archive, 1957, No. 2, pp. 178-179.
  13. Fridman Alexander Alexandrovich // Great Soviet Encyclopedia: [in 30 volumes] / Ch. ed. A.M. Prokhorov

  14. Some sources indicate that the Lenin Prize in 1931 was also awarded to the famous physicist A. A. Fridman. This statement is wrong.

    - // Journal "Physics at school", 1970, № 1.

Literature

  • Kolchinsky I.G., Korsun A.A., Rodriguez M.G. Astronomers: A Biographical Reference. - 2nd ed., Rev. and additional .. - Kiev: Naukova Dumka, 1986. - 512 p.

Links

  • Khramov Yu.A. Fridman Alexander Alexandrovich // Physics: Biographical reference book / Ed. A. I. Akhiezer. - Ed. 2nd, rev. and add. - M .: Nauka, 1983 .-- S. 284 .-- 400 p. - 200,000 copies(in lane)
  • V. Ya. Frenkel,, Advances in Physical Sciences, Volume 155, Issue 3, July 1988
  • Fridman Alexander Alexandrovich // Great Soviet Encyclopedia: [in 30 volumes] / Ch. ed. A.M. Prokhorov... - 3rd ed. - M. : Soviet Encyclopedia, 1969-1978.
  • Andrey Sakharov. Memories. In two volumes. M .: Human Rights, 1996., T. 1. - 912 p.
  • special issue of Physics ± Uspekhi, dedicated to the 75th anniversary of A.A.Fridman, vol. 80, no. 7, 1963.
  • V. I. Yakovlev// Bulletin of Perm University. Mathematics. Mechanics. Informatics. 2013. Issue. 2 (21). 121-129.
  • // Great Soviet Encyclopedia: In 66 volumes (65 volumes and 1 additional) / Ch. ed. O. Yu. Schmidt... - 1st ed. - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1926-1947.
Predecessor:
Kultashev, Nikolay Viktorovich 		Dean of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics, PSU
1919 		Successor:
Richter, Andrey Alexandrovich
Predecessor:
Syrtsov, Anatoly Ivanovich 		Vice-rector of PSU
1919-1920 		Successor:
Polkanov, Alexander Alekseevich

An excerpt characterizing Fridman, Alexander Alexandrovich

The Russian emperor, meanwhile, had already lived in Vilna for more than a month, making reviews and maneuvers. Nothing was ready for the war that everyone expected and for the preparation for which the emperor had come from Petersburg. General plan there was no action. The hesitation as to which of the proposed plans should be adopted only intensified after the emperor's month-long stay in the main apartment. Each of the three armies had a separate commander-in-chief, but there was no general commander over all the armies, and the emperor did not assume this title.
How lived longer the emperor in Vilna, the less and less prepared for war, tired of waiting for it. All the aspirations of the people surrounding the sovereign, it seemed, were aimed only at making the sovereign, having a pleasant time, forget about the upcoming war.
After many balls and holidays with the Polish magnates, with the courtiers and with the sovereign himself, in June one of the Polish general adjutants of the sovereign came up with the idea to give dinner and a ball to the sovereign on behalf of his general adjutants. This idea was joyfully accepted by everyone. The sovereign expressed his consent. The General Adjutants collected money by subscription. The person who could be most agreeable to the sovereign was invited to be the hostess of the ball. Count Bennigsen, a landowner of the Vilna province, offered his country house for this holiday, and on June 13 a dinner, ball, boating and fireworks were scheduled at Zakret, the country house of Count Bennigsen.
On the very day on which Napoleon gave the order to cross the Niemen and his advanced troops, pushing back the Cossacks, crossed the Russian border, Alexander spent the evening at Bennigsen's dacha - at a ball given by the general's adjutants.
It was a merry, brilliant holiday; experts said that so many beauties rarely gathered in one place. Countess Bezukhova, along with other Russian ladies who came for the emperor from St. Petersburg to Vilna, was at this ball, darkening the sophisticated Polish ladies with her heavy, so-called Russian beauty. She was noticed, and the emperor honored her with a dance.
Boris Drubetskoy, en garcon (bachelor), as he said, leaving his wife in Moscow, was also at this ball and, although not an adjutant general, was a participant for a large sum in the subscription for the ball. Boris was now a rich man, far gone in honors, no longer seeking protection, but standing on an even foot with the highest of his peers.
At twelve o'clock in the morning they were still dancing. Helene, who did not have a worthy gentleman, herself offered the mazurka to Boris. They sat in the third pair. Boris, coolly looking at Helen's shiny bare shoulders protruding from a dark gauze and gold dress, talked about old acquaintances and at the same time, unnoticed by himself and others, never for a second stopped observing the sovereign who was in the same room. The sovereign did not dance; he stood in the doorway and stopped one or the other with those gentle words that he alone knew how to speak.
At the beginning of the mazurka, Boris saw that General Adjutant Balashev, one of the closest persons to the sovereign, approached him and stood still close to the sovereign, who was talking to a Polish lady. After talking with the lady, the sovereign looked inquiringly and, apparently realizing that Balashev did so only because there were important reasons for it, he slightly nodded to the lady and turned to Balashev. As soon as Balashev began to speak, surprise was expressed on the emperor's face. He took Balashev's arm and walked with him across the hall, unconsciously clearing three fathoms from both sides. wide road shunned before him. Boris noticed the agitated face of Arakcheev, while the emperor went with Balashev. Arakcheev, looking down at the emperor and snorting with a red nose, moved out of the crowd, as if expecting that the emperor would turn to him. (Boris realized that Arakcheev was jealous of Balashev and was dissatisfied with the fact that some, obviously important, news was not conveyed to the sovereign through him.)
But the Emperor and Balashev passed, without noticing Arakcheev, through the exit door into the lighted garden. Arakcheev, holding his sword and looking angrily around him, walked twenty paces behind them.
While Boris continued to make the figures of the mazurka, he did not cease to be tormented by the thought of what news Balashev had brought and how he could learn it before anyone else.
In the figure where he had to choose the ladies, whispering to Helen that he wanted to take the Countess Pototskaya, who seemed to have gone out onto the balcony, he, sliding his feet on the parquet floor, ran out the exit door into the garden and, noticing the sovereign entering the terrace with Balashev , paused. The Emperor and Balashev were heading for the door. Boris, in a hurry, as if not having time to move away, respectfully pressed himself against the lintel and bent his head.
The sovereign, with the excitement of a personally offended person, finished off the following words:
- Enter Russia without declaring war. I will make peace only when not a single armed enemy remains on my land, ”he said. It seemed to Boris that the emperor was pleased to express these words: he was pleased with the form of expressing his thoughts, but was unhappy that Boris heard them.
- So that no one knows anything! - added the emperor, frowning. Boris realized that this was referring to him, and, closing his eyes, slightly tilted his head. The sovereign again entered the hall and spent about half an hour at the ball.
Boris was the first to learn the news of the French troops crossing the Niemen and thanks to this he had the opportunity to show some important persons that much that was hidden from others, he sometimes knew, and through that had the opportunity to rise higher in the opinion of these persons.

The unexpected news of the French crossing the Niemen was especially unexpected after a month of unfulfilled expectations, and at the ball! The Tsar, at the first minute of receiving the news, under the influence of indignation and insult, found that, which later became famous, a saying that he himself liked and fully expressed his feelings. Returning home from the ball, the sovereign at two o'clock in the morning sent for the secretary Shishkov and ordered him to write an order to the troops and a rescript to Field Marshal Prince Saltykov, in which he certainly demanded that the words be placed that he would not reconcile until at least one the armed Frenchman will remain on Russian soil.
The next day the following letter was written to Napoleon.
“Monsieur mon frere. J "ai appris hier que malgre la loyaute avec laquelle j" ai maintenu mes engagements envers Votre Majeste, ses troupes ont franchis les frontieres de la Russie, et je recois al "instant de Petersbourg une note par laquelle le comte Lauriston, pour cause de cette agression, annonce que Votre Majeste s "est consideree comme en etat de guerre avec moi des le moment ou le prince Kourakine a fait la demande de ses passeports. Les motifs sur lesquels le duc de Bassano fondait son refus de les lui delivrer, n "auraient jamais pu me faire supposer que cette demarche servirait jamais de pretexte a l" agression. En effet cet ambassadeur n "y a jamais ete autorise comme il l" a declare lui meme, et aussitot que j "en fus informe, je lui ai fait connaitre combien je le desapprouvais en lui donnant l" ordre de rester a son poste. Si Votre Majeste n "est pas intentionnee de verser le sang de nos peuples pour un malentendu de ce genre et qu" elle consente a retirer ses troupes du territoire russe, je regarderai ce qui s "est passe comme non avenu, et un accommodement entre nous sera possible. Dans le cas contraire, Votre Majeste, je me verrai force de repousser une attaque que rien n "a provoquee de ma part. Il depend encore de Votre Majeste d "eviter a l" humanite les calamites d "une nouvelle guerre.
Je suis, etc.
(signe) Alexandre. "
[“Sovereign brother! Yesterday it dawned on me that, in spite of the straightforwardness with which I observed my obligations towards Your Imperial Majesty, your troops crossed the Russian borders, and only now received from St. Petersburg a note by which Count Lauriston notifies me about this invasion, that Your Majesty considers himself to be in hostile relations with me since the time when Prince Kurakin demanded his passports. The reasons on which the Duke of Bassano based his refusal to issue these passports could never have led me to suppose that the act of my ambassador was the pretext for an attack. And in reality he did not have a command from me, as he himself announced; and as soon as I found out about this, I immediately expressed my displeasure to Prince Kurakin, commanding him to fulfill the duties entrusted to him as before. If Your Majesty is not inclined to shed the blood of our subjects because of such a misunderstanding, and if you agree to withdraw your troops from Russian possessions, then I will ignore everything that happened, and an agreement between us will be possible. Otherwise, I will be forced to repel an attack that was not initiated by anything on my part. Your Majesty, you still have the opportunity to save humanity from the scourge of a new war.
(signed) Alexander ". ]

On June 13, at two o'clock in the morning, the sovereign, having summoned Balashev and read him his letter to Napoleon, ordered him to take this letter and personally hand it over to the French emperor. Sending Balashev, the sovereign again repeated his words to him that he would not reconcile as long as at least one armed enemy remained on Russian soil, and ordered him to convey these words to Napoleon without fail. The sovereign did not write these words in the letter, because he felt with his tact that these words were inconvenient to convey at the moment when the last attempt at reconciliation was being made; but he certainly ordered Balashev to hand them over to Napoleon personally.
Leaving on the night of June 13-14, Balashev, accompanied by a trumpeter and two Cossacks, arrived at dawn in the village of Rykonty, at the French outposts on this side of the Neman. He was stopped by French cavalry sentries.
A French hussar non-commissioned officer, in a crimson uniform and a shaggy hat, shouted at Balashev, who was approaching, ordering him to stop. Balashev did not immediately stop, but continued to walk along the road.
The non-commissioned officer, frowning and grumbling some kind of curse, advanced with the chest of a horse on Balashev, took up his saber and rudely shouted at the Russian general, asking him if he was deaf that he did not hear what was being said to him. Balashev identified himself. The non-commissioned officer sent a soldier to the officer.
Not paying attention to Balashev, the non-commissioned officer began to talk with his comrades about his regimental business and did not look at the Russian general.
It was unusually strange for Balashev, after closeness to the highest power and power, after a conversation three hours ago with the sovereign and generally accustomed to honors in his service, to see here, on Russian soil, this hostile and, most importantly, disrespectful attitude of brute force towards himself.
The sun was just beginning to rise from behind the clouds; the air was fresh and dewy. On the way, the herd was driven out of the village. In the fields, one by one, like bubbles in water, larks were sprinkled with a sense of smell.
Balashev looked around him, expecting the arrival of an officer from the village. The Russian Cossacks, the trumpeter, and the French hussars occasionally looked at each other in silence.
The French hussar colonel, apparently just out of bed, left the village on a beautiful well-fed gray horse, accompanied by two hussars. The officer, the soldiers, and their horses had an air of contentment and panache.
This was the first time of the campaign, when the troops were still in good working order, almost equal to observation, peaceful activities, only with a touch of elegant militancy in clothing and with a moral touch of that fun and enterprise that always accompany the beginning of campaigns.
The French colonel could hardly restrain a yawn, but he was courteous and, apparently, understood the full significance of Balashev. He led him past his soldiers by the chain and said that his desire to be presented to the emperor would probably be immediately fulfilled, since the imperial apartment, as far as he knew, was not far away.
They drove past the village of Rykonty, past the French hussar hitching posts, sentries and soldiers saluting their colonel and examining the Russian uniform with curiosity, and drove to the other side of the village. According to the colonel, the division chief was two kilometers away, who would receive Balashev and escort him to his destination.
The sun had already risen and shone merrily on the bright greenery.
They had just left the inn on the mountain, when a group of horsemen appeared to meet them from under the mountain, in front of which a tall man in a hat with feathers and black hair curled up to his shoulders, in a red robe and long legs protruding forward, like the French ride. This man rode at a gallop towards Balashev, glittering and fluttering in the bright June sun with his feathers, stones and gold braids.
Balashev was already two horses away from a horseman in bracelets, feathers, necklaces and gold galloping towards him with a solemn theatrical face, when Yulner, a French colonel, respectfully whispered: "Le roi de Naples." [King of Naples.] Indeed, it was Murat, now called the King of Naples. Although it was completely incomprehensible why he was the king of Naples, they called him that, and he himself was convinced of this and therefore had a more solemn and important appearance than before. He was so sure that he was really a Neapolitan king that when, on the eve of his departure from Naples, during his walk with his wife through the streets of Naples, several Italians shouted to him: “Viva il re!” [Long live the king! (Italian)] he turned to his wife with a sad smile and said: “Les malheureux, ils ne savent pas que je les quitte demain! [Unhappy, they do not know that I am leaving them tomorrow!]
But despite the fact that he firmly believed that he was a Neapolitan king, and that he regretted the grief of his subjects who were abandoned by him, recently, after he was ordered to enter the service again, and especially after a meeting with Napoleon in Danzig, when the august brother-in-law said to him: "Je vous ai fait Roi pour regner a maniere, mais pas a la votre" for a business he was familiar with and, like a racked, but not overweight, fit horse, sensing himself in a harness, he played in the shafts and, discharged as brightly and expensively as possible, cheerful and contented, galloped, not knowing where and why, along the roads Poland.
Seeing the Russian general, he threw back his head with hair curled up to his shoulders in a royal, solemn manner and looked inquiringly at the French colonel. The colonel respectfully conveyed to His Majesty the importance of Balashev, whose name he could not pronounce.
- De Bal macheve! - said the king (with his decisiveness overcoming the difficulty presented to the colonel), - charme de faire votre connaissance, general, [very nice to meet you, General] - he added with a royal gracious gesture. As soon as the king began to speak loudly and quickly, all the royal dignity instantly left him, and he, without noticing himself, switched to his characteristic tone of good-natured familiarity. He put his hand on the withers of Balashev's horse.
- Eh, bien, general, tout est a la guerre, a ce qu "il parait, [Well, general, things seem to be heading for war,] - he said, as if regretting a circumstance that he did not could judge.
- Sire, - answered Balashev. - l "Empereur mon maitre ne desire point la guerre, et comme Votre Majeste le voit," Balashev said, using Votre Majeste in all cases, [The Russian Emperor does not want her, as your majesty please see ... your majesty.] With the inevitable the affectation of the increased frequency of the title, referring to the person for whom the title is still news.
Murat's face beamed with stupid contentment as he listened to monsieur de Balachoff. But royaute oblige: [the royal title has its own responsibilities:] he felt the need to talk with the envoy of Alexander about state affairs, as king and ally. He dismounted from the horse and, taking Balashev by the arm and moving a few steps away from the waiting retinue respectfully, began to walk back and forth with him, trying to speak meaningfully. He mentioned that the Emperor Napoleon was offended by the demands for the withdrawal of troops from Prussia, especially now that this demand had become known to everyone and when the dignity of France was insulted by this. Balashev said that there was nothing offensive in this demand, because ... Murat interrupted him:
- So you think the instigator is not Emperor Alexander? He said unexpectedly with a good-natured stupid smile.
Balashev said why he really believed that Napoleon was the initiator of the war.
- Eh, mon cher general, - Murat interrupted him again, - je desire de tout mon c? Ur que les Empereurs s "arrangent entre eux, et que la guerre commencee malgre moi se termine le plutot possible, [Ah, dear general, I wish with all my heart that the emperors finish the affair between themselves and that the war, started against my will, end as soon as possible.] - he said in the tone of conversation of servants who wish to remain good friends, despite the quarrel between the masters. questions about the Grand Duke, about his health and about the memories of the fun and amusing time spent with him in Naples. waving his right hand, he said: - Je ne vous retiens plus, general; je souhaite le succes de vorte mission, [I don't detain you any longer, general; I wish your embassy success,] - and, fluttering with a red embroidered mantle and feathers and shining jewels, he went to the retinue, respectfully awaiting him.
Balashev drove on, according to Murat, assuming very soon to be introduced to Napoleon himself. But instead of a quick meeting with Napoleon, the sentries of the infantry corps of Davout again detained him at the next village, as in the front line, and the aide-de-camp of the corps commander escorted him to the village to Marshal Davout.

Davout was Arakcheev of the Emperor Napoleon - Arakcheev is not a coward, but just as serviceable, cruel and unable to express his devotion other than cruelty.
In the mechanism of the state organism, these people are needed, just as wolves are needed in the organism of nature, and they always exist, always appear and hold on, no matter how incongruous their presence and proximity to the head of government seem. Only this necessity can explain how the cruel, who personally tore out the mustache of the grenadiers and who could not endure danger due to weakness, the uneducated, non-courtier Arakcheev could hold on to such strength with the chivalrous noble and gentle character of Alexander.

Alexander was born in St. Petersburg on June 16, 1888. His father wrote music for ballets that were staged in St. Petersburg theaters, his mother taught piano. Friedman, according to his own testimony, had no talent for music, although in mature age I attended the Conservatory with pleasure, where I followed the musicians' performances from the score.

But Sasha showed brilliant talent for mathematics and physics. He became one of the best students of the oldest in Russia, the Second St. Petersburg Gymnasium on Kazanskaya Street, and while still a schoolboy, together with his schoolmate Yakov Tamarkin, he published an article on Bernoulli numbers in the prestigious journal "Mathematical Annals" edited by the famous David Hilbert.

In addition to science, Fridman was interested in politics - he was a member of the Central Committee of the Northern Social Democratic Organization of St. Petersburg secondary schools, reproduced revolutionary proclamations on a primitive hectograph and kept them - in a somewhat anecdotal way - on the Palace Embankment in the house of his grandfather, who served at the imperial court. Already a student, he once came to a meeting of a circle, where they discussed the newly discovered "channels" on Mars. The audience heard from him: “The canals appeared almost suddenly, in any case, they were built very soon. Doesn't this indicate that there is already socialism on Mars? "

After graduating from high school with a gold medal, Fridman entered the mathematical department of physics and mathematics at St. Petersburg University. There he studied with the famous Vladimir Steklov, whose name is today the Mathematical Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Friedman was one of Steklov's favorite students, but in graduate school, to the surprise of the teacher, he preferred applied problems of studying the atmosphere to "pure" mathematics and got a job at the branch of the Main Physical Observatory in Pavlovsk.

Beware of Friedman

A year later, when the First began World War, Alexander again presented a surprise to those around him, asking to volunteer for the front. " Friedman appeared unexpectedly. Goes to war in an aviation company, is sent on a mission by the Main Physical Observatory"- wrote Steklov in his diary in August 1914. Friedman himself explained his decision by the desire to provide "all possible assistance to aviation" by introducing aerological measurements into practice.

However, feasible help did not confine herself to desk work - Friedman also took part in combat missions. When the Russian army laid siege to Przemysl, the young meteorologist personally dropped bombs.

The German Heinrich von Ficker, who was in the city, argued that of all the shells, only the Friedman shell hit the target. That it was precisely his plane was found out when two scientists met in Germany in 1923.

Friedman took aim at tables drawn up using his own equation, which took into account air resistance. "Friedman is flying today," warned each other German soldiers, according to the apocrypha. For front-line merits, the bomber was awarded the St. George Cross, golden weapons and the Order of St. Vladimir with swords and a bow.

A complete waste of time

Friedman's abilities were also appreciated outside the academic community. First, he was sent to Kiev to teach at an aviator school, and then to Moscow to organize the country's first production of aircraft instruments. Then there was Perm, where the scientist not only gave lectures, but was forced to take the position of assistant to the rector for the economic part.

In his letters to Steklov, Fridman complained that he was "always given something to do." However, despite the enormous workload, the physicist was engaged in science.

“No, I’m an ignoramus, I don’t know anything, I need to sleep even less, not to do anything outsiders, because this whole so-called life is a complete waste of time,” he lamented.

In 1920, Fridman finally returned from Perm to Petrograd, just recovering from Civil war... Probably, in those 12 days that the road took, he also reflected on the theory of relativity of Albert Einstein, which was still quite exotic at that time, especially for Russian scientists.

Friedman got acquainted with the constructions of Einstein while still a graduate student, in the physics circle of Paul Ehrenfest, and in Perm he was looking for the axioms of the special theory of relativity. After returning to St. Petersburg, he began to cooperate with Vsevolod Fredericks, who told him about the general theory of relativity. Soon Friedman himself began to teach students, and in the summer of 1922 he was ready to challenge the great Einstein.

And yet it is expanding

Einstein, who revolutionized science and turned the concept of nature, was wrong. For example, he was skeptical about quantum mechanics and even once in his hearts said on this occasion that "God does not play dice with the Universe." But as legend has it, Einstein himself considered the idea of ​​a stationary universe to be his greatest mistake. He saw the world as finite and generally unchanged - a huge bubble with a constant radius; there was no moment when the universe was born, and it will never die.

The scientist did not have strict rational arguments for this assumption. Moreover, such a structure of the Universe did not agree with Einstein's own equations, obtained within the framework of the general theory of relativity (more strictly speaking, it was not their stable solution). But Einstein trusted his physical intuition more than mathematics: if the speculative model does not correspond to the formula, it is not the model that needs to be changed, but the formula, he decided, and added an additional term to the equation. It turned out that with increasing distance, matter in the Universe should resist gravity more and more. The constant, the cosmological constant, denoted by Einstein by the Greek letter "lambda" was responsible for this in the new version of the formula.

“Since I introduced this parameter, my conscience has never ceased to torment me,” the scientist wrote much later. “I couldn’t believe that such an ugly thing could be embodied in nature.”

Friedman, on the other hand, trusted mathematics more than intuition. According to physicist Vladimir Fock, he said: "My business is to indicate possible solutions to Einstein's equations, and then physicists can do whatever they want with these solutions." Friedman abandoned the assumption that from a distance the expanses of the Universe will seem the same, from where and in which direction you look. That is, in scientific terms, space is homogeneous and isotropic. And Friedman rejected the hypothesis about the invariability of the Universe in time. It turned out that solutions to Einstein's equations that satisfy these conditions exist and, moreover, do not require a dubious cosmological constant.

Friedman's proposed solutions described the universe in different ways. In one case, it turned out that at the very beginning the radius of the world was zero, but in the course of endless evolution it constantly increased; in the other, that in the first instant the world still had a finite radius, but then it also experienced an infinite increase; finally, in the third case, the radius of the world increased from zero, and at some point began to decrease back. From the calculations of Friedman it followed that the Universe may expand or pulsate, but it definitely has a beginning, and maybe an end.

All these conclusions were consistent "with mathematics", but Friedman treated them very carefully, and he called the last version of the pulsating Universe the legend of Hindu mythology about the periods of life.

“It is also possible to talk about the creation of the world 'out of nothing', but for now all this should be regarded as curious facts that cannot be solidly confirmed by insufficient astronomical experimental material,” he wrote.

Friedman's scientific work, which the author himself modestly called a note in his correspondence, was published in the summer of 1922 in the most popular and authoritative physics journal of that time Zeitschrift für Physik... The reaction of Albert Einstein, offended by the conclusions of a little-known Russian scientist, was not long in coming. Already on September 18, his answer was published in the same journal: the German physicist argued in rather harsh terms that Friedman's conclusions did not make sense, because they were based on an error in mathematical calculations.

Probably, the matter was not in the formulas - it was just that Einstein really wanted to have a mistake in them. American physicist John Wheeler later said that Einstein considered Friedman's vision of a pulsating universe too terrifying for some time to be accepted.

Einstein went to the country

Upon learning of the critical review, Friedman wrote a lengthy letter to Einstein, in which he explained in detail why there was no mistake in his calculations. And he asked the German, if he found the arguments convincing, to post corrections to his statement in the same magazine Zeitschrift für Physik.

However, Einstein did not receive the letter, because he set off on a long journey around the world - the physicist could not even be present at the presentation Nobel Prize in December 1922. Einstein returned to Berlin only at the end of March of the following year, but either did not attach importance to Friedman's letter, or it was simply lost among the correspondence.

A month and a half later, in May 1923, in the Dutch city of Leiden, where Einstein attended the farewell lecture of the retiring Lorentz, the Soviet physicist Yuri Krutkov turned to the newly minted Nobel laureate. Friedman asked a theoretical colleague to mediate in a delicate matter, and Krutkov now verbally retold the contents of the letter to Einstein.

“Defeated Einstein in the Friedman dispute. The honor of Petrograd has been saved, "wrote Krutkov in his diary on May 18, 1923. And five days later the editorial office Zeitschrift für Physik received a new article by Einstein on the non-stationary universe.

“In a previous post, I criticized the above work. However, my criticism, as I was convinced by the prompting of Mr. Krutkov from Fridman's letter, was based on an error in calculations. I consider Mr. Friedman's results to be correct and shedding new light, ”it said.

Having emerged victorious in this fundamental dispute, which was important for the entire subsequent development of cosmology, Alexander Fridman had a chance to personally meet with Einstein. And in August - September of the same 1923, a Russian scientist was in Berlin and wrote from there in a letter: “My business trip is not going well. Einstein, for example, went to his dacha, and I won't be able to see him. " A personal acquaintance did not take place the next year, when Friedman again came to Germany. The scientists never met.

Dead silence falls

In the summer of 1925, Friedman returned to his main occupation, studying earth's atmosphere, and went on an exploratory balloon flight, rising to a record height of 7400 meters. Then he recalled: “The sensations and experiences in the clouds are curious. Complete silence, complete peace, nothing is visible, you do not know over which terrain you are flying. Nobody sees you, and you nobody. Complete isolation. At first, however, the sounds of “everyday life” are heard from the ground: the horns of steam locomotives, bells, the crowing of roosters, the barking of dogs, etc. When you hear these sounds, you feel more comfortable, but soon these sounds disappear. Dead silence sets in. "

The scientist's testimony is surprisingly similar to the impressions of Yuri Gagarin from the first space flight. Like Gagarin, Fridman landed on a collective farm field, not in Saratov, but in the neighboring Nizhny Novgorod region. Surprised peasants also came out to him. Like the first cosmonaut, the physicist had to give onlookers a short lecture to explain the meaning of his flight.

A month later, 37-year-old Friedman went to honeymoon trip across Crimea with a young pregnant wife. On the way back, he bought pears at the station, ate them unwashed, and two weeks later felt unwell. It was typhoid fever. On September 19, 1925, Friedman passed away. According to his doctor, in his dying delirium, the scientist talked about students, recalled flying in a balloon and tried to make some calculations.

In 1929, the American astronomer Edwin Hubble - this is the NASA telescope named after him - discovered that the further the distance from us to another galaxy, the faster it runs even further. This became the very "astronomical material", the lack of which Friedman modestly referred to in his article. His hypothesis of the expansion of the Universe has received experimental evidence.

Later, Friedman's model was refined taking into account new data, and scientific ideas about the structure of the world are still built on it. Black holes, relic radiation, dark matter and dark energy, subatomic particles - observations, experiments and plausible hypotheses are consistent with this model. What it doesn't explain is the existence of humans. As the curious modest Friedman had no time for worldly concerns, so the Universe, which stretches for tens of billions of light years, certainly does not care about us. But she, judging by ridiculous death a talented scientist, has a dark sense of humor.

Biography

Born on June 16, 1888 in St. Petersburg in the family of a graduate of the St. Petersburg Conservatory (at that time a student), composer Alexander Alexandrovich Fridman (1866-1909) and a piano teacher (at that time also a student of the conservatory) Lyudmila Ignatievna Fridman (nee . Voyachek, 1869-1953). In 1897, when the future scientist was 9 years old, his parents separated and later he was brought up in new family father, as well as in the families of his grandfather - a medicinal assistant of the Court Medical District and provincial secretary Alexander Ivanovich Fridman (1839-1910) and aunt, pianist Maria Alexandrovna Fridman (with his mother A.A.Fridman renewed relations only shortly before his death).

Studied at the 2nd St. Petersburg Gymnasium. During his high school and student years he was fond of astronomy. In 1906, together with his classmate Yakov Tamarkin, he published his first mathematical work in one of the leading scientific journals in Germany "Mathematical Annals" ("Mathematische Annalen"). In 1906 he entered the Mathematics Department of the Physics and Mathematics Faculty of St. Petersburg University, from which he graduated in 1910. He remained at the Department of Pure and Applied Mathematics to prepare for a professorship. Until the spring of 1913, Fridman was engaged in mathematics - he supervised practical classes at the Institute of Railway Engineers, lectured at the Mining Institute. In 1913 he entered the Aerological Observatory in Pavlovsk near St. Petersburg and began to study dynamic meteorology (now this area of ​​science is called geophysical hydrodynamics). In the spring of 1914 he was sent on a business trip to Leipzig, where at that time the famous Norwegian meteorologist Wilhelm Freeman Koren Bjerknes (1862-1951), the creator of the theory of fronts in the atmosphere, lived. In the summer of the same year, Friedman flew in airships, taking part in preparations for observation solar eclipse in August 1914.

With the outbreak of World War I, Friedman volunteered for an air force. In 1914-1917 he took part in the organization of the air navigation and aerological service on the Northern and other fronts. Participated as an observer in combat missions.

Friedman was the first in Russia to understand the need to create a domestic aircraft instrument industry. During the years of war and devastation, he brought the idea to life, becoming the creator and first director of the Aviapribor plant in Moscow (June 1917).

In 1918-1920 - professor at Perm University. From 1920 he worked at the Main Physical Observatory (from 1924 the Main Geophysical Observatory named after A.I. Voeikov), at the same time from 1920 he taught at various educational institutions of Petrograd. Since 1923 - editor-in-chief of the "Journal of Geophysics and Meteorology". Shortly before his death, he was appointed director of the Main Geophysical Observatory.

Friedman's main works are devoted to the problems of dynamic meteorology (the theory of atmospheric vortices and gustiness of the wind, the theory of discontinuities in the atmosphere, atmospheric turbulence), the hydrodynamics of a compressible fluid, the physics of the atmosphere, and relativistic cosmology. In July 1925, for scientific purposes, he flew in an aerostat together with the pilot P.F. the course of general theory of relativity. In 1923, his book The World as Space and Time (reprinted in 1965) was published, which introduced the general public to the new physics.

Friedman predicted the expansion of the universe. The first non-stationary solutions of Einstein's equations obtained by him in 1922-1924 in the study of relativistic models of the Universe laid the foundation for the development of the theory of a non-stationary Universe. The scientist investigated non-stationary homogeneous isotropic models with a space of positive curvature filled with dust-like matter (with zero pressure). The nonstationarity of the considered models is described by the dependence of the radius of curvature and density on time, and the density changes in inverse proportion to the cube of the radius of curvature. Friedman found out the types of behavior of such models, admitted by the equations of gravitation, and Einstein's model of the stationary Universe turned out to be a special case. Refuted the opinion that the general theory of relativity requires the assumption that space is finite. Friedmann's results demonstrated that Einstein's equations do not lead to a single model of the universe, whatever the cosmological constant. From the model of a homogeneous isotropic Universe, it follows that during its expansion, a redshift proportional to the distance should be observed. This was confirmed in 1929 by Edwin Hubble on the basis of astronomical observations: the spectral lines in the spectra of galaxies were shifted towards the red end of the spectrum.

Friedman died in Leningrad from typhoid fever on September 16, 1925. Buried at the Smolensk Orthodox cemetery.

A. A. Fridman's first wife (since 1911) - Ekaterina Petrovna Fridman (nee Dorofeeva). The second wife (since 1923) - Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences Natalya Evgenievna Fridman (nee Malinina), their son - Alexander Alexandrovich Fridman (1925-1983) - was born after the death of his father.

“Alexander Fridman. He was the first to find a solution to the equation of general relativity for an expanding universe. Experiments have now been carried out that accurately confirm his decision. If Friedman had lived longer, I'm sure he would have become Nobel laureate"(Professor of Princeton University Igor Klebanov).

see also

  • Friedman's universe
  • Friedman (crater)

Proceedings

  • Fridman A.A. On the curvature of space. Z. Phys. 10 (1922), pp. 377-386.
  • Fridman A.A.