Persons in Russian: rule and meaning. What is the person of the verb in Russian
The morphological category of a person is the most important in the Russian verb system. Personal forms help to determine who is acting: the speaker himself (the subject of communication), - walking, my; speaking with others: walk, wash; interlocutor (addressee of communication) - play, wash; interlocutor with others: walk, wash; not participating in the dialogue (object of communication) - walking, washing, walking, washing. The face is one of the most inconsistent signs. Therefore, the student is often faced with the question of how to determine
Leisurely Analysis
The verb has three faces: 1. walking 2. walking 3. walking; 1. I am silent 2. you are silent 3. you are silent.
They differ not only from each other, but also in the plural: ( read, read, read; build, build, build). is not correlative in meaning to the singular: writing- the speaker is acting write- someone else joined the speaker. It is not yet clear how to determine the person of the verb? And we are not in a hurry. For now, memorize three properly Remember all pronouns by person: 1st person: I, we; 2nd person: you, you; 3rd person: he, (she, it) they. Learn to find the appropriate meaning for a particular verb. For example: verb are flying. The rest is up to you: if you don't like it" I'm flying" or " it's flying", look for more!
Other meanings
Personal forms of the verb, in addition to those indicated above, may have other meanings. For example, the 1 person plural form can become "author's we", meaning 1 person singular: We already touched verb tense definitions, now let's get started to the analysis of actors. Although it sounds different here: I still trying to explain... The form of the 1st person plural in emotionally charged speech is sometimes used in the meaning of the 2nd person singular: Oh what We got big!(referring to the only child present). Verbs of the 2nd person singular appear in the meaning of the 1st person of the singular in generalizations: You you won't understand, seven Fridays a week. Everyone must use the replacement in the 2nd person singular plural - as a sign of respect: You Wonderful play On the violin! Also, personal verbs can become indefinitely personal or generalized personal - with an unknown acting person or if the action applies to everyone at once and to no one in particular: Taking off your head, through your hair don't cry (generalized-personal); Football on TV transmit (indefinitely personal).
Determine the person of the verb
We proceed to the most important thing - how to determine the person of the verb. The first step is to ask the verb a question that is appropriate in meaning.
1 person: what do i do? And what are we doing? (pronouns I, We) I walk, we walk.
2 person: What are you doing? and what are you doing?(pronouns you you) you walk, you walk.
3 person: what do they do? and what are you doing?(pronouns he/she/it, they) walking, walking.
The verb table will help you remember even faster how to determine the face of the verb. Draw it and practice, sign with a pencil invented examples of verbs, erase, and start again.
About the wealth of the Russian language
We have so many verbs that from time to time we will come across inappropriate for this table. What is it, how to determine the person of a substandard verb? It's a matter of time. In the literal sense - time. Define it! And you will see that the verbs that are in the past, as well as the indefinite form, do not have a face! Here is the infinitive (indefinite form): verb be treated. Me (me) it's time to heal. But just the same, always it's time be treated And to you (you), And them (they) and so on. The same story happens. It is enough to substitute the correct pronouns and ask appropriate questions, the verbs will be determined immediately and will be obedient in later life!
Morphology of the Russian literary language*
VERB
Conjugation of verbs
Future tense, simple and compound
Forms of the future tense of verbs perfect. and imperfect. species, differing in meaning, also differ in their formation. Verbs have perfect. the form of the future tense corresponds in education to the form of the present tense in imperfect verbs. type, i.e. form, correlative with it and in meaning. Both of these forms are synthetic forms in which the totality of real and formal meanings is expressed in one and the same word, cf. the present tense of verbs is imperfect. kind write, read and the future tense of perfect verbs. kind write, read.
Imperfect verbs. the form of the future tense is formed analytically by combining the future tense of the auxiliary verb be with the infinitive of the conjugated verb, i.e. of the verb from which the future tense should be formed, for example: I will read, you will write, they will decide etc. In the form of the future tense formed in this way, the infinitive of the conjugated verb expresses real and non-syntactic formal meanings (kind, reflexive or irrevocable, transitive or intransitive), while the auxiliary verb expresses syntactic formal meanings (mood, tense, person, number).
According to the terminology accepted in Russian grammar, the synthetic future tense of verbs is perfect. species is called the future simple (write, read), and the analytic future tense of verbs is imperfect. species - future difficult (I will write, I will read).
Verb face forms
In the present and future tenses, verbs form forms called personal, or persons. These forms denote the person to whom the speaker refers the process expressed by the verb, and the person denoted by the verb is determined through its relation to the speaker. There are three such personal forms: 1st, 2nd and 3rd person. Each of them is presented in units. and in plural. number.
The persons of the verb, opposing each other in meaning, form two pairs of correlative forms. One of them is formed by the forms of the 1st and 2nd person. These forms, as properly personal, are opposed by the form of the 3rd person, which in its meaning can be defined as non-personal and which only in relation to the 1st and 2nd person is designated as the form of the 3rd person.
The personal meaning of properly personal forms, i.e. forms of the 1st and 2nd person, basically corresponds to the meaning of personal pronouns-nouns. Form of the 1st person unit. numbers means that the speaker refers the process expressed by the verb to himself: write, read. In other words, the person to whom the process refers is "I". 1st person plural number is used in the case when the speaker refers the process expressed by the verb to a group of persons, of which he himself is a member, i.e. relates it to "we": write, read.
Form of the 2nd person unit. numbers means that the speaker refers the process expressed by the verb to his interlocutor, i.e. to the one to whom the speech is addressed, to "you": write, read. Its corresponding form is plural. numbers means that the speaker refers the process expressed by the verb to a group of people (more than one) to whom he addresses with a speech, or to a group of people that includes the speaker's interlocutor, i.e. relates the process in general to "you": write, read. Also, 2nd person plural. number is used as a form of polite or formal address to one person (to "you"): Listen, Gorsky... You yourself know that I am not capricious now.(I. Turgenev), I want to know: how do you explain this? “But I want to know what right you have to question me,” I replied.. (I.Turgenev)
Form of the 2nd person unit. numbers are also used in the so-called generalized-personal meaning. This happens when the speaker means through it that the process expressed by the verb does not refer to any particular interlocutor, but to any possible person, including the speaker himself, for example: Ruined a completely human ... What are you going to do!(A. Pisemsky), Until you know him, you will not enter him - you are afraid, as if you are timid; and you will enter - as if the sun will warm you, and you will be all cheerful. (I. Turgenev) In this sense, the form of the 2nd person singular. numbers are widely used in proverbs: You will learn from the smart, you will unlearn from the stupid, Tears will not help grief, If you plant a seed, you will grow an apple tree. etc. The 2nd person can have a generalized personal meaning not only in the form of units. numbers, but also in plural form. numbers: A quarter of an hour before sunset, in the spring, you go out into the grove with a gun, without a dog. You find a place for yourself somewhere near the edge of the forest, look around, inspect the piston, wink at your comrade ... Birds chatteringly babble; the young grass gleams with the merry brilliance of emerald... you are waiting.(I.Turgenev)
Contrasted in meaning to the 1st and 2nd persons in their totality, the form of the 3rd person means that the speaker does not attribute the process expressed by the verb to himself or to his interlocutor. In units In number, the form of the 3rd person in the absence of a subject has an impersonal meaning, i.e. it indicates the impossibility of attributing the process to any subject: It's still pounding in my head.(N. Gogol), The heat from her radiates. (I. Turgenev), There is a smell of fresh milk in the air.(N. Nekrasov), Burning at the sawmill. (A. Chekhov) Only if the verb has a subject or it stands out from the context, “implied”, this form means that the process refers to the speaker to some object, but not to a person in the narrow sense of the word, i.e. .e. speaker and his interlocutor: he writes, reads. In the presence of a subject, the form of the 3rd person plural has the same meaning. numbers indicating only the plurality of objects to which the process belongs: they write, read. In the absence of a subject, 3rd person plural. number has an indefinite personal meaning, i.e. it means that the process refers to some objects, but indefinite and indefinable, since the speaker does not care who performs the process expressed by the verb: Bear! carry! carry!(N. Gogol), What is the name of this bridge?(A. Pushkin), Don't wave your fists after a fight. (Proverb), Please don't smoke. Thus, the use of the form of the 3rd person unit. number in an impersonal meaning corresponds to the use of the form of the 3rd person plural. numbers in an indefinite personal meaning. The latter cannot have an impersonal meaning, since this is prevented by the plural expressed by it. number. The value of multiplicity indicates that the process is produced by some objects (more than one) and, therefore, it cannot be represented in complete abstraction from the object that produces it.
decide |
decide |
will |
} | decide |
we will |
} | decide |
Personal forms, as already mentioned, are present in the forms of the present and future tense. At the same time, since the present tense of verbs is imperfect. aspect and future simple in verbs perfect. species are synthetic forms, their personal forms are formed by changing the conjugated verb itself. In the complex future tense, the verbs are imperfect. aspect, which is an analytic form, personal forms are indicated by changing the auxiliary verb be, i.e. denoted by its personal forms.
Impersonal verbs
Some verbs from personal and generic forms form only the 3rd person singular. numbers in present and future tense and avg. gender in the past tense. Forms of the 3rd person and sredn. The genders of these verbs do not indicate any person and denote a process that occurs as if by itself, without anyone's active participation: I can't sleep, no fire.(A. Pushkin), He did not walk, did not walk, did not even want to climb up. (N. Gogol), There, here, but you can’t sit at home. (A. Pushkin), It was already late when we got home. (I. Turgenev) Such verbs are called impersonal. They are usually names or some natural phenomena: it gets light, it gets dark, it freezes, it gets dark, it soars(before the rain), etc., or various experiences and states of a person: dozing, thinking, sleeping, unwell, sick, feverish.
Formation of personal forms of the verb
Personal forms are formed by attaching to the basis of the crust. temp. special endings that simultaneously denote not only the person, but also the number of the verb. Therefore, verbs have six personal endings, three for each number. According to the differences in the sound expression of these endings, most of the verbs are divided into two conjugations: first And second. The first conjugation is characterized by endings: -y, -osh (-eat), -ot (-et), -om (-eat), -ote (-eat), -ut; second: -u, -ish, -it, -im, -ite, -at.
In oral speech, the endings of the first and second conjugations in many persons differ only when the ending is stressed. In the same case, when the stress falls on the stem, the same unstressed endings are pronounced for all verbs: -ish (kol'ish, l'ub'ish), -it (kol'it, l'ub'it), -im (kol'im, l'ub'im), -it' (colitis', l 'ub'it'), -ut (kol'-ut, l'ub'ut). Therefore, both the verbs of the first and the verbs of the second conjugations are pronounced without stress in the 2nd and 3rd persons singular. numbers and 1st and 2nd persons plural. the number of the end of the second conjugation (because And- phoneme variant<And> and not <о> ), in the 3rd person plural. numbers - the end of the first conjugation. Such pronunciation of unstressed personal endings is typical, for example, of the language of many Muscovites.
A certain kind of difference exists between the verbs of the first and second conjugations in the nature of the stem from which the personal forms are formed, i.e. basics of present. temp. For verbs of the first conjugation, the stem is present. temp. as it appears in the form of the 3rd person plural. numbers, may end in back-palatal consonants (bake-ut, shore-ut), into hard consonants, paired with soft (push-ut, met-ut, lead-ut, carry-ut, carry-ut, row-ut, swim-ut, press-ut, or-ut), on hissing and j (pash-ut, knit-ut, cry-ut, sparkle-ut, spray-ut, game-ut, drawing-ut) and on soft r ’, l ’ (por-yut, coll-yut), while the verbs of the second conjugation have the stem of the present. temp. into soft consonants, paired with hard (let-yat, sit-yat, hang-yat, carry-yat, wail-yat, love-yat, catch-yat, noise-yat, ring-yat, hot-yat, vel-yat), as well as hissing and j (kish-at, tremble-at, scream-at, crack-at, squeal-at, poj-at). Thus, the basis of present. temp. into back-palatal consonants and hard consonants, paired with soft, have only verbs of the first conjugation, and the basis for soft consonants, paired with hard (except r', l'), are only verbs of the second conjugation. The stems do not differ in conjugations only when they have sibilant consonants at the end, j and soft r', l'.
The formation of personal forms by adding endings is accompanied by a change in the stem, which is expressed in the alternation of consonant phonemes at its end according to certain norms. These alternations are presented in verbs only with certain final consonants in the stem and occur in forms determined for each conjugation.
In verbs of the first conjugation, the alternation of phonemes at the end of the stem occurs during the formation of the forms of the 2nd and 3rd person units. numbers and 1st and 2nd person plural. numbers. In these forms, back-palatal consonants change to sibilants: bake-ut, bake-eat (peg-et, bake-eat, bake-ete), shore-ut - save-eat, and hard consonants, paired with soft ones, into the corresponding soft ones: push-ut - push'-you (push'-et, push'-em, push'-ete), met-ut - met'-you, ved-ut - lead'-you, carry-ut - carry'- eat, take-ut - carry'-you, row-ut - row'-you, float-ut - swim'-you, press-ut - press'-you, or-ut - or'-you etc. A very single exception is represented by only one verb weave, in which the posterior To is replaced in alternation not by hissing h, like other verbs, but soft To', compare: tk-ut - tk’-you, tk’-et etc. It is interesting to note that the personal forms of the verb weave With To' basically represent, except for a few borrowed words, the only case in the Russian language where To' appears in a phonetically independent position, i.e. as a separate phoneme, not a variation of the posterior phoneme<To>.
In verbs of the second conjugation, the alternation of the final consonants of the stem occurs during the formation of the form of the 1st person singular. numbers. Here, soft teeth change to sizzling: let'-at - lie down, sid'-at - sit-y, pros'-at - ask, woz'-at - lead-y, sad'-at - sad-y, drive'-at - drive-by; and soft labials - on combinations of labials with soft l': wop’-at - yell’-u, love’-at - lovel’-u, count’-at - graphl’-u, lov’-at - lovl’-u, noise’-at - noisel’-u etc.
Verbs are distributed according to conjugations as follows: the second conjugation includes verbs in which the stem is present. temp. non-derivative to a soft consonant or sibilant, and the stem is past. temp. derivative with suffixes -And-(bel-and-l - bel-yat, resh-and-l - resh-at, love-and-l - love-yat and etc.), -e-(mountains-e-l - mountains-yat, years-e-l - years-yat, sid-e-l - sid-yat and etc.), -a- (shout-a-l - scream-at, stoj-a-l - stoj-at, sp-a-l - sp’-yat and etc.). Therefore, the second conjugation includes, firstly, the verbs of the IV productive class (bel-and-l - bel-yat) and, secondly, the verbs of the second group of the I non-productive class (gor-e-l - gor-yat, scream-a-l - scream-at). All other verbs, with the exception of a few that differ in features in the formation of personal forms, belong to the first conjugation.
Three verbs – want to run And honor – form some personal forms according to the first conjugation, and others - according to the second. Of these, the verb want has in plural. number of endings of the second conjugation, which are attached to the usual basis for this conjugation into a soft consonant T': hot-im, hot-ite, hot-yat. Personal forms of units. the numbers of this verb are formed by means of the endings of the first conjugation, and they are attached to the stem in which the consonant T' is replaced by h: want-u, want-eat, want-et. Two other verbs - run away And honor, having the stems of the present, characteristic of the verbs of the first conjugation. temp. to the posterior G(cf. run-out And shore-ut) and solid T(cf. Thu-ut And met-ut), which, when forming the 2nd and 3rd person units. numbers and 1st and 2nd person plural. numbers are replaced by and(cf. run away And save-eat) And T'(cf. what's up And met'-you), from personal forms according to the first conjugation form only the 3rd person plural. numbers: run-ut, th-ut, in other forms they have endings of the second conjugation: run-ish, run-it, run-im, run-ite And th-it, th-it, th-im, th-ite.
Completely apart in the formation of personal forms are verbs eat, get bored, give, create. They differ from other verbs primarily in that they have special personal endings in singular. including: 1st person -m, 2nd person -sh, 3rd person -st, moreover, these endings are attached to a stem that is different from the stem of personal plural forms. numbers, i.e. to the stem into a vowel, not a consonant, as in the plural. number.
Plural number
Plural base. the numbers of these verbs end in a consonant d: soft for verbs eat, get bored(cf. ed-yat, bored-yat) and hard in alternation with soft in verbs give, create(cf. dad-ut - dad'-im, created-ut - created'im). The former have plural in all personal forms. the numbers of the end of the second conjugation, the second in the 1st and 2nd persons - the end of the second conjugation, and in the 3rd person - the first. As well as eat, get bored, give, create, form personal forms and verbs derived from them with prefixes.
Past tense
Verbs in the past tense change by number, and in the singular they change, moreover, by gender. Gender and number in the past tense are indicated by endings. Namely, male. the genus is characterized by the absence of an ending (zero ending), female. gender has an ending -A, avg. genus – -O, pl. number - ending -And. In addition to endings, generic forms of units. numbers are different from plural forms. number by the fact that the former have a past tense suffix - solid l, while the second has l soft.
Plural number
Verbs whose past tense form is formed from a stem ending in a consonant: b, p, d, k, x, h, s, p, in men's gender do not have a suffix -l, compare: perished - perished, blind - blind, shore - whether - shore, tol-whether - tolok, dry-whether - dried up, carried-whether - carried, carried-whether - carried, died-whether - died.
The gender and number of the past tense are syntactic forms that, by means of agreement with the noun-subject, show that the process expressed by the verb refers to the subject masculine, feminine. or avg. kind or to the subject in the plural. number, for example: The artillery roared harder. We received orders to move forward. Suddenly, the flames of fire sharply licked the ranks of the front fighters. A landmine exploded.
On average gender past tense, in addition, is used when the role of the subject is words that do not distinguish gender, for example, numerals: About ten men were sitting near him.(I. Turgenev), or infinitive. I didn't have to lie. (I. Herzen), It never crossed my mind to laugh. (I. Turgenev) Finally, on average. In the same way, the past tense is used in impersonal sentences: A tree was lit by a thunderstorm, and there was a nightingale nest on a tree. (N. Nekrasov), Dampness and prelude wafted through the open window.(A.Fadeev) In this case, the mean. the gender of the past tense acts as a parallel form to the 3rd person of the present and future simple tenses, when they are used in an impersonal sense (see above, p. 35).
Plural form the number of the past tense can be used in an indefinitely personal meaning, corresponding to the same meaning of the 3rd person plural. present and future numbers: He was caught at the station. They took me to the governor's office. Under interrogation, he answered willingly and cheerfully. - The name of? - Grigory Ivanovich Peskov.(L.Seifullina)
The past tense has no personal forms. Therefore, the person to whom the verb refers is indicated in the past tense by personal pronouns, which are always placed with the verb if the process expressed by it refers to the 1st and 2nd person of both numbers, except when the person is clear from the context of speech: We have received orders to advance. Silently crawling forward.
Short form of the verb
In the emotional language, some verbs (mainly onomatopoeic or denoting movement) use a special short form with the meaning of a sudden single action: Grab a friend with a stone in the forehead. (I. Krylov), Then the knight jumped into the saddle and threw the reins.(I. Krylov), Left, left and from the cart - bang into the ditch!(I. Krylov), Whip click - and like an eagle he rushed. (M. Lermontov), I shouted at her, and she suddenly clapped on the sofa. (A. Pisemsky) short form expressed non-derivative basis verb and is usually used in the past tense of the indicative mood without indicating the person, number and gender. It has a transitive or intransitive meaning depending on which verb it is derived from, cf. from transitive verbs: grab, hit, bang(someone or something) grab, knock, bryak – and from intransitive verbs: jump, jump, jump(somewhere) - jump, bang, plop.
Conditional mood
The conditional mood means that the process expressed by the verb is considered not as real, but as expected: He would have helped you, I would have done it better, He would not have done that.. Depending on the syntactic conditions and the general context of speech, this meaning, the main one for the conditional mood, may change somewhat. Yes, in complex sentence when the process is limited by any conditions expressed in subordinate clause, the conditional mood in the main clause expresses the process as possible under certain conditions, i.e. it becomes conditional in the proper sense of the word: He wouldn't have done that if he knew, If I fell, I would never get up.(A. Pushkin) In a certain context, the conditional mood can express a process as a desired one: If only he would come, I would like to talk with you, You would tell us something, You would rather sit at home etc., approaching in this case in meaning with the imperative mood.
The conditional mood is formed analytically by combining the past tense of the conjugated verb with the particle would or b expressing the value of the assumption. In this case, the form of the past tense itself loses its temporal meaning, and the conditional mood expresses a process, the alleged implementation of which is irrespective of the moment of speech. The forms of gender and number with their meanings, as well as the ways of expressing attitudes towards a person, are the same for the conditional mood as for the past tense.
Plural number
Particle would, b mobile: it can stand both after the verb and before it, and finally, it can be separated from the verb in other words: I'd come if I wasn't busy Whatever happens, it's all your fault No matter how much they ask him, he still won't say. The most common location of a particle would after the first word of the sentence.
The imperative mood and its forms
The imperative mood, expressing a demand, an incentive to action, is an expressive form that expresses the volitional attitude of the speaker to the producer of the action. On this basis, it is opposed to the indicative and conditional, which are not in themselves forms of expression of will. As an expressive form, the imperative mood is characterized by a special motivating intonation, often accompanied by appropriate gestures and facial expressions. Through this intonation, the meaning of motivation, orders can be given to almost any word: Be silent! Keep quiet! Quiet! Here! Into the corner! Go away! etc. But while in this case intonation is the only means of expressing the impulse, in the imperative mood the impulse is expressed, in addition to intonation, by its very forms. It, therefore, is a special grammatical form of the verb, which serves to express the motivation, the expression of the will of the speaker.
The imperative mood is expressed by a number of forms, which, opposing each other in meaning, form a system of correlative forms. So, first of all, forms are opposed to each other, which express, on the one hand, the impulse to action addressed to the interlocutor of the speaking person, and on the other hand, the impulse addressed to the object of speech, i.e. 3rd person. The latter are called forms. 3rd person imperative mood: Let me be denounced as an old believer. (A.Griboyedov), Let the Finnish waves forget their old enmity and captivity ...(A. Pushkin) The first, i.e. forms expressing the impulse addressed to the interlocutor, in turn, are divided into correlative forms opposed to each other: joint shape and form 2nd person.
The joint form, or, as it is less accurately called, the form of the 1st person, expresses the urge addressed to the interlocutor to perform an action together with the speaker himself, i.e. the speaker encourages the interlocutor to take part in the action that he himself intends to perform: Let's go, let's go, Pyotr Ivanovich!(N. Gogol), Give me your hand, dear reader, and come along with me.. (I. Turgenev), Let's get out of here, Nikolai! Father, let's go!(A.Chekhov)
Unlike the joint form, the 2nd person of the imperative mood expresses an incentive to act without indicating its implementation by the interlocutor together with the speaker: Look, Pavlusha, study, do not be foolish and do not hang out.(N. Gogol), Don't tell me about him, do me a favor, don't tell me. (A. Ostrovsky) Thus, both of these forms, combining in the sense that both express an appeal to the 2nd person, are divided into a joint form and a form of the 2nd person, depending on whether they contain or do not contain an indication of the joint performance of an action by the interlocutor of the speaking person with the speaker himself.
In the forms of the 2nd person of the imperative mood, certain semantic differences are observed, connected and determined by the aspect of the verb. Verbs have perfect. the form of the 2nd person often expresses a softer, more polite appeal to the interlocutor than the corresponding form of imperfective verbs. species, cf.: clear the table And clear the table, sweep the room And sweep the room, write a letter And write a letter, solve a problem And solve the problem etc. This difference is due to the fact that the impulse expressed by the verb perfect. kind, is no longer directed at the action itself, but at its result, while the form of the 2nd person of the imperative mood of verbs is imperfect. of the species expresses the impulse specifically for action, as if ignoring its result. Somewhat different differences in meaning, determined by the aspect of the verb, are observed when the forms of the 2nd person of the imperative mood are formed in negative verbs, i.e. verbs with particle prefix Not. Namely, in negative verbs perfect. the form of the 2nd person imperative usually has the meaning of a warning: don't fall, don't slip, don't catch a cold, don't forget(caution refers to the result of the action), and for verbs imperfect. this semantic connotation is absent: don't read this book, don't go there, don't listen to him etc., and the imperative mood has the meaning of prohibition. Characteristically, such differences are not observed in a joint form.
The joint form and the 2nd person of the imperative mood form a singular. and plural. numbers, and the ratio of these forms is such that the value of units. number is defined negatively with respect to the plural. number. Plural forms numbers indicate that the impulse to action is addressed to more than one person: Proletarians of all countries, unite! Guys! Isn't Moscow behind us? Let's die near Moscow...(M. Lermontov) Forms of units. the numbers do not contain an indication of the number of persons to whom the call to action is addressed. Therefore, units number can be used as when referring to one person: Look, Pavlusha, study, don't be a fool and don't hang out. (N. Gogol), Prove that you are my friend, let's go together. Let's go, shake the old. (A. Chekhov), and when referring to a number of persons greater than one: Listen to my command! Line up!(A. Fadeev), Nothing to do, break down the door guys. (N. Chernyshevsky), Friends! Let's go with a sad soul to pay him the last debt. (N. Karamzin) Plural. the number, in addition to its main meaning, can also have the meaning of a polite appeal to one person: Give me your hand, dear reader, and come along with me.. (I. Turgenev), . (I.Turgenev)
As already mentioned, forms expressing an appeal to the interlocutor, i.e. the joint form and the form of the 2nd person in their totality are opposed to the forms of the 3rd person. The meaning of the person of these forms in general corresponds to the personal meaning of the forms of the 3rd person of the present and future tenses. In particular, the form of the 3rd person plural. numbers can have an indefinitely personal meaning, for example: Let me be denounced as an old believer. (A.Griboedov)
|
Comm. view |
Imperfect view |
|||
(let's) decide |
let's decide |
||||
|
decide |
decide |
|||
|
let him decide |
let him decide |
In addition to these forms, the imperative mood also has forms denoting known kind intimacy in relation to the speaker to the person to whom he refers. The value of intimacy in address is often accompanied by a touch of familiarity. These forms are formed by means of a special suffix -ka, which can be attached to any form of the imperative: Listen, let's look for a better ford. (I. Krylov), Yakov, raise the curtain, brother. (A. Chekhov), “Let’s go to Lgov,” Yermolai once told me. (I. Turgenev), But let's get better at drinking tea. (I. Turgenev), etc. Depending on the presence or absence of this suffix, all forms of the imperative mood can be divided into forms with an indication of intimacy in addressing a person and into forms without such an indication.
Use of the 2nd person singular imperative
In the system of forms will command. inclinations form of the 2nd person unit. number stands out in the sense that it can be used not only in the meaning of command. inclinations. The possibility of such use is explained mainly by the peculiarities of the personal meaning of this form. Being, as in general commands. inclination, a form expressing the volitional attitude of the speaker to the person, the form of the 2nd person matters command. inclinations, however, only when it is used in reference to a certain specific person or persons. In the same case, when it is used in a generalized-personal meaning corresponding to the generalized-personal meaning of the form of the 2nd person of the present and future tense, it to a greater or lesser extent, or even completely loses the meaning of command. inclinations: Well, I admit, cut forests out of need, but why destroy them.(A. Chekhov), Do you need tea, sugar? Do you need tobacco? This is where you turn around.(A. Chekhov), Even if you die of anguish, will they pity you? How about, wait. At the same time, the inherent command is also lost. inclination motivating intonation. It is significant that in a similar sense, it is precisely that form of command that is used. mood, which is largely characterized by negative grammatical features: the absence of an indication of the joint implementation of an action and an indication of the number of persons addressed by the speaker with motivation.
Losing the value will command. inclinations, form of the 2nd person unit. number remains, however, an emotional, expressive form and is used mainly in oral speech to express various shades of predicative meaning. The generalized personal meaning of this form allows it to be used in relation to the 1st and 3rd persons. So, the form of the 2nd person will command. mood can be used in the sense of a forced action, usually reported with a hint of discontent, protest: He serves the master, and sweep, and clean. (I. Goncharov), They have a ball, and batiushka, drag yourself to bow. (A.Griboyedov), Here you sin, and the authorities answer for you. (V. Sleptsov), And he all laugh, but make others laugh. (I. Turgenev) and others; or in the meaning of an involuntary action with an emotional tinge of surprise: My father, and love him: what do you order to do. (I. Turgenev), Well, think it over me, this man. (V. Sleptsov), And they get together at night, convicts, then. (L. Tolstoy), Only suddenly she bowed, but on her back, and broke her leg.(I.Turgenev)
In a complex sentence, the form of the 2nd person singular. numbers will command. mood, mainly formed from verbs perfect. species, can be used in the meaning of the conditional mood. The action expressed by it in this case can refer to any person and with it (usually after) the subject is placed in any of the numbers: If he were seven spans in the forehead, but he would not leave my court. (A. Pushkin), And if there were pistols, he would have been long gone. (N. Gogol), And if it wasn't for me, you would have smoked in Tver. (A.Griboyedov), Do not take a pinch of fox hairs, she would have a tail. (I. Krylov)
Formation of imperative mood forms
In the conjugation system of the verb will command. the inclination is distinguished by the wide use of the analytical method of forming forms. So, the forms of the 3rd person and to a large extent the joint form will command. moods are formed by combining an auxiliary word or particle with the form of a conjugated verb, which in this case expresses mainly only the real meaning and non-syntactic formal meanings, while the syntactic formal meanings are expressed by a separate auxiliary word. Extremely characteristic of commands. moods are also agglutinative forms, i.e. forms formed by the addition of suffixes expressing only one formal meaning, so that several formal meanings are conveyed by a series of suffixes "glued" to each other. In this regard, the forms of the 2nd person will command are especially indicative. inclinations. True, their main forms are the forms of units. numbers - are formed in the usual Russian language in an inflectional way, i.e. through a suffix denoting several formal meanings, with a change in the stem through the alternation of phonemes, and represent not one, but two types of forms, but derivatives of units. form numbers are formed in a typically agglutinative way, by "gluing" unambiguous and same-type suffixes. Elements of agglutination are also present in the joint form of command. inclinations.
Joint form unit number coincides in form with the 1st person plural. future tense numbers. At the same time, since the verbs are imperfect. If the future tense, the so-called future complex, is formed analytically, then their joint form is also analytical, cf .: perfect. view decide, say, do and imperfect. view we will decide, we will speak, we will do. However, some verbs are imperfect. species form a joint form unit. numbers according to the model of perfect verbs. kind. These are verbs with the meaning of a certain movement, in which this form coincides with the form of the 1st person plural. present tense numbers: go, run, fly and etc.
Analytic joint form, coinciding with the form of the 1st person plural. number of the future tense, is used, in general, relatively rarely. Instead, verbs have an imperfect. type, the analytical form is usually used, which is formed by connecting a movable auxiliary particle Let's and the infinitive of the conjugated verb: let's decide, let's talk, let's do etc. The same particle is often placed in the joint form of verbs perfect. type: let's decide, let's write, let's fly away and etc.
Form of the 2nd person unit. numbers will command. inclinations, as a rule, are formed from the basis of the present tense. Only very few verbs are an exception in this respect. Thus, verbs VII are non-product. class, i.e. verbs with stem past. temp. to suffix -va- and the basis of present. temp. without this suffix to suffix -j- (yes-va-l - yes-j-ut) have command in the 2nd person. inclinations a particular basis on -vaj-, compare: yes-j-ut - yes-wai, (co) hello-j-ut - (co) hello-wai, (y) know-j-ut - (y) know-wai, (c) hundred-j-ut - (c) sta-wai. Then, in verbs VI is an unproduct. class with the basis of past. temp. into a vowel And and the basis of present. temp. without this vowel j (bi-l - bj-ut) the basis of the 2nd person will command. inclination differs from the basis of the crust. temp. fluent vowel e, compare: bj-ut - beat, vj-ut - wei, lj-ut - lei, pj-ut - drink, shj-ut - shei. Isolated verbs give, create form a command. inclination with base let me create, and the verb There is- with base eat. Finally, the verb drive as the 2nd person will command. mood is a form formed from a completely different root : go.
In modern Russian, there are two types of formation of the 2nd person form command. inclinations. In some verbs, it is formed by attaching to the basis of the present. temp. suffix -And: go-ut - go-and, carry-ut - carry-and, push-ut - push-and, for other verbs - without this suffix, and then it equals the stem: get up - get up, hide-ut - hide, game j-ut - game j, drawing j-ut - drawing.
With suffix -And command. mood is formed in verbs that are in the 1st person singular. numbers present. temp. have an accent on the ending: keep - keep, shout - shout, carry - carry, shore - take care, go - go, take off - take off, except for a few with the basis of crust. temp. on j: I sing - sing, I stand - stop, I'm afraid - be afraid, I chew - chew etc. The stress in such forms is on the suffix -And. In addition, the form with the suffix -And, already unstressed, also form some verbs in which the stress is in the 1st person unit. numbers present. temp. falls on a stem, but only if that stem ends in two consonants: cum - cum, jump - jump, knock - knock, clean - clean(But cleanse), spoil - spoil(but more often mess up), etc. Also with an unstressed suffix -And form a command. mood verbs with a prefix You-, transferring stress to themselves when they themselves are formed from verbs that have in command. mood suffix -And, compare: carry And take out, buy And buy, write And write out etc. The rest of the verbs form the 2nd person command. inclinations without suffix.
In the formation of both one and the other form, i.e. both with a suffix and without a suffix, in certain cases there is a change in the basis from which the command is made. mood. Namely, for verbs with stems present. temp. into a hard consonant, paired with a soft one, this consonant will command. mood is replaced in alternating order with the corresponding soft consonant. So in forms without a suffix: sit-ut - sit down, bud-ut - be, climb-ut - climb, den-ut - day, get up-ut - get up, throne-ut - touch etc. The same is observed in the formation of forms with a suffix, where before the phoneme And, i.e. in a position that is phonetically independent for hard phonemes, however, soft consonants are pronounced: met-ut - met'-i, id-ut - id'-i, carried-ut - carried'-i, wez-ut - wez'-i, push-ut - push'-i, call-ut - call '-and, row-ut - row'-and etc.
Replacement hard consonants into soft ones occurs only in relation to those hard ones for which there are paired soft consonants. Hard phonemes that do not have paired soft ones remain in the formation of the 2nd person command. inclinations without replacement. Therefore, hard hissing consonants are not replaced sh, w: hear-at - hear, write-ut - write-and, rezh-ut - cut, lie-at - lie-and etc., and therefore the consonants of the posterior palatine are not replaced: lie down - lie down. Form lie down, although it is completely isolated, it is formed quite naturally, without representing any "exception". Its exclusivity is only in the fact that not a single other verb with a stem is present. temp. on the posterior form of the 2nd person will command. mood is not formed without a suffix And, compare: pek-ut - pek-i, tk-ut - tk-i, shore-ut - shore-and, lg-ut - lies etc. However, even in the form with a suffix, hard phonemes are not replaced by soft ones. The softness of the consonants here is not the result of replacing one phoneme with another, i.e. their alternation, and the consequence of a phonetic change in the posterior palatine phonemes k, g in their position before the phoneme And, since this position is known to be a phonetically dependent position for the posterior palate, in which they change into softened variations k', g'. Thus, at the end of the base in forms like mk-i, lg-i etc. - the same posterior phonemes as in the form lie down. The difference between them is purely phonetic.
As a result of the replacement in the formation of the 2nd person, it will command. inclinations of hard consonants, paired with soft ones, into their corresponding soft ones, the basis of this form can have only soft consonants at the end, and from hard consonants only unpaired with soft ones, i.e. hissing sh, w and posterior k, Mr.
Education plural. the number of the joint form and the form of the 2nd person has an agglutinative character. Plural the number of both forms is formed by adding a plural suffix -those to the form numbers: decide, say, let's go; sit, climb, play, push, call etc. In the joint form formed analytically, the suffix -those joins auxiliary verb we will or particle Let's, i.e. to the word, which is the carrier of not real, but formal meanings: let's work, let's write, let's decide and others. Also to the auxiliary particle Let's plural suffix attached -those in the case when this particle is placed in a joint form formed from perfect verbs. species, cf.: decide And let's decide let's do it And let's do it, let's write And let's write and etc.
Similarly, forms are formed with the meaning of intimate appeal. They are formed by adding the suffix -ka, but not only to the forms of units. numbers: let's decide, let's go, sit down, play, go, as well as plural forms. numbers: decide, let's go, sit down, play, go. In analytic forms, the suffix -ka joins, as does the plural suffix. numbers -those, to the auxiliary word: let's work, let's write, let's do(cf. let's write) and etc.
It should be noted some features in the order of joining the suffix -ka in education command. moods of reflexive verbs. While the suffix -those joins the forms. numbers before the return particle: let's walk, walk suffix -ka joins the forms. and plural. numbers after the return particle: let's go, let's go.
The 3rd person form will command. inclination is an analytic form. It is formed by combining an auxiliary particle let or let with the form of the 3rd person present. or bud. simple tense depending on the type of the verb: let or let it go, let it or let him come. Unlike other analytical forms in the 3rd person will command. moods, the auxiliary word expresses, however, not all formal meanings. So, the person and the number in it are denoted by a conjugated verb: 3rd person singular. numbers - the form of the 3rd person unit. numbers present. or bud. (simple) time: let it go, come; 3rd person plural numbers - the form of the 3rd person plural. numbers: let them come, let them come. Only the meaning of intimacy in address is expressed in the usual way for analytical forms, by attaching a suffix to the auxiliary particle -ka: let them go, let them come.
In solemnly poetic speech, as an auxiliary word for the formation of the 3rd person, command. mood is used instead of particles let, let particle Yes: May the conquered element make peace with you!(A. Pushkin), May he meet an age rich in honor, may he be a glorious participant ...(V. Zhukovsky), Honor calloused hands! Let their work be argued!(F. Miller)
PARTICIPLE
The predicative forms of the verb are opposed by attributive forms - participle And gerund, i.e. forms in which the verb acts as minor members of the sentence.
The participle is an attributive form of the verb that expresses the process denoted by the verb as a property of the object: wasteland overgrown with bushes, a dimly burning lamp, a bone-chilling wind, cracked rocks, a slow-moving wagon etc. Therefore, in the sentence, it acts as a secondary member that determines the noun, i.e. as a definition. The relation of participles to a noun is expressed by the syntactic forms of gender, number and case, by means of which the participles agree in gender, number and case with the noun they define. Participles, therefore, are inflected forms, and their declension is identical with the declension of adjectives, with which they are approached by agreeable forms of gender, number and case, as well as similarities in syntactic use.
Participles express non-syntactic formal meanings of time, which denote the relationship between the moment of the process, expressed by the participle, and the moment of speech. By differences in this ratio, present participles and past participles are distinguished. Their temporal meaning generally corresponds to the temporal meaning of the present and past forms of the indicative mood.
Present participles indicate that the process they express is taking place regardless of the moment of speech: Everyone envied the harmony that reigned between the arrogant Troyekurov and his poor neighbor. (A. Pushkin), and therefore, it can also occur at the moment of speech: I look, a horse is slowly rising uphill, carrying a cart of brushwood.(N. Nekrasov) These participles are formed only for imperfective verbs. kind. Past participles indicate that the process they express preceded the moment of speech: I pass along the field with a narrow border, overgrown with porridge and tenacious swan.(A. Maikov), The steppes teemed with herds of deer and wild horses roaming in herds.(N. Gogol), The sun was already hidden in a black cloud resting on the ridge of the western mountains.(M. Lermontov) These participles are formed like imperfect verbs. species, and for verbs perfect. kind. Thus, the verbs are imperfect. species have participles of both present and past tense ( playing And playing, whitening And whitened, drawing And painting etc.), and the verbs are perfect. species - only past participles ( played, turned white, painted etc.). True, in verbs perfect. species in some cases, participles are formed according to the type of participles of the present tense for imperfect verbs. kind, for example: We are very glad when someone coming from the capital finds that they have exactly the same as in St. Petersburg.(N. Gogol), Kalinovich involuntarily remembered Nastenka, doomed to live in the wilderness and all her life, perhaps not seeing any balls or theaters.(A. Pisemsky), however, such forms have not been established in the language and are perceived as erroneous. Some verbs of this kind have formations meaning of adjectives, For example: future, future, next and etc.
Thus, participles are attributive forms of the verb, which, expressing the process as a property of an object, have a non-syntactic formal meaning of time and syntactic agreed forms of gender, number and case, indicating the relation of the participle to the noun.
In their meaning and syntactic use, participles are very close to adjectives, into which they often pass, losing their tense and verbal meaning. Such a transition is favored by some syntactic conditions, for example, the use of participles without controlled words or without any words defining participles in a position before the noun being determined. In this case, it is often difficult to determine whether given form participle or adjective. In particular, there is often a transition to adjectives of the present participles, for example: brilliant mind, pleading eyes, defiant voice, aspiring writer, prominent politician etc. The temporal meaning of this form, essentially negative, can easily be perceived as the absence of an indication of time, as a result of which the sign denoted by the word appears in the meaning of a permanent property and quality, and not a process occurring in time.
To be continued
* From the book: Avanesov R.I., Sidorov V.N. Essay on the grammar of the Russian literary language. Part I. Phonetics and morphology. Moscow: Uchpedgiz, 1945.
Faces in Russian are an important morphological feature independent parts speech. Knowing this rule well, you can easily determine the type of one-component sentences, as well as correctly compose
The Russian language is rich in its verbal diversity, but even among such a huge choice there is a foundation, the foundation of the language. This basis is independent parts of speech. in Russian, it can “teach” how to correctly write complex spellings of verbs, correctly coordinate them with other parts of speech, and also correctly compose aspectual forms. A verb is one of the main independent parts of speech, denoting the “action” of an object performed by someone / something. The main morphological features of the verb include: conjugation, aspect, tense, person. The Russian language in the "chest of knowledge" has two conjugations, which, again, only a good knowledge of faces will help to correctly determine.
So, there are three types of faces in Russian: 1st person, 2nd and 3rd.
Since a person is a sign of a verb that defines “who” or “what” performs an action, it must be determined using pronouns.
The first person indicates that the narrator himself performs the action (this means that the personal pronoun “I” must be substituted for the verb): I listen, I see. As for the plural, the pronoun “we” is substituted here: we do, we prepare.
The second person indicates that the interlocutor of the narrator performs the action (substitute the pronouns “you” - in the singular, or “you” in the plural): you did, you know, you saw, you worked. It is the knowledge of the second person that helps to determine: for this, the verb must be presented in conjunction with the pronoun "you" and at the end you will already clearly see the 1st or 2nd conjugation (if the verb has the ending ESH, then this is the 1st conjugation, if ending ISH, then - II-e).
Persons in Russian also have a third form, which indicates the subject of the action. In this case, the pronouns "he / she / it" for the singular and "they" for the plural should be substituted for the verb: they are in a hurry, it shines, he draws, she plays.
Thus, having mastered this rule well, you can avoid many grammatical and also knowledge of this rule helps in determining the type of a one-part simple sentence.
There are impersonal, indefinitely personal and definitely personal. The sentences of the first type are characterized by verbs in initial form(infinitive), as well as impersonal verbs. It is worth noting that a feature of this type of one-part sentence is the expression of the verb in it through the word "no".
In definitely personal sentences, verbs of the 2nd person are most often found, both in the plural and in the singular.
Indefinitely personal have in their composition verbs of the 3rd person (that is, with the pronoun "someone / they").
Persons in Russian are a defining feature of parts of speech. They help to correctly combine words, correctly write their suffixes / endings, and also correctly express their thoughts.
G.I. Kustova, 2011
Face- inflectional grammatical category of the verb, characteristic finite(see) forms present-future tense(see Time) (presence). The person has features of both syntactic and nominative categories. In the Russian grammatical tradition, forms that have a personal-numeric indicator are called personal, or conjugated (see. Verb form system, Finiteness). The face paradigm includes first, second and third person forms. The shape of the face shows what is the role of the subject of the verb (subject) in the speech act: whether the referent of the subject is the speaker (1st person), the addressee (2nd person) or neither (3rd person).
1. Morphology
The person is morphologically expressed by the inflection of the present-future tense, in which the meaning of the person is combined with the meaning of the number (see Number of the verb).
In the indicative mood, the morphological indicator of the face is present in the forms of the present and future tenses (see). The forms of the past tense of the indicative mood and the forms of the subjunctive mood do not have grammatical category persons, but have the grammatical category of gender. In the past tense and subjunctive mood, the indication of a person is carried out in context - using a noun or personal pronoun: I came; You came; He / a friend came.
1.1. Expression of the category of a person: indicative mood
In the present and future simple tense, verbs have the following inflections, which differ (except for the 1st person singular forms) depending on the type of conjugation:
Other archaic forms of verb conjugation be (I am, you are) are also found in cult and high-style texts and, accordingly, in quotations from these texts:
(3) The Lord said to Peter, “You thou art Peter, and on this rock I will build My Church” (Matthew 16:18) [John Meyendorff. Orthodox Witness in the Modern World (1992)]
(4) Establish, O Lord, on the stone of Thy commandments my perishing heart, as the only holy thou art and the Lord... [L. Ulitskaya. Journey to the Seventh Side of the World (2000)]
Ligamentous and locative be usually has a null form: You ø is ill; He ø teacher; Children ø in the garden.
1.2. Facial category expression: imperative mood
2. Usage: syntax and semantics
2.1. The deictic nature of the category of person
The category of a person is associated not only with a certain morphological form (finite, or personal), but also with a certain syntactic position: the finite forms of a verb in a sentence are a predicate (for more details, see Finiteness).
The question of the status of the category of a person does not have an unambiguous solution in the domestic grammatical tradition. There is an approach in which a person is treated as a purely syntactic (consensual) category that does not have its own nominative meaning. The verb agrees in person with the subject [Melchuk 1998:280–281]. With this approach, even in impersonal and indefinitely personal sentences, a zero subject is postulated. Within the framework of another approach, it is considered that the person of the verb has its own semantics, and pronouns are analytical verbal indicators of the person, duplicating personal inflection in the present-future tense. Compare: “Combinations of type I write, you are writing, I wrote, you wrote etc. are in Russian not free syntactic phrases, but analytic-synthetic forms of the verb. This means that the elements I, You, He in combination with writing, write, writes act not as pronouns, but as (excessive) personal indicators of the verb form, which is expressed in their incomplete accentuation” [Isachenko 2003(2):410].
The diversity of approaches is partly explained by the fact that both in the semantic and in the syntactic aspect, the category of a person differs from the “normal” nominative and syntactic categories (see the article Grammar categories).
As for the content of the person category, unlike the nominative categories such as the number of nouns, which reflect the properties of extralinguistic reality, the person category is focused on the speech act, i.e. the semantics of the person has a deictic character. As for the agreement on the face, it does not correspond to the canonical ideas about agreement. In the standard case, the agreed element duplicates the gramme of the agreement controller: for example, the agreed adjective receives the gender gramme from the agreeing noun. The person category of the verb has too many deviations from this scheme to consider the choice of person as canonical agreement.
First, the agreement checker does not have a grammatical category of a person. For personal pronouns, the person is a lexical, not a grammatical meaning.
NOTE. There is a point of view (it is discussed, for example, in [Plungyan 2011:310–312]) that personal pronouns are a closed class of “fully grammaticalized lexemes” that do not have lexical meaning, but have only grammatical - indicate the participants in the speech act. In the Russian grammatical tradition, this point of view is not widely used (cf., for example, [Vinogradov 1947:329–330], [Zaliznyak 1967:62], [Grammatika 1980(1):§§1270–1280], where personal pronouns are considered ordinary lexemes, although with some peculiarities in the behavior of grammatical categories).
Topic nouns no longer have a person category: nouns are by default equated with 3rd person pronouns, since they only combine with the 3rd person form of the verb, however, there cannot be a grammatical category consisting of a single gramme, which is also detected only in the form of the nominative case in the position of the subject and only with the verb of the present-future tense.
In 1-2 persons of the indicative mood, the subject can usually be omitted, because the form of the verb unambiguously indicates it, and imperative constructions in standard literary speech are usually used without a subject. Moreover, with forms of joint action (see), the use of the subject is prohibited, and its introduction turns the imperative form of joint action into an indicative form of the future tense, cf .: Masha, let's go to the cinema!- motivation; Masha, we are going to the cinema- statement.
Forms of the 3rd person can also express their deictic meaning (‘not speaking and not addressee’) without a subject. Another thing is that in the form of the 3rd person, unlike 1-2 persons, it is impossible to determine the referent of the subject of the verb. In the pronoun-subject of 1-2 persons, two meanings are glued together: it indicates both the participant in the speech act (since it is a personal pronoun) and the subject of the action (since it is the subject). In this sense, the 3rd person pronoun does not give anything to the 3rd person verb: the sentence He will come soon similarly does not communicate specific information about the subject's referent, as does the sentence Coming soon.
Thus, the choice of the person of the verb may not focus on the subject, but appeal directly to the participants in the speech act, just like, for example, the gender of the verb in constructions like The doctor came reflects not the gender of the subject, but the gender of its denotation (for more details, see the article Gender). Given these facts, we can say that the person of the verb in Russian is not entirely consensual and has the features of a nominative category.
On the other hand, the category of person undoubtedly has a conciliatory aspect, which consists in the fact that both the subject and the predicate must refer to the same person. So, if the speaker refers to himself in the 3rd person, for example: Listen to what your mom says(when a mother addresses her child, i.e. in the meaning of ‘listen to what I’m telling you’), the 1st person of the predicate is not allowed: * Listen to what your mom is telling you.
It is significant that in the Russian grammatical tradition, in relation to the connection of the predicate with the subject, they speak not of agreement, but of coordination: in a speech act, a single indicator of a person is chosen, as it were, which applies to both the subject and the predicate. Because of this, sentences in which the subject and predicate are uncoordinated are unacceptable in Russian, i.e. sentences like * Men go, which are found, for example, in the Adyghe language.
The relation of an action to a person can be expressed not only by the forms of verbs ( I bring to your knowledge…) and not only personal pronouns (cf. To me be on duty – You be on duty – To him be on duty), but also by other means - lexical, constructive-syntactic, intonational, cf.: The author of these lines; Your humble servant- reference to the 1st person, the speaker; Get up!; To me!; Carriage!- related to the 2nd person, the addressee. In the theory of functional grammar, all these means are considered within the category personalities, the core of which is the grammatical person of the verb and the system of personal pronouns [Bondarko 2002:543–567].
2.2. Categorical meanings of personal forms
Various semantic, syntactic and communicative factors influence the use and interpretation of personal-numerical forms of verbs.
In the indicative mood, the forms of the 1st and 2nd person are opposed to the forms of the 3rd person, which is associated with the orientation of the category of person to the speech act. The meanings of the 1st and 2nd person in grammars are called own-personal, because they correspond to the speaker and addressee, which are always persons.
In the realm of the person proper, the 1st and 2nd person are contrasted. V.V. Vinogradov noted that in the forms of the 1st person, “even in figurative use, the relation to a specific subject of speech is clearly preserved”, while the forms of the 2nd person, more abstract and indefinite, may lose their direct relationship to a specific interlocutor and acquire a generalized meaning [Vinogradov 1947 :459]. V.V. Vinogradov believed that only the context determines whether the 2nd person form refers “to a specific interlocutor, i.e. to single You", to any person ( die - buried) or to the speaker himself, i.e. to 1st person ( will you go, used to...) [Vinogradov 1947:456].
The meaning of the 3rd person in grammars is called subject-personal, because the subject of the situation, denoted by the form of the 3rd person, can be both a person and an inanimate object. The 3rd person form does not contain information about the subject, except for the negative one - 'is neither a speaker nor an addressee', therefore, in the absence of a subject sentence with a predicate in the form of the 3rd person, they are considered semantically and structurally incomplete (about indefinite personal and impersonal meaning 3rd person forms see).
In the imperative mood, the personal-numerical paradigm is arranged significantly differently than in the indicative: as a form of the 2nd person ( Go!; Go!), and the form of joint action ( Let's go!; Come on!) includes an indication of the addressee. The meaning of the 3rd person construction ( Let him come in!) also seems to contain an implicit "destination component" (something like 'tell him to come in').
Thus, if in the indicative the starting point of the personal system is the speaker, then in the imperative the starting point is the addressee.
2.3. Person and semantics of the verb. Personal and impersonal verbs
In the Russian grammatical tradition, personal verbs are opposed, which have a complete personal-numerical paradigm and express the meanings of a person in a sentence (they change according to persons and numbers), and impersonal verbs, which:
- do not change in persons and numbers and therefore do not express the corresponding grammatical meanings (impersonal verbs are considered as being outside the category of person);
- have a limited set of forms: they are used in the form of the 3rd person singular of the present and future tenses ( It's getting dark), in the neuter singular past tense and subjunctive mood (it was getting dark) and in infinitive form ( It starts to get dark);
- are used as a predicate of an impersonal construction.
For many personal verbs it is also possible impersonal usage: Paint has a strong smell – Strong smell of paint.
The opposition of personal and impersonal verbs does not duplicate the opposition of situations related to and not related to a person: an impersonal verb can describe a person's state ( Brother can't sleep), and personal - the situation with a non-personal subject ( The dress looks good).
Among the impersonal verbs there are those which cannot be attributed to a person, cf. it's getting dark, getting colder, but there are those that designate only and exclusively the processes and states of a person, cf. be sick, shivering, I want to, itchy. They represent these processes and states as having no source, but having a carrier subject, expressed in the forms of the dative or accusative cases ( you get chilly; I would like to).
For personal verbs, i.e. verbs that formally have a complete personal paradigm, the use of certain forms of the person depends on lexical meaning verb.
Some verbs denote situations in which a person cannot be the subject ( rust, burn, flicker and under.). For these verbs in the direct meaning, only the forms of the 3rd person are normally used, but the forms of the 1st and 2nd person are not used. As Yu.P. Knyazev, such verbs “could be called impersonal” [Knyazev 2008:371], but this term is not used in grammars.
In addition, there are classes of verbs that, for semantic or pragmatic reasons, do not have the 1st person form. First of all, these are verbs of behavior and interpretation (see [Apresyan 2006:145–160]): to show off, to ask, to brag, to grovel, to exalt, to exalt, to fawn, to fawn, to grimace, to break down, to be rude, to run into, to climb[to smb.], shield and under. They represent the situation through the eyes of an external observer and usually contain a negative-evaluative component. For them, it is unnatural to use in the form of the 1st person of the present tense: ? I break / crawl / shield. However, in many contexts, the prohibition against referring to the speaker is lifted: No matter how I shielding, he is always reprimanded; In the end, of course, I will agree, but for the sake of appearance a little break down ; If I I will climb ask him questions, he won't like it. Wed See also examples from the Corpus:
(7) Firstly, people are still alive, and secondly, it's me brag only, in fact, my will is no longer over you, but what you yourself prepare for yourself is waiting for you. [A. Slapovsky. Money Day (1998)]
(8) This is quite clear to me, but for some reason others do not believe, even the closest friends. They think that I grimacing. [AND. Grekov. Ladies' Master (1963)]
(9) Oh my God, and what am I grimacing, anyway, this letter will not get not only to you, but even to the post office, so why not write the whole truth? [YU. Hermann. Dear My Man (1961)]
(10) He owns a bicycle. And I grimacing, hypocrisy. [YU. K. Olesha. Chain (1929)]
(11) And add to this the most terrible thing, that every time I feel real inspiration, I immediately painfully feel the consciousness that I pretending And grimacing in front of people… [A. I. Kuprin. Pit (1915)]
Interpretive verbs with a negative evaluation are sometimes conditionally called "verbs of the 3rd person" (for reasons of their incompatibility with the speaker), while the form of the 2nd person in the function of reproach to the addressee is also very characteristic of them: What you break down ! ; You are always his shielding! ; Do not be rude senior!
Wed corpus data on the frequency of 1/2/3 person forms in verbs brag And grimace:
Table 1. Person forms of interpretation verbs according to the Corpus
In addition, in an independent position, the 1st person of verbs is not allowed, which include in their semantics an observer - a syntactically inexpressible subject of perception: seem, be seen, turn white, loom and under.: ? I I'll show myself on the road in a few minutes; ? I looming in the window. Within the scope of certain predicates or operators, some of them can be referred to the speaker: As soon as I I'll show myself around the corner, turn on the camera(at the same time, there are verbs that both include an observer and require an inanimate subject, i.e. they never allow the 1st person: * The neighbors saw me turn white at the entrance, compare: At the entrance turns white some box).
Finally, for some verbs internal state there is a ban on the use of the 1st person form of the present tense in independent negative sentences: ? I don't I know that you came, compare: I didn't know that you came; They thought that I did not know about his arrival..
It is also believed that some verbs denoting internal processes and states of a person (such as see, want etc.), the forms of the 1st person, on the contrary, are more common than the forms of other persons. Wed corpus data for verbs want And see:
Table 2. Person forms of verbs of internal processes and states of a person according to the Corpus
|
want |
See |
|
|
The following semantic groups of verbs have impersonal use: - states and phenomena of nature, environment (it gets light, it gets dark, it gets dark, it freezes, it gets colder and etc.): (62) It was necessary to walk to the column for about fifteen minutes, no less. - Ugh, how bakes...” Valya muttered, wiping her forehead. [T. Tronin. Mermaid for intimate meetings (2004)] - physical and mental states of a person (get upset, get excited (Not)believe, breathe, doze, shiver, it seems(Not)lying down, feverish, tired, unwell, itchy, sick, tickle, washes away (ask), disgusting, impatient, sadnit, surrenders,(Not)sitting,(Not)sleepy, impatient, sick, wanting,(Not)read and etc.): (63) To my wife unwell. [M. Shishkin. One night awaits everyone (1993-2003)] (64) Everyone lived on his own and did everything that he like it. [IN. Medvedev. Barankin, be a man! (1957)] (65) Who could know that I impatient get out of the car this very minute. [TO. Surikov. road accident (2003)] - events and processes human controlled who are involved in them. (will happen,hurt and under.): (66) Will happen will I ever see the performances of this great theatre? [IN. Davydov. Theater of my dreams (2004)] - modal states (it is necessary, it is not good, it remains, it is proper, it is necessary, it is necessary, it is necessary, it is possible): (67) Under these conditions account for refer to the experience of foreign researchers, and those who worked in relatively similar social, political and economic conditions. [“Domestic Notes” (2003)] (68) Thus, universities remains put up with a situation where it is not students who compete with each other for the right to study, but institutions for the right to teach them. ["Kommersant-Vlast" (2002)] (69) To the choice of means for night care costs be especially careful. ["Dasha" (2004)] - quantitative estimates (enough, enough): (70) As before, in the world enough socio-political, economic, inter-ethnic, religious and other contradictions. [“Domestic Notes” (2003)] (71) Parents just don't enough neither time nor energy for a variety of "pedagogical delights", as a result, these kids, who do not experience the debilitating pressure of parental love, grow up to be more balanced, self-confident and purposeful people. ["100% Health" (2003)] (72) To us, Russians, missing sequences in the mind and we do not own the syllogism of the West... [P. A. Sorokin. Sociologist's Notes. Slavophilism Inside Out (1917)] In the impersonal form, the verbs of physical processes and physical changes often appear, presented as result of natural forces (The rain will wash away the inscription → Rain wash away inscription; The current carries the boat → with the flow relates boat): (73) And another time he sits in his room, the wind smells, he assures that he has caught a cold; the shutter will knock he will shudder and turn pale; and with me he went to the boar one on one [M. Y. Lermontov. Hero of our time (1839-1841)] - pain and involuntary movements: (Stitches in the side; Aches in the chest, pinches the wound; It bakes in the chest; Reduces the leg; He's so twisted): (74) Sometimes so grab that at least lay down and die. [AND. Grekov. Fracture (1987)] Forms passive voice(see Pledge): (75) Viktor Ilyukhin submitted a draft statement of the State Duma on personnel strengthening law enforcement. In it the President offered release Gryzlov from office. ["Newspaper" (2003)] (76) However, according to Muslim canons, a woman prohibited leave open parts of the body, except for the oval of the face and hands. ["Lawyer" (2004)] The impersonal usage is not only related to the 3rd person singular form. In the past tense and the subjunctive mood, where there are no personal inflections, the impersonal usage has the neuter singular form: (77) What kind of lace is there? Natalya Petrovna disgusted weave them. [A. Efros. Profession: director (1975-1987)]
The action is presented as being performed by an "indefinite subject". It is a specific action that can be performed by an indefinite number of persons ( Behind the wall talking ) or one person ( More to you will come ; Wait, you call – possibly one person), for more details see Indefinitely personal sentences(cm.): (78) Meanwhile, they forcibly detained me here, poking a lamp in my eyes, in the bath bathe, about Uncle Fedya something ask questions! [M. A. Bulgakov. Master and Margarita (1929-1940)] The speaker does not know or care who is doing the action; or he doesn't want to name the subject for some reason. The indefinite personal form can only denote the action of a person: On the street make noise you can only talk about people, but not about trees, cars, etc. In [Melchuk 1974] it is noted that the indefinite-personal construction He got scratched expresses the presence of a human agent in a situation, in contrast to a passive construction He was scratched. Another feature of indefinitely personal constructions, in contrast to generalized personal ones, is that in generalized personal constructions the speaker can include himself in the generalized subject, cf. These are the kind of books you enjoy reading.(‘anyone, including me’), while vaguely personal constructions, on the contrary, express “alienation”, distance from the 1st person (see [Bulygina, Shmelev 1997:341–347]). Numerous examples of such alienation are given in the literature, cf. examples from [Khrakovsky 1991]: “the statement Finished work at 5 o'clock inappropriate if we are talking about the work done by the speaker, as opposed to The work was finished at 5 o'clock where there is no such prohibition”; cf. See also an example from [Paducheva 2012]: days late autumn scold usually, but I love her(Pushkin), where the speaker is not simply “excluded from the potential set of persons who are meant as a subject,” but is also opposed to this set. The exception is cases like They tell you…; Yes, they wish you well, understand!, which in [Bulygina, Shmelev 1997:341] are interpreted as the result of empathy shift. Indefinitely personal meaning can have both forms of the plural person of the 3rd person, and forms of the plural of the past tense and the subjunctive mood, which do not have a formal indicator of the person: (80) Apples and prunes traditionally serve with a goose [Recipes national cuisines: Scandinavian cuisine (2000-2005)] (81) Hence “about tastes not argue”- the truth is by no means of an ethical or psychological, but of a physiological nature. [Recipes of national cuisines: France (2000-2005)] Modern researchers explain the differences between generalized-personal and indefinite-personal sentences in different ways. referential status(see Referential Status) of the tertiary zero that appears in such sentences. Tertiary zero can have specific referential status if the sentence relates to a specific single situation”, as in the example: (82) They read your novel, - Woland spoke, turning to the master, - and they said only one thing, that, unfortunately, it was not finished. [M. Bulgakov, Master and Margarita] and "may have generic status as in sentences Do not count your chickens before they are hatched; They don't beat the recumbent» [Paducheva 2012]. 2.5.2. Imperative mood
(83) take care honor from a young age! (proverb) (84) Only Grigory Alexandrovich, despite the heat and fatigue, did not want to return without prey, such was the man: what he thinks, give me; apparently, in childhood he was spoiled by his mother ... [M. Y. Lermontov. Hero of our time (1839-1841)] The form of the 2nd person singular can express an obligation, while it can be used in a generalized personal sense: (85) But the trouble is when such a person offends him, whom he does not dare not to scold; it's home here hold on! [A.N. Ostrovsky. Storm (1860)] (86) Wherever throw, wedge everywhere. (proverb) (87) He is a writer. Yes, he is a writer. He doesn't even have his own office. My God, right at least cry over the unfortunate fate of the writer Ivanko. [IN. Voinovich. Ivankiada, or the story of the writer Voinovich moving into a new apartment (1976)] There are also usages where the action is presented as generalized but refers to the speaker himself: (88) What do you think, tell him that I'm already going home, or not: excuse yourself then from him! [SMS messages from senior students (2004)] (89) And I still had a tooth with a hollow, something ached ... it must have been after bathing - it hurt so much, even though cry. [A. Nekrasov. Adventures of Captain Vrungel (1960-1980)]
The plural form can refer to one person: (90) " wrap up please, everything,” I say, returning the token. ["Knowledge is Power" (2003)] (91) Try explain your point of view to your partner in order to come to a common solution that would suit both of you. ["Dasha" (2004)]
The urge in such usages is addressed to any person, including the addressee: (92) Not experiment over your own child force to justify the hopes placed on him with all his might. [“100% health” (2003)] = ‘no one needs, no one should experiment’
Like the 1st person plural indicative, the joint action form can express the meaning: (93) - Let's not we will sob, citizen,” the first one said calmly, and the bookkeeper, feeling that he was completely superfluous here, rushed out of the secretarial room and in a minute was already in the open air. [M. A. Bulgakov. Master and Margarita (1929-1940)] M. 1967. 4. Basic literature on the topic
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We will learn how to use personal pronouns correctly. Let's find out their meanings. Learn to identify correctly case endings personal pronouns.
My sister and I went to the Christmas tree. She was very smart and festive.
(It is not clear who was dressed up, a girl or a Christmas tree)
How to write. My sister and I went to the Christmas tree. The Christmas tree was very elegant, festive.
And here's another one: the Clown gave balloons to the guys. They were round, elongated and long.
(The guys were elongated and long).
How to write. The clown gave balloons to the children. The balls were round, elongated and long.
We are confused by the pronoun.
Pronoun- this is an independent non-significant part of speech that indicates objects, signs or quantities, but does not name them.
The grammatical features of pronouns are different and depend on which part of speech the pronoun acts as a substitute in the text.
Pronoun ranks by meaning
There are 9 categories of pronouns by meaning:
1. Personal : I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they. Personal pronouns indicate the participants in the dialogue (I, you, we, you), persons not participating in the conversation, and objects (he, she, it, they).
2. returnable : myself. This pronoun indicates the identity of a person or object called the subject, a person or object called the word himself (He will not offend himself. Hopes did not justify themselves).
3. Possessive : mine, yours, yours, ours, his, hers, theirs. Possessive pronouns indicate that an object belongs to a person or another object (This is my briefcase. Its size is very convenient).
4. pointing : this, that, such, such, so much, this (obsolete), this (obsolete). These pronouns indicate a sign or quantity of objects.
5. Determinants : himself, most, all, everyone, each, any, other, different, everyone (outdated), all (outdated). Definitive pronouns indicate the attribute of an object.
6. Interrogative : who, what, which, which, whose, how much. Interrogative pronouns serve as special interrogative words and indicate persons, objects, attributes, and quantity.
7. relative : the same as interrogative ones, in the function of connecting parts of a complex sentence (union words).
8. Negative : nobody, nothing, no one, nothing, none, no one. Negative pronouns express the absence of an object or attribute.
9. indefinite : someone, something, some, some, several, as well as all pronouns formed from interrogative pronouns by the prefix something or suffixes something, -or, -something.
Ranks of pronouns
|
pronouns |
Pronouns |
How do they change |
|
pronouns |
I, you, he (she, it), we, you, they |
By persons, cases, 3rd person pronoun He changes by birth |
|
Interrogative pronouns |
who?, what?, what?, whose?, how much?, what? |
They vary by gender and number. Pronouns who what? do not change by gender and number |
|
Refundable pronouns |
It has no nominative case, gender or number. |
|
|
Relative pronouns |
who, what, which, which, whose, how much, what |
Change in cases |
|
indefinite pronouns |
someone, something, some, several, someone, something, someone, someone, something, etc. |
Indefinite pronouns except someone, something change in cases. Also some indefinite pronouns |
|
Negative pronouns |
no one, nothing, none, no one, no one, nothing |
Change in cases. Pronouns nobody and nothing do not have a nominative case |
|
Possessive pronouns |
mine, yours, yours, ours, yours |
Change by gender, cases, numbers |
|
Demonstrative pronouns |
that, this, such, such, how many |
The pronouns that, this, such, change according to gender, cases, numbers. The pronoun such changes by gender and number. |
|
Definitive pronouns |
all, everyone, each, himself, the most, any, other, other |
Change by gender, cases, numbers |
personal pronouns have morphological trait faces :
1st person: I, we;
2nd person: you, you;
3rd person: he, she, it, they.
Personal pronouns have a morphological feature numbers . Personal pronouns are singular (I, you, he, she, it) and plural (we, you, they) numbers.
All personal pronouns have a constant gender.
Pronouns I and you are of the general gender: I, you came - I, you came.
The pronoun he is masculine: he came.
The pronoun she is feminine: she came.
The pronoun is neuter: it came-o.
Plural pronouns we, you, they are not characterized by gender. We can talk about the animation of personal pronouns, since their C. p. coincides with R. p. (I don’t have you - I see you).
All personal pronouns change according to cases , i.e. inclined. In indirect cases with a preposition, n is added to pronouns of the 3rd person: from him, to them, from her. The addition does not occur with derivative prepositions during, thanks to, according to, contrary to, etc.: thanks to her, according to him.
|
face |
units h., Cases - them. (rd., dt., vn., tv., etc.) |
pl. h., Cases - them. (rd., dt., vn., tv., pr.) |
|
I (me, me, me, me / me, both to me) |
we (us, us, us, us, O us) |
|
|
you (you, you, you, you/you, O you) you (you, you, you, you, about you) |
you (you, you, you, you, O you) |
|
|
he (his / him, him / him, him, them / him, O him) she (her/her, her/her, her, her/her/her/her, O her) it (his / him, him / him, him, them / him, O him) |
they (them/them, them, them/them, them/them, O them) |
Say the correct pronoun THEM!
Their clothes
Boy - I learned.
Girl - I learned.
Personal pronouns of the 1st and 2nd person do not change by gender.
Rice. 4.
You, Petya, have learned your lesson, and you, Masha?
“Yes!” Masha said, “I learned!” “Me too,” said Petya.
Rice. 5.
Boys, have you learned your lessons?
Girls, are you going to school?
We will answer to ourselves both boys and girls.
Let's correct the sentence, indicating the person, number, case, if possible, the gender of pronouns.
1. Once a comrade approached (I) during a break.
Approached (to whom?) To me - this is the pronoun of the 1st person singular of the dative case.
2. Give (you) a monkey?
To give (to whom?) to you is the pronoun of the 2nd person singular of the dative case.
3. (She) is called Yashka.
Her name is (who?) - this is the pronoun of the 3rd person singular feminine of the genitive case.
4. Dad is angry at (we) with Yashka.
Angry (at whom?) at us is the pronoun of the 1st person plural of the accusative case.
5. Let her live with (you) for now.
Will live (with whom?) With you - this is the pronoun of the 2nd person singular of the genitive case.
6. With (she) having fun.
(With whom?) with her is the pronoun of the 3rd person singular feminine of the dative case.
7. So (I) got a monkey.
(Who?) for me is the pronoun of the 1st person singular of the accusative case.
1. Kalenchuk M.L., Churakova N.A., Baikova T.A. Russian language 4: Academic book / Textbook.
2. Buneev R.N., Buneeva E.V., Pronina O. Russian language 4: Ballas.
3. Lomakovich S.V., Timchenko L.I. Russian language 4: VITA_PRESS.
3. Russian language in the CIS countries ().
1. Read Tsvetaeva's verse. Find pronouns in the text, determine their category.
I will win you back from all lands, from all skies, Because the forest is my cradle, and the grave is the forest, Because I stand on the ground with only one foot, Because I will sing about you like no other.
I will win you back from all the others - from that one, You will be no one's fiancé, I will be no one's wife, And in the last dispute I will take you - shut up!
2. Read. Write off. Underline personal pronouns. In brackets, write case questions to them.
The third part of the Earth is occupied by dry land. The rest is water! A variety of marine animals live in it. Among them are tiny ones, like a pinhead, and large ones, such as whales. Sharks live in the oceans. They are also different. There are dwarf sharks. Is there giant sharks. They weigh up to 20 tons.
3. Write down the sentences by inserting the missing pronoun in the correct form.
1) The pianist's concert ... liked it. His game made a wonderful impression on ....
2) I called … all evening yesterday, but … was constantly busy.
3) I have been studying with Volodya since the first year. I know very well ... and for a long time
I'm friends with...
4) I have a younger sister. In the evening I go for ... to kindergarten.
4.* Write a dialogue on any topic using as many personal pronouns as possible in different case forms.
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