A spacecraft used for flights in near-Earth orbit, including under human control.

All spacecraft can be divided into two classes: manned and launched in control mode from the Earth's surface.

In the early 20s. 20th century K. E. Tsiolkovsky once again predicts the future development outer space earthlings. In his work "Spaceship" there is a mention of the so-called celestial ships, the main purpose of which is the implementation of human spaceflight.
The first spaceships of the Vostok series were created under the strict guidance of the general designer of OKB-1 (now the Rocket and Space Corporation Energia) S.P. Korolev. The first manned spacecraft "Vostok" was able to deliver a man into outer space on April 12, 1961. This cosmonaut was Yu. A. Gagarin.

The main objectives of the experiment were:

1) study of the impact of orbital flight conditions on a person, including his performance;

2) verification of the principles of spacecraft design;

3) development of structures and systems in real conditions.

The total mass of the ship was 4.7 tons, diameter - 2.4 m, length - 4.4 m. Among the on-board systems with which the ship was equipped, the following can be distinguished: control systems (automatic and manual modes); system of automatic orientation to the Sun and manual - to the Earth; life supporting system; thermal control system; landing system.

In the future, the developments obtained during the implementation of the Vostok spacecraft program made it possible to create much more advanced ones. To date, the "armada" of spacecraft is very clearly represented by the American reusable transport spacecraft "Shuttle", or Space Shuttle.

It is impossible not to mention the Soviet development, which is currently not used, but could seriously compete with the American ship.

Buran was the name of the Soviet Union's program to create a reusable space system. Work on the Buran program began in connection with the need to create a reusable space system as a means of deterring a potential adversary in connection with the beginning American project in January 1971

To implement the project, NPO Molniya was created. In the shortest possible time in 1984, with the support of more than a thousand enterprises from all over the Soviet Union, the first full-scale copy was created with the following technical specifications: its length was more than 36 m with a wingspan of 24 m; starting weight - more than 100 tons with a payload weight of up to
30 tons

"Buran" had a pressurized cabin in the nose compartment, which could accommodate about ten people and most of the equipment for flight in orbit, descent and landing. The ship was equipped with two groups of engines at the end of the tail section and in front of the hull for maneuvering, for the first time a combined propulsion system was used, which included oxidizer and fuel fuel tanks, pressurization temperature control, fluid intake in zero gravity, control system equipment, etc.

The first and only flight of the Buran spacecraft was made on November 15, 1988 in an unmanned, fully automatic mode (for reference: the Shuttle still only lands on manual control). Unfortunately, the flight of the ship coincided with the difficult times that began in the country, and in connection with the end of " cold war"And the lack of sufficient funds, the Buran program was closed.

The start of a series of American spacecraft of the "Shuttle" type was laid in 1972, although it was preceded by a project of a reusable two-stage aircraft, each stage of which was similar to a jet.

The first stage served as an accelerator, which, after entering orbit, completed its part of the task and returned to Earth with the crew, and the second stage was an orbital ship and, after completing the program, also returned to the launch site. It was the time of an arms race, and the creation of a ship of this type was considered the main link in this race.

To launch the ship, the Americans use an accelerator and the ship's own engine, the fuel for which is placed in an external fuel tank. Spent boosters after landing are not reused, with a limited number of launches. Structurally, the ship of the Shuttle series consists of several main elements: the Orbiter aerospace plane, reusable rocket boosters and a fuel tank (disposable).

The first flight of a spacecraft a large number shortcomings and design changes took place only in 1981. In the period from April 1981 to July 1982, a series of orbital flight tests of the Columbia spacecraft was carried out in all flight modes. Unfortunately, in a series of flights of the Shuttle series, there were tragedies.

In 1986, during the 25th launch of the Challenger, a fuel tank exploded due to an imperfect design of the apparatus, as a result of which all seven crew members died. Only in 1988, after a number of changes were made to the flight program, the Discovery spacecraft was launched. To replace the "Challenger" was put into operation new ship Endeavor, which has been operating flights since 1992.

Perhaps, uttering tricky words without any explanation, professional rocketeers (and those who are among them) see themselves as a separate intellectual caste. But how to be ordinary person, who, being interested in rockets and space, is trying to take hold of an article strewn with incomprehensible abbreviations on the rally? What is BOKZ, SOTR or DPK? What is "crumpled gas" and why did the rocket "gone over the hill", while the carrier and the spacecraft - two completely different products - bear the same name "Soyuz"? By the way, BOKZ is not Albanian boxing, but block for determining the coordinates of stars(colloquially - a star tracker), SOTR is not a violent abbreviation of the expression "I will erase into powder", but supply system thermal regime , and WPC is not a furniture "wood-polymer composite", but the most rocket (and not only) drain safety valve. But what if there are no transcripts in the footnote or in the text? This is a problem ... And not so much the reader as the “writer” of the article: they won’t read it a second time! To avoid this bitter fate, we undertook the modest task of compiling a short dictionary of rocket and space terms, abbreviations and names. Of course, he does not pretend to be complete, and in some places - and the severity of the wording. But, we hope, it will help the reader interested in astronautics. And besides, the dictionary can be supplemented and refined endlessly - after all, the cosmos is endless! ..

Apollo- the American program of landing a man on the moon, which also included test flights of astronauts on a three-seat spacecraft in near-Earth and lunar orbit in 1968-1972.

Ariane-5- the name of a European disposable heavy-class launch vehicle designed to launch payloads into low-Earth orbits and departure trajectories. From June 4, 1996 to May 4, 2017, it completed 92 missions, of which 88 were completely successful.

Atlas V- the name of a series of American disposable medium-class launch vehicles created by Lockheed Martin. From August 21, 2002 to April 18, 2017, 71 missions were completed, 70 of them were successful. It is mainly used to launch spacecraft on orders from US government departments.

ATV(Automated Tranfer Vehicle) is the name of a European disposable automatic transport vehicle designed to supply the ISS with cargo and flew from 2008 to 2014 (five missions completed).

BE-4(Blue Origin Engine) is a powerful liquid propellant propulsion engine with a thrust of 250 tf at sea level, powered by oxygen and methane, and has been developed since 2011 by Blue Origin for installation on promising Vulcan and New Glenn launch vehicles. It is positioned as a replacement for the Russian RD-180 engine. The first comprehensive firing tests are scheduled for the first half of 2017.

CCP(Commercial Crew Program) - a modern state American commercial manned program, conducted by NASA and facilitating the access of private industrial firms to technologies for the study and exploration of space.

CNSA(China National Space Agency) is the English abbreviation of the state agency that coordinates the work on the study and development of outer space in China.

CSA(Canadian Space Agency) is a government agency that coordinates space exploration in Canada.

Cygnus- the name of the American disposable automatic transport vehicle created by Orbital to supply the ISS with supplies and cargo. From September 18, 2013 to April 18, 2017, eight missions were completed, seven of them were successful.

Delta IV- the name of a series of American disposable launch vehicles of medium and heavy classes, created by Boeing under the EELV program. From November 20, 2002 to March 19, 2017, 35 missions were carried out, 34 of them were successful. It is currently used exclusively for launching spacecraft on orders from US government departments.

Dragon- the name of a series of American partially reusable transport vehicles developed by the private company SpaceX under a contract with NASA as part of the CCP program. It is capable of not only delivering cargo to the ISS, but also returning them back to Earth. From December 8, 2010 to February 19, 2017, 12 unmanned ships were launched, 11 of them were successful. The start of flight tests of the manned version is scheduled for 2018.

dream chaser- the name of an American reusable transport orbital rocket plane, developed since 2004 by Sierra Nevada to supply orbital stations with supplies and cargo (and in the future, in a seven-seat version, for crew change). The start of flight tests is scheduled for 2019.

EELV(Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle) - a program for the evolutionary development of disposable launch vehicles for use (primarily) in the interests of the US Department of Defense. As part of the program, which began in 1995, the launch vehicles of the Delta IV and Atlas V families were created; since 2015 they have been joined by the Falcon 9.

EVA(Extra-Vehicular Activity) — English title extravehicular activity (EVA) of astronauts (work in outer space or on the surface of the moon).

FAA(Federal Aviation Administration) - The Federal Aviation Administration, which regulates the legal issues of commercial space flight in the United States.

Falcon 9- the name of a series of American partially reusable medium-class carriers created by the private company SpaceX. From June 4, 2010 to May 1, 2017, 34 missile launches of three modifications were carried out, 31 of them were completely successful. Until recently, the Falcon 9 served both to launch Dragon unmanned cargo ships into orbit to supply the ISS, and for commercial launches; is now included in the program for launching spacecraft into orbit by order of the US government departments.

Falcon Heavy- the name of an American partially reusable heavy-class launch vehicle developed by SpaceX based on the Falcon-9 launch vehicle stages. The first flight is scheduled for autumn 2017.

Gemini - the name of the second American manned space program, during which astronauts on a two-seat spacecraft made near-Earth flights in 1965-1966.

H-2A (H-2B)- variants of a Japanese disposable medium-class launch vehicle designed to launch payloads into low-Earth orbits and departure trajectories. From August 29, 2001 to March 17, 2017, 33 launches of the H-2A variant (of which 32 were successful) and six launches of the H-2B (all successful) were performed.

HTV(H-2 Transfer Vehicle), also known as Kounotori, is the name of a Japanese automatic transport vehicle designed to supply the ISS with cargo and has been flying since September 10, 2009 (six missions completed, three remaining according to the plan).

JAXA(Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) is an agency that coordinates space exploration activities in Japan.

Mercury- the name of the first American manned space program, during which astronauts on a single-seat spacecraft made near-Earth flights in 1961-1963.

NASA(National Aeronautics and Space Administration) is a government agency that coordinates aviation and space exploration in the United States.

New Glenn is the name of a partially reusable heavy-duty launch vehicle being developed by Blue Origin for commercial launches and use in the lunar transport system. Announced in September 2016, the first launch is planned for 2020-2021.

Orion MPCV(Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle) is the name of the multifunctional manned spacecraft developed by NASA as part of the Exploration program and designed for astronaut flights to the ISS and beyond low Earth orbit. The start of flight tests is scheduled for 2019.

skylab name of the first American space station, on which three expeditions of astronauts worked in 1973-1974.

SLS(Space Launch System) is the name of the American family of super-heavy launch vehicles developed by NASA as part of the Exploration program and designed to launch elements of space infrastructure (including manned Orion spacecraft) on departure trajectories. The start of flight tests is scheduled for 2019.

SpaceShipOne(SS1) is the name of an experimental reusable suborbital rocket plane, created by Scaled Composites, which became the first non-state manned vehicle to overcome the Karman line and reach space. Theoretically, it was supposed to carry a crew of three people, actually operated by one pilot.

SpaceShipTwo(SS2) - the name of a reusable multi-seat (two pilots and six passengers) suborbital rocket plane manufactured by Virgin Galactic, designed to carry out short tourist travel into the space.

space shuttle, otherwise STS (Space Transportation System) - a series of American reusable manned transport spacecraft, created by order of NASA and the Department of Defense under the state program and made 135 missions to near-Earth space from 1981 to 2011.

Starliner (CST-100)- the name of an American partially reusable manned transport vehicle developed by Boeing under a contract with NASA under the CCP program. The start of flight tests is scheduled for 2018.

ULA(United Launch Alliance) - "United Launch Alliance", a joint venture established in 2006 by Lockheed Martin and Boeing to cost-effectively operate Delta IV and Atlas V launch vehicles.

Vega- the name of a European light-class launch vehicle developed in international cooperation with the decisive participation of Italy (Avio) for launching payloads into near-Earth orbits and departure trajectories. From February 13, 2012 to March 7, 2017, nine missions were completed (all were successful).

Vulcan- the name of the perspective American missile, designed to replace Delta IV and Atlas V carriers. It has been developed since 2014 by the United Launch Alliance ULA. The first launch is planned for 2019.

X-15- American experimental rocket plane, created by North American by order of NASA and the Department of Defense to study flight conditions on hypersonic speeds and entry into the atmosphere of winged vehicles, evaluation of new design solutions, heat-shielding coatings and psycho-physiological aspects of control in the upper atmosphere. Three rocket planes were built, which made 191 flights in 1959-1968, setting several world speed and altitude records (including 107,906 m on August 22, 1963).

Ablation— the process of entrainment of mass from the surface of a solid by a flow of incoming gas, accompanied by the absorption of heat. Underlies ablative thermal protection, protecting the structure from overheating.

"Angara"- the name of the Russian spacecraft, as well as a family of disposable modular launch vehicles of light, medium and heavy classes, designed to launch payloads into near-Earth orbits and departure trajectories. The first launch of the Angara-1.2PP light rocket took place on July 9, 2014, the first launch of the Angara-A5 heavy carrier took place on December 23, 2014.

Apogee- the point of the satellite's orbit (natural or artificial) that is farthest from the center of the Earth.

Aerodynamic quality is a dimensionless quantity, the ratio of the lift force of an aircraft to the drag force.

ballistic trajectory- the path along which the body moves in the absence of aerodynamic forces acting on it.

Ballistic missile - an aircraft that, after turning off the engine and leaving the dense layers of the atmosphere, flies along a ballistic trajectory.

"East"- the name of the first Soviet single-seat manned spacecraft, on which cosmonauts flew in the period from 1961 to 1963. Also - the open name of a series of Soviet disposable light-class launch vehicles, created on the basis of the R-7 intercontinental ballistic missile and used from 1958 to 1991.

"Sunrise"- the name of the multi-seat modification of the Soviet manned spacecraft "Vostok", on which the astronauts made two flights in 1964-1965. Also - the open name of a series of Soviet disposable medium-class launch vehicles used from 1963 to 1974.

Gas rocket engine(gas nozzle) - a device that serves to convert the potential energy of a compressed working fluid (gas) into thrust.

Hybrid rocket engine(GRD) - a special case of a chemical jet engine; a device that uses the chemical energy of the interaction of fuel components located in different state of aggregation(for example, liquid oxidizer and solid fuel). The engines of SpaceShipOne and SpaceShipTwo rocket planes are built on this principle.

Gnomon- an astronomical instrument in the form of a vertical stand, which allows, by the smallest length of the shadow, to determine the angular height of the sun in the sky, as well as the direction of the true meridian. A photognomon with a color calibration scale served to document lunar soil samples collected during the Apollo missions.

ESA(European Space Agency) is an organization that coordinates the activities of European states in the study of outer space.

Liquid propellant rocket engine(LRE) - a special case of a chemical jet engine; a device that uses the chemical energy of the interaction of liquid fuel components stored on board the aircraft to create thrust.

Capsule- one of the names of a wingless descent vehicle artificial satellites and space ships.

spacecraft- the general name of various technical devices designed to perform targeted tasks in outer space.

Space rocket complex(CRC) is a term that characterizes a set of functionally related elements (technical and launch complex of the cosmodrome, measuring instruments of the cosmodrome, ground complex control of the spacecraft, launch vehicle and upper stage) that ensure the launch of the spacecraft to the target trajectory.

Karman Line- agreed to international level the conditional boundary of space, lying at an altitude of 100 km (62 miles) above sea level.

"World"- the name of the modular Soviet / Russian orbital space station, which flew in 1986-2001, receiving numerous Soviet (Russian) and international expeditions.

ISS(International Space Station) is the name of a manned complex that was created in near-Earth orbit by the efforts of Russia, the USA, Europe, Japan and Canada to conduct scientific research related to the conditions of a long stay of a person in outer space. English abbreviation for ISS (International Space Station).

Multi-stage (composite) rocket- a device in which, as the fuel is used up, there is a sequential discharge of used and unnecessary structural elements (stages) for further flight.

Smooth landing- touching the surface of a planet or other spacecraft celestial body, at which the vertical speed allows to ensure the safety of the structure and systems of the device and / or comfortable conditions for the crew.

Orbital inclination- the angle between the plane of the orbit of a natural or artificial satellite and the plane of the equator of the body around which the satellite revolves.

Orbit- a trajectory (most often elliptical), along which one body (for example, natural satellite or spacecraft) moves relative to the central body (Sun, Earth, Moon, etc.). In a first approximation, a near-Earth orbit is characterized by such elements as inclination, height of perigee and apogee, and period of revolution.

First space velocity — slowest speed, which must be given to the body in a horizontal direction near the surface of the planet, so that it enters a circular orbit. For the Earth - about 7.9 km / s.

Overload is a vector quantity, the ratio of the sum of the thrust and/or aerodynamic force to the weight of the aircraft.

Perigee is the point in the orbit of a satellite that is closest to the center of the Earth.

Period of circulation- the period of time during which the satellite makes a complete revolution around the central body (Sun, Earth, Moon, etc.)

Manned transport ship of the new generation (PTK NP) "Federation"- a reusable four-six-seat spacecraft developed by the Energia Rocket and Space Corporation to provide access to space from Russian territory(from the Vostochny cosmodrome), delivery of people and cargo to orbital stations, flights to polar and equatorial orbit, exploration of the moon and landing on it. It is being created as part of FKP-2025, the start of flight tests is scheduled for 2021, the first manned flight with docking with the ISS should take place in 2023.

"Progress"- the name of a series of Soviet (Russian) unmanned automatic vehicles for the delivery of fuel, cargo and supplies to the space stations "Salyut", "Mir" and the ISS. From January 20, 1978 to February 22, 2017, 135 ships were launched various modifications, of which 132 were successful.

"Proton-M" is the name of a Russian disposable heavy-class launch vehicle designed to launch payloads into low-Earth orbits and take-off trajectories. Created on the basis of "Proton-K"; the first flight of this modification took place on April 7, 2001. Until June 9, 2016, 98 launches were made, of which 9 were completely and 1 were partially unsuccessful.

Upper block(RB), the closest Western equivalent in meaning - "upper stage" (upper stage), - the stage of the launch vehicle, designed to form the target trajectory of the spacecraft. Examples: Centaur (USA), Breeze-M, Fregat, DM (Russia).

launch vehicle- at present, the only means of launching a payload (satellite, probe, spacecraft or automatic station) into outer space.

Super heavy launch vehicle(RN STK) is the code name of a Russian development project designed to create a means of launching space infrastructure elements (including manned spacecraft) on departure trajectories (to the Moon and Mars).

Various proposals for the creation of a super-heavy class carrier based on the modules of the Angara-A5V, Energia 1K and Soyuz-5 rockets. Graphics by V. Shtanin

Solid propellant rocket engine(RDTT) - a special case of a chemical jet engine; a device that uses the chemical energy of the interaction of solid propellant components stored on board an aircraft to create thrust.

rocket plane- a winged aircraft (aircraft) using a rocket engine for acceleration and / or flight.

RD-180- a powerful propulsion liquid-propellant rocket engine with a thrust of 390 tf at sea level, running on oxygen and kerosene. It was created by the Russian NPO Energomash by order of the American company Pratt and Whitney for installation on carriers of the Atlas III and Atlas V families. It has been mass-produced in Russia and has been supplied to the USA since 1999.

Roscosmos- the short name of the Federal Space Agency (in the period from 2004 to 2015, from January 1, 2016 - the state corporation "Roscosmos"), a state organization that coordinates work on the study and development of outer space in Russia.

"Firework"- the name of a series of Soviet long-term orbital stations that flew in near-Earth orbit from 1971 to 1986, receiving Soviet crews and cosmonauts from the countries of the socialist community (Interkosmos program), France and India.

"Union"- the name of a family of Soviet (Russian) multi-seat manned spacecraft for flights in near-Earth orbit. From April 23, 1967 to May 14, 1981, 39 ships flew with a crew on board. Also, the open name for a series of Soviet (Russian) disposable medium-class launch vehicles used to launch payloads into low-Earth orbits from 1966 to 1976.

Soyuz-FG is the name of a Russian disposable medium-class launch vehicle that, since 2001, has been delivering manned (Soyuz) and automatic (Progress) spacecraft into near-Earth orbit.

"Soyuz-2"- the name of a family of modern Russian disposable launch vehicles of light and medium class, which since November 8, 2004 have been launching various payloads into near-Earth orbits and departure trajectories. In the Soyuz-ST versions, from October 21, 2011, it is launched from the European Kourou spaceport in French Guiana.

Soyuz T- the name of the transport version of the Soviet manned spacecraft Soyuz, which from April 1978 to March 1986 made 15 manned flights to the Salyut and Mir orbital stations.

Soyuz TM- the name of a modified version of the Soviet (Russian) transport manned spacecraft "Soyuz", which from May 1986 to November 2002 made 33 manned flights to the Mir orbital stations and the ISS.

Soyuz TMA- the name of the anthropometric version of the modification of the Russian Soyuz transport spacecraft, created to expand the allowable range of height and weight of crew members. From October 2002 to November 2011 he made 22 manned flights to the ISS.

Soyuz TMA-M- further modernization of the Russian transport spacecraft Soyuz TMA, which from October 2010 to March 2016 performed 20 manned flights to the ISS.

Soyuz MS— the final version of the Russian transport spacecraft Soyuz, which made its first mission to the ISS on July 7, 2016.

suborbital flight- movement along a ballistic trajectory with a short-term exit into outer space. In this case, the flight speed can be either less or more than the local orbital one (remember the American probe Pioneer-3, which had a speed higher than the first space one, but still fell to Earth).

"Tiangun" is the name of a series of Chinese manned orbital stations. The first one (Laboratory "Tyangun-1") was launched on September 29, 2011.

"Shenzhou"- the name of a series of modern Chinese three-seat manned spacecraft for flights in near-Earth orbit. From November 20, 1999 to October 16, 2016, 11 ships were launched, 7 of them with astronauts on board.

Chemical jet engine- a device in which the energy of the chemical interaction of the fuel components (oxidizer and fuel) is converted into the kinetic energy of a jet stream that creates thrust.

Electric rocket engine(ERD) - a device in which, to create thrust, the working fluid (usually stored on board the aircraft) is accelerated using an external supply electrical energy(heating and expansion in a jet nozzle or ionization and acceleration of charged particles in an electric (magnetic) field).

The ion electric rocket engine has low thrust, but high efficiency due to the high speed of the expiration of the working fluid.

Emergency Rescue System- a set of devices for rescuing the spacecraft crew in the event of a launch vehicle failure, i.e., in the event of a situation in which it is impossible to reach the target trajectory.

suit- an individual sealed suit that provides conditions for the work and life of an astronaut in a rarefied atmosphere or in outer space. There are emergency and rescue suits for extravehicular activities.

Descent (return) vehicle- a part of a spacecraft intended for descent and landing on the surface of the Earth or another celestial body.

Specialists of the search and rescue group examine the descent vehicle of the Chinese Chang'e-5-T1 probe, which returned to Earth after flying around the moon. Photo by CNSA

thrust- reactive force that sets in motion an aircraft on which a rocket engine is installed.

Federal space program(FKP) - the main document Russian Federation, which defines the list of the main tasks in the field of civil space activities and their financing. Compiled for a decade. The current FKP-2025 is valid from 2016 to 2025.

"Phoenix"- the name of the development work within the framework of FKP-2025 to create a medium-class launch vehicle for use as part of the Baiterek, Sea Launch and STK launch vehicles.

Characteristic speed (XC, ΔV) is a scalar value that characterizes the change in the energy of the aircraft when using rocket engines. The physical meaning is the speed (measured in meters per second) that the device will acquire, moving in a straight line only under the action of traction at certain fuel costs. It is used (among other things) to estimate the energy costs required to perform rocket-dynamic maneuvers (required CS), or available energy, determined by the onboard supply of fuel or working fluid (available CS).

Removal of the launch vehicle "Energia" with the orbital ship "Buran"

"Energy" - "Buran"- Soviet KRK with a super-heavy class launch vehicle and a reusable winged orbital ship. Developed since 1976 as a response American system space shuttle. In the period from May 1987 to November 1988, he made two flights (with a mass-dimensional analogue of the payload and with an orbital ship, respectively). The program closed in 1993.

ASTP(experimental flight "Apollo" - "Soyuz") - a joint Soviet-American program, during which in 1975 the manned spacecraft "Soyuz" and Apollo made a mutual search, docking and joint flight in near-Earth orbit. Known as ASTP (Apollo-Soyuz Test Project) in the USA.

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    spaceship- 104 spacecraft; KKr: A manned spacecraft capable of maneuvering in the atmosphere and outer space with a return to a given area and (or) descent and landing on a planet.

The initial stage of space exploration (flights on the Vostok and Voskhod spacecraft) included the design of spacecraft and their systems, ground-based flight control systems, the technique of launching ships from orbit, searching for and meeting cosmonauts on the ground.

The world's first manned space flight took place on April 12, 1961. At 06:00, 7:00, the Vostok-K72K carrier rocket was launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome from launch pad No. 1, which launched the Soviet Vostok spacecraft into low-Earth orbit.

The spacecraft was piloted by Yuri Gagarin (the call sign of the first cosmonaut of the Earth is "Kedr"). The understudy was German Titov, the reserve cosmonaut was Grigory Nelyubov. The flight lasted 1 hour 48 minutes. After completing one revolution around the Earth, the descent module of the ship landed on the territory of the USSR in the Saratov region.

First daily space flight made by cosmonaut German Stepanovich Titov from August 6 to 7, 1961 on the Vostok-2 spacecraft.

First formation flight of two ships- "Vostok-3" (cosmonaut Andriyan Nikolayevich Nikolaev) and "Vostok-4" (cosmonaut Pavel Romanovich Popovich) took place on August 11-15, 1962.

The world's first space flight by a woman carried out by Valentina Vladimirovna Tereshkova from June 16 to June 19, 1963 on the Vostok-6 spacecraft.

October 12, 1964 launched the first multi-seat spacecraft "Voskhod". The crew of the ship included cosmonauts Vladimir Mikhailovich Komarov, Konstantin Petrovich Feoktistov, Boris Borisovich Egorov.

The first human exit in history outer space carried out by Aleksey Arkhipovich Leonov during the expedition on March 18-19, 1965 (Voskhod-2 spacecraft, Pavel Ivanovich Belyaev as part of the crew). Alexei Leonov retired from the ship at a distance of up to 5 meters, spent 12 minutes 9 seconds in open space outside the airlock.

The next stage of the Russian manned cosmonautics is the creation of the Soyuz multi-purpose spacecraft, capable of performing complex maneuvers in orbit, rendezvous and docking with other spacecraft, and long-term orbital stations Salyut.

The first flight on the new spacecraft "Soyuz-1" made on April 23-24, 1967 by cosmonaut Vladimir Mikhailovich Komarov. At the end of the flight program, when during the descent to Earth the main parachute of the descent vehicle did not come out, Vladimir Komarov died.

First joint flight of three ships: "Soyuz-6", "Soyuz-7" and "Soyuz-8" was held from 11 to 18 October 1969. The crews of the ships included cosmonauts Georgy Stepanovich Shonin, Valery Nikolaevich Kubasov, Anatoly Vasilyevich Filipchenko, Vladislav Nikolaevich Volkov, Viktor Vasilyevich Gorbatko, Vladimir Alexandrovich Shatalov, Alexei Stanislavovich Eliseev.

From 1 to 19 June 1969 first long-term autonomous space flight performed by Andriyan Nikolayevich Nikolaev and Vitaly Ivanovich Sevastyanov on the Soyuz-9 spacecraft.

The first long-term work in space orbit from June 6 to 30, 1971, cosmonauts Georgy Timofeevich Dobrovolsky, Vladislav Nikolaevich Volkov, Viktor Ivanovich Patsaev did it on the Soyuz-11 spacecraft. When returning to Earth, the descent vehicle depressurized, the crew of the spacecraft died.

January 11, 1975 began first expedition to the Salyut-4 space station(crew: Alexey Alexandrovich Gubarev, Georgy Mikhailovich Grechko, Soyuz-17 spacecraft), which ended on February 9, 1975.

First international space flight- July 15-21, 1975. In orbit, the Soyuz-19 spacecraft, piloted by Alexei Leonov and Valery Kubasov, was docked with the American Apollo spacecraft, piloted by astronauts T. Staffor, D. Slayton, V. Brand. Mutual transitions of cosmonauts and astronauts, joint and autonomous scientific and technical research were carried out. According to Alexei Leonov, then, in the 1970s, the two superpowers managed to prove that cooperation in solving such a global problem as space exploration is possible.

The first expedition to the Salyut-5 station performed on the Soyuz-21 spacecraft by Boris Valentinovich Volynov and Vitaly Mikhailovich Zholobov. The expedition lasted from July 6 to August 24, 1976.

The first expedition to the Salyut-6 station passed from December 10, 1977 to March 16, 1978 (96 days, crew - Yuri Viktorovich Romanenko, Georgy Mikhailovich Grechko, spacecraft Soyuz-26 (start) and Soyuz-27 (landing).

From March 2 to March 10, 1978, the first international crew visited Salyut-6 - cosmonaut Aleksey Aleksandrovich Gubarev and Vladimir Remek, a citizen of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. In total, Salyut-6 was visited by nine international space expeditions.

The first expedition to the Salyut-7 orbital station took place from June 24 to July 2, 1982. Vladimir Alexandrovich Dzhanibekov, Alexander Sergeyevich Ivanchenkov, French citizen Jean-Loup Krestien worked at the station then. Total on Salyut-7 in different time 10 expeditions worked.

The Salyuts were replaced by the third generation of near-Earth laboratories - the Mir station, which was the basic unit for building a multi-purpose permanent manned complex with specialized orbital modules of scientific and national economic importance. Subsequently, the Kvant, Kvant-2, Kristall, Spektr modules were docked to the station and began to work. The construction of the permanently inhabited orbital complex was fully completed on April 26, 1996, when the fifth and last retrofit module, Nature, with the most sophisticated scientific equipment, was docked to the Mir, which made it possible to carry out versatile studies of land, ocean and atmosphere.

Orbital complex "Mir" was in operation until June 2000 - 14.5 years instead of the five provided. During this time, 28 space expeditions were carried out on it, a total of 139 Russian and foreign space explorers visited the complex, 11.5 tons of scientific equipment of 240 items from 27 countries of the world were placed.

During space expeditions, new methods were developed for assembling large structures in space using thermodynamic compounds from materials with a shape memory effect - the future elements of the new International Space Station; the nature of noctilucent clouds, aerosol layers in the atmosphere and mesosphere was studied, interstellar gas was studied, scientific information about the relationship physical processes occurring in the Universe and near-Earth space, as well as many other experiments in space medicine, biotechnology, astro- and geophysics, materials science and others.

The Russian space complex has set world records for the duration of an orbital flight, the duration of stay in space, and spacewalks.

Thus, doctor-researcher Valery Polyakov spent 437 days and 18 hours in space in a row as part of three space expeditions.

Cosmonaut Sergei Avdeev set an outstanding record for the total duration of his stay in space - a total of 742 days in space for three flights.

In total, during the operation of Mir in a manned mode, cosmonauts and astronauts made more than 75 spacewalks - a total of about 15 days were spent overboard.

The Mir space complex was replaced in orbit by the International Space Station (ISS), in the construction of which 16 countries participated. When creating a new space complex, Russian achievements in the field of manned cosmonautics were widely used. The operation of the ISS is designed for 15 years.

The first long-term expedition to the ISS began on October 31, 2000. The 13th International Expedition is currently working on the International Space Station. The crew commander is Russian cosmonaut Pavel Vinogradov, the flight engineer is NASA astronaut Jeffrey Williams. The first Brazilian astronaut Marcos Pontes arrived on the ISS with the Expedition 13 crew. After implementing the week-long program, he returned to Earth together with the crew of the ISS Expedition 12: Russian Valery Tokarev and American William MacArthur, who had been working at the station since October 2005.

“The first spaceship starts from the Earth at a speed of 0.68 s...” This is how the text of the problem begins in a physics textbook for grade 11 students, designed to help consolidate the basic provisions of relativistic mechanics in their minds. So: “The first spacecraft starts from the surface of the earth at a speed of 0.68 s. The second vehicle starts moving from the first one in the same direction with the speed V2 = 0.86 s. It is necessary to calculate the speed of the second ship relative to the planet Earth.

Those who wish to test their knowledge can practice in solving this problem. You can also take part in solving the test together with schoolchildren: “The first spacecraft starts from the surface of the earth at a speed of 0.7 s. (c is the designation for the speed of light). The second vehicle starts moving from the first one in the same direction. Its speed is 0.8 s. The speed of the second ship relative to the planet Earth should be calculated.

Those who consider themselves knowledgeable in this matter have the opportunity to make a choice - four possible answers are offered: 1) 0; 2) 0.2 s; 3) 0.96 s; 4) 1.54 s.

important didactic purpose authors this lesson put forward the acquaintance of students with the physical and philosophical meaning of Einstein's postulates, the essence and properties of the relativistic concept of time and space, etc. educational purpose lesson is the development of a dialectical-materialistic worldview in boys and girls.

But readers of the article who are familiar with the history of domestic space flights will agree that the tasks in which the expression "first spacecraft" is mentioned can play a more significant educational role. If desired, the teacher using these tasks could reveal both cognitive and patriotic aspects of the issue.

The first spacecraft in space, the successes of domestic space science in general - what is known about this?

On the importance of space research

Space research has introduced the most valuable data into science, which made it possible to comprehend the essence of new natural phenomena and put them at the service of people. Using artificial satellites, scientists were able to determine the exact shape of the planet Earth, by studying the orbit it became possible to trace the regions of magnetic anomalies in Siberia. With the use of rockets and satellites, they were able to discover and explore the radiation belts around the Earth. With their help, it became possible to solve many other complex problems.

First spacecraft to visit the moon

The Moon is the celestial body with which the most spectacular and impressive successes of space science are associated.

The flight to the Moon for the first time in history was carried out on January 2, 1959 by the automatic station "Luna-1". The first launch of artificial was a significant breakthrough in the field of space exploration. But the main goal of the project was not achieved. It consisted in the implementation of the flight from Earth to the Moon. The launch of the satellite made it possible to obtain valuable scientific and practical information regarding flights to other space bodies. In the course of the flight of Luna-1, the second was developed (for the first time!) In addition, it became possible to obtain data on the radiation belt of the globe, and other valuable information was obtained. The world press appropriated spacecraft"Luna-1" name "Dream".

AMS "Luna-2" repeated its predecessor almost completely. The instruments and equipment used made it possible to monitor interplanetary space, as well as to correct the information received by Luna-1. The launch (September 12, 1959) was also carried out using the 8K72 launch vehicle.

On September 14, Luna-2 reached the surface of the Earth's natural satellite. The first ever flight from our planet to the moon was made. On board the AMS were three symbolic pennants, on which was the inscription: "USSR, September 1959." A metal ball was placed in the middle, which, when it hit the surface of a celestial body, shattered into dozens of small pennants.

Tasks assigned to the automatic station:

  • reaching the surface of the moon;
  • development of the second cosmic velocity;
  • overcoming the gravity of the planet Earth;
  • delivery of "USSR" pennants to the lunar surface.

All of them were fulfilled.

"East"

It was the very first spacecraft in the world of all launched into Earth's orbit. Academician M. K. Tikhonravov, under the guidance of the famous designer S. P. Korolev, developments were carried out during for long years, starting in the spring of 1957. In April 1958, the approximate parameters of the future ship became known, as well as its general performance. It was assumed that the first spacecraft would have a weight of about 5 tons and that when entering the atmosphere it would need additional thermal protection weighing about 1.5. In addition, it was provided for the ejection of the pilot.

The creation of the experimental apparatus ended in April 1960. In the summer, his tests began.

The first Vostok spacecraft (photo below) consisted of two elements: an instrument compartment and a descent vehicle connected to each other.

The vessel was equipped with manual and automatic control, orientation to the Sun and the Earth. In addition, there was a landing, thermal control and power supply. The board was designed for the flight of one pilot in a spacesuit. The ship had two portholes.

The first spacecraft went into space on April 12, 1961. Now this date is celebrated as Cosmonautics Day. On this day Yu.A. Gagarin launched the world's first spacecraft into orbit. They made a revolution around the Earth.

The main task performed by the first spacecraft with a man on board was to study the well-being and performance of an astronaut outside our planet. The successful flight of Gagarin, our compatriot, the first person to see the Earth from space, brought the development of science to a new level.

A real flight to immortality

“The first manned spacecraft was launched into Earth orbit on April 12, 1961. The first pilot-cosmonaut of the Vostok satellite was a citizen of the USSR, pilot, Major Gagarin Yu.A.

The words from the memorable TASS message will forever remain in history, on one of its most significant and brightest pages. After decades, flights into space will turn into a common, everyday occurrence, but the flight made by a man from a small town in Russia - Gzhatsk - has forever remained in the minds of many generations as a great human feat.

space race

Between the Soviet Union and the United States in those years there was an unspoken competition for the right to play a leading role in the conquest of space. The leader of the competition was the Soviet Union. The United States lacked powerful launch vehicles.

The Soviet astronautics already tested their work in January 1960 during tests in the Pacific Ocean. All the major newspapers in the world published information that a man would soon be launched into space in the USSR, which, of course, would leave the United States behind. All the people of the world were waiting for the first human flight with great impatience.

In April 1961, a man first looked at the Earth from space. "Vostok" rushed towards the Sun, the whole planet followed this flight from radio receivers. The world was shocked and excited, everyone was inseparably watching the course of the greatest experiment in the history of mankind.

Moments that shook the world

"Man in space!" This news interrupted the work of radio and telegraph agencies in mid-sentence. “Man has been launched by the Soviets! Yuri Gagarin in space!

It took Vostok just 108 minutes to fly around the planet. And these minutes not only testified to the speed of the flight of the spacecraft. These were the first minutes of the new space age, which is why the world was so shocked by them.

The race between the two superpowers for the title of winner in the struggle for space exploration ended with the victory of the USSR. In May, the United States also launched a man into space on a ballistic trajectory. And yet, the beginning of man's exit beyond the Earth's atmosphere was laid by the Soviet people. The first spacecraft "Vostok" with an astronaut on board was sent precisely by the Land of the Soviets. This fact was the subject of extraordinary pride of the Soviet people. Moreover, the flight lasted longer, went much higher, followed a much more complex trajectory. In addition, Gagarin's first spacecraft (the photo shows his appearance) cannot be compared with the capsule in which the American pilot flew.

Space Age Morning

These 108 minutes changed the life of Yuri Gagarin, our country and the whole world forever. After the ship left with a man on board, the people of the Earth began to consider this event the morning of the space age. There was no person on the planet who would enjoy such great love not only of his fellow citizens, but of the people of the whole world, regardless of nationality, political and religious beliefs. His feat was the personification of all the best created by the human mind.

"Ambassador of Peace"

Having circled the Earth on the ship Vostok, Yuri Gagarin set off on a journey around the world. Everyone wanted to see and hear the world's first astronaut. He was equally cordially received by prime ministers and presidents, grand dukes and kings. And also Gagarin was joyfully greeted by miners and dock workers, military and scientists, students of the great universities of the world and the elders of abandoned villages in Africa. The first cosmonaut was equally simple, friendly and welcoming to everyone. It was a real "ambassador of peace", recognized by the peoples.

"One big and beautiful human house"

The diplomatic mission of Gagarin was very important for the country. No one could have been so successful as the first man in space did, to tie knots of friendship between people and nations, to unite thoughts and hearts. He possessed an unforgettable, charming smile, amazing benevolence, which united people from different countries, different beliefs. His passionate, heartfelt speeches calling for world peace were extraordinarily convincing.

“I saw how beautiful the Earth is,” Gagarin said. - State borders are indistinguishable from outer space. Our planet looks from space as one big and beautiful human house. All honest people of the Earth are responsible for order and peace in their homes. They believed him endlessly.

Unprecedented rise of the country

At the dawn of that unforgettable day, he was familiar to a limited circle of people. At noon, the whole planet recognized his name. Millions reached out to him, they fell in love with him for his kindness, youth, beauty. For humanity, he became a harbinger of the future, a scout who returned from a dangerous search, who opened new paths to knowledge.

In the eyes of many, he personified his country, was a representative of the people who at one time made a huge contribution to the victory over the Nazis, and now they were the first to rise into space. The name of Gagarin, who was awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union, became a symbol of the country's unprecedented rise to new heights of social and economic progress.

The initial stage of space exploration

Even before the famous flight, when the first spacecraft with a man on board was launched into space, Gagarin thought about the importance of space exploration for people, for which powerful ships and rockets are needed. Why are telescopes mounted and orbits calculated? Why do satellites take off and radio antennas rise? He understood very well the urgent need and importance of these matters and sought to contribute to the initial stage of human exploration of space.

The first spacecraft "Vostok": tasks

The main scientific tasks that confronted the ship "Vostok" were the following. First, the study of the impact of flight conditions in orbit on the state of the human body and its performance. Secondly, testing the principles of building spacecraft.

History of creation

In 1957 S.P. Korolev, within the framework of the scientific design bureau, organized a special department No. 9. It provided for work on the creation of artificial satellites of our planet. The department was headed by an associate of Korolev M.K. Tikhonravym. Also, the issues of creating a satellite piloted by a person on board were studied here. The Royal R-7 was considered as a launch vehicle. According to calculations, a rocket with a third degree of protection was able to launch a five-ton payload into low Earth orbit.

In calculations for early stage The development was attended by mathematicians of the Academy of Sciences. A warning was issued that a tenfold overload could result in a ballistic de-orbit.

The department investigated the conditions for the implementation of this task. I had to abandon the consideration of winged options. As the most acceptable way to return a person, the possibilities of his ejection and further descent by parachute were studied. There was no provision for a separate rescue of the descent vehicle.

In the course of ongoing medical research, it was proved that the most acceptable for the human body is the spherical shape of the descent vehicle, which allows it to withstand significant loads without serious consequences for the astronaut's health. It was the spherical shape that was chosen for the production of the descent module of the manned vessel.

The ship "Vostok-1K" was sent first. It was an automatic flight, which took place in May 1960. Later, a modification of the Vostok-3KA was created and tested, which was completely ready for manned flights.

In addition to one failed flight, which ended in a launch vehicle failure at the very start, the program provided for the launch of six unmanned aerial vehicles and six manned spacecraft.

The program implemented:

  • carrying out a human flight into space - the first spacecraft "Vostok 1" (the photo represents an image of the vessel);
  • flight duration per day: "Vostok-2";
  • group flights: Vostok-3 and Vostok-4;
  • participation in the space flight of the first female cosmonaut: "Vostok-6".

"Vostok": characteristics and device of the ship

Characteristics:

  • weight - 4.73 tons;
  • length - 4.4 m;
  • diameter - 2.43 m.

Device:

  • spherical descent vehicle 2.3 m);
  • orbital and conical instrument compartments (2.27 t, 2.43 m) - they are mechanically connected to each other using pyrotechnic locks and metal bands.

Equipment

Automatic and manual control, automatic orientation to the Sun and manual orientation to the Earth.

Life support (provided for 10 days to maintain the internal atmosphere, corresponding to the parameters of the Earth's atmosphere).

Command-logic control, power supply, thermal control, landing.

For man's work

In order to ensure the work of man in space, the board was equipped with the following equipment:

  • autonomous and radiotelemetric devices necessary for monitoring the astronaut's condition;
  • devices for radiotelephone communication with ground stations;
  • command radio link;
  • program-time devices;
  • television system for monitoring the pilot from the ground;
  • radio system for monitoring the orbit and direction finding of the ship;
  • brake propulsion system and others.

Descent vehicle device

The descent vehicle had two windows. One of them was located on the entrance hatch, slightly above the pilot's head, the other, with a special orientation system, was placed in the floor at his feet. Dressed in was located in an ejection seat. It was envisaged that after braking the descent vehicle at an altitude of 7 km, the cosmonaut should eject and land on a parachute. In addition, it was possible for the pilot to land inside the apparatus itself. The descent vehicle had a parachute, but was not equipped with means for a soft landing. This threatened the person in it with serious bruises upon landing.

If automatic systems failed, the astronaut could use manual control.

The Vostok ships did not have devices for manned flights to the moon. In them, the flight of people without special training was unacceptable.

Who piloted the Vostok ships?

Yu. A. Gagarin: the first spacecraft "Vostok - 1". The photo below is an image of the layout of the ship. G. S. Titov: "Vostok-2", A. G. Nikolaev: "Vostok-3", P.R. Popovich: "Vostok-4", V.F. Bykovsky: "Vostok-5", V.V. Tereshkova: "Vostok-6".

Conclusion

108 minutes, during which the "Vostok" made a revolution around the Earth, the life of the planet was forever changed. Not only historians cherish the memory of these minutes. Living generations and our distant descendants will respectfully re-read the documents that tell about the birth new era. The era that opened the way for people to the vast expanses of the universe.

No matter how far humanity has advanced in its development, it will always remember this amazing day when man first found himself face to face with the cosmos. People will always remember the immortal name of the glorious pioneer of space, which became an ordinary Russian man - Yuri Gagarin. All today's and tomorrow's achievements in space science can be considered steps in his wake, the result of his first and most important victory.