Armor and weapons of ancient Rome. Roman armor: description, names and materials for manufacturing. Training in the Roman army
Trajan, who ruled in Rome from 98 to 117 AD, went down in history as a warrior emperor. Under his leadership, the Roman Empire reached its maximum power, and the stability of the state and the absence of repression during his reign allowed historians to deservedly consider Trajan the second of the so-called "five good emperors." The contemporaries of the emperor would probably agree with this assessment. The Roman Senate officially proclaimed Trajan "the best ruler" (optimus princeps), and subsequent emperors were guided by him, receiving parting words during the accession "to be more successful than Augustus, and better than Trajan" (Felicior Augusto, melior Traiano). During the reign of Trajan, the Roman Empire conducted several successful military campaigns and reached the largest size in its history.
The equipment of the Roman legionnaires during the reign of Trajan was distinguished by functionality. The centuries-old military experience accumulated by the Roman army was harmoniously combined in it with the military traditions of the peoples conquered by the Romans. We invite you to take a closer look at the weapons and equipment of a Roman legionary infantryman of the early 2nd century AD in the Warspot interactive special project.
Helmet
As early as the beginning of the 1st century AD, Roman gunsmiths on the Upper Rhine, taking as a basis the Celtic helmet model that had previously existed in Gaul, began to make combat headpieces with a deep solid forged iron dome, a wide backplate to protect the neck, and an iron visor in front, additionally covering the face from those applied from above chopping blows, and large cheek-pieces, equipped with chased ornaments. On the front, the dome of the helmet was decorated with chased ornaments in the form of eyebrows or wings, which allowed some researchers to attribute the first such helmets to the warriors of the Lark Legion (V Alaudae), recruited by Julius Caesar among the Romanized Gauls.
Another characteristic feature of this type of helmet was cutouts for the ears, which were closed on top with bronze lining. Bronze decorations and onlays are also characteristic, which look very effective against the background of the light surface of the helmet's polished iron. Elegant and extremely functional, this type of helmet of the Gallic series by the end of the 1st century became the predominant model of the battle headgear in the Roman army. According to his model, weapons workshops located in Italy, as well as in other provinces of the Roman Empire, began to forge their products. An additional feature that appeared, apparently, during the Dacian wars of Trajan, was an iron cross, which began to reinforce the dome of the helmet from above. This detail was supposed to give even greater strength to the helmet and protect it from the blows of the terrible dac scythes.
Plate armor
The reliefs of Trajan's Column, erected in Rome in 113 to commemorate the conquest of Dacia, depict legionnaires dressed in plate armor, the so-called. lorica segmentata, while auxiliaries infantry and cavalry wear mail or scale armor. But such a division is certainly not true. Contemporary reliefs of the Trajan's Trophy Columns at Adamiklissia depict legionnaires dressed in chain mail, and archaeological finds of pieces of plate armor in the frontier forts occupied by auxiliary units indicate that the soldiers in these units wore lorica.
The name lorica segmentata is a modern term for the name of the plate armor, known from numerous images of the 1st-3rd centuries. His Roman name, if any, remains unknown. The oldest finds of plates of this armor come from excavations near Mount Kalkriese in Germany, identified as the site of a battle in the Teutoburg Forest. Thus its appearance and distribution date back to the final stage of the reign of Augustus, if not earlier. Various points of view have been expressed regarding the origin of this type of armor. Some derive it from the solid armor worn by the Gallic gladiators croupellari, others see it as an oriental development, better adapted to hold the arrows of the Parthian archers in comparison with traditional chain mail. It is also unclear the extent to which plate armor was distributed in the ranks of the Roman army: whether soldiers wore it everywhere or only in some separate special units. The degree of distribution of finds of individual parts of the armor rather testifies in favor of the first hypothesis, however, there can be no question of the uniformity of protective weapons in the style of images of the reliefs of Trajan's Column.
In the absence of real finds, many different hypotheses were put forward about the structure of plate armor. Finally, in 1964, during excavations of the border fort in Corbridge (Britain), two well-preserved pieces of armor were found. This allowed the British archaeologist H. Russell Robinson to reconstruct the lorica segmentata of the late 1st century, as well as to draw certain conclusions about the structure of the armor of a later period, previously found during excavations at Newstead. Both armor belonged to the so-called laminar type of armor. Horizontal stripes, slightly funnel-shaped, were riveted on the inside of a leather belt. The plates overlapped slightly on top of each other and formed an extremely flexible metal coating for the hull. Two semicircular sections made up the right and left parts of the armor. With the help of straps, they were fastened on the back and chest. A separate composite section was used to cover the upper chest. With the help of straps or hooks, the bib was connected to the corresponding side half. From above, flexible shoulder pads were attached to the breastplate. To put on the armor, it was necessary to put your hands into the side cutouts and fasten it on your chest, as you fasten a vest.
Plate armor was strong, flexible, light and at the same time very reliable means of protection. In this capacity, he existed in the Roman army from the beginning of the 1st to the middle of the 3rd century AD.
Bracers
On the reliefs of Trajan's Trophy at Adamiklissi, some Roman soldiers wear bracers to protect their forearms and hands. This piece of equipment has oriental origin and is a vertical row of plates riveted from the inside to the belt in the full length of the arm. In the Roman army, this type of protective equipment was used quite rarely, however, judging by the images, it was worn by gladiators. When Trajan's troops began to suffer heavy losses from the blows of the Dacian braids, he ordered to protect the hands of his soldiers with the same armor. Most likely, this was a short-term measure, and in the future this piece of equipment did not take root in the army.
Sword
In the middle - second half of the 1st century, a sword with a blade 40–55 cm long, 4.8 to 6 cm wide and with a rather short edge became widespread in the Roman army. Judging by the proportion of the blade, it was mainly intended for cutting the enemy, who did not wear protective armor. Its shape already very vaguely resembled the original gladius, hallmark which was a long and thin point. These modifications of weapons corresponded to the new political situation on the borders of the empire, whose enemies from now on were the barbarians - Germans and Dacians.
Legionnaires carried a sword in a frame scabbard. On the front side, they were decorated with bronze cut-out plates with geometric patterns and figured images. The scabbard had two pairs of clips, on the sides of which side rings were attached. Through them passed the end of the belt, split in two, on which the scabbard with the sword was hung. The lower end of the belt was passed under the belt and connected to the lower ring, the upper end passed over the belt to the upper ring. Such a mount provided a secure fixation of the scabbard in a vertical position and made it possible to quickly draw the sword without holding the scabbard with your hand.
Dagger
On the left side on the waist belt, the Roman legionnaires continued to wear a dagger (not visible in the illustration). Its wide blade was forged from iron, had a stiffening rib, symmetrical blades and an elongated point. The length of the blade could reach 30-35 cm, width - 5 cm. The dagger was worn in a frame sheath. The front side of the scabbard was usually richly inlaid with silver, brass or decorated with black, red, yellow or green enamel. The scabbard was hung from the belt with a pair of belts passed through two pairs of side rings. With such a suspension, the handle was always directed upwards, and the weapon was constantly ready for combat use.
Pilum
On the reliefs of Trajan's Column, Roman legionaries carry a pilum, which at this time retains its significance as a first-strike weapon. Judging by the archaeological finds, its design has not changed since earlier times.
Some soldiers, who were distinguished by great physical strength, supplied the shaft of the pilum with spherical lead nozzles, which increased the weight of the weapon and, accordingly, increased the severity of the blow inflicted by it. These attachments are known from pictorial monuments II – III centuries, but among the real archaeological finds have not yet been found.
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Shield
At the end of the 1st century BC, the oval shield, known from the images of the era of the Republic, straightened the upper and lower faces, and by the middle of the century, the side faces also became straight. The shield thus acquired a quadrangular shape, known from the reliefs on Trajan's Column. At the same time, oval-shaped shields, known from images of an earlier time, continued to be in use.
The design of the shield remained the same as before. Its dimensions, judging by the proportions of the figures of warriors, were 1 × 0.5 m. These figures are in good agreement with archaeological finds of a later time. The base of the shield was made of three layers of thin wooden planks glued at right angles to each other. The thickness of the wood, judging by the surviving rivets of the umbons, was about 6 mm.
From the outside, the shield was covered with leather and richly painted. Scenes depicted included laurel wreaths, thunderbolts of Jupiter, as well as emblems of individual legions. Along the perimeter, the edges of the shield were upholstered with bronze clips so that the tree would not chip from the blows of enemy swords. In the hand, the shield was held by the handle formed by a transverse wooden plank. In the center of the field of the shield, a semicircular cut was made, into which the brush holding the handle was inserted. Outside, the cutout was closed with a bronze or iron umbon, which, as a rule, was richly decorated with engraved images. The weight of a modern reconstruction of such a shield was approximately 7.5 kg.
Tunic
The soldier's tunic has not changed much since previous times. As before, it was cut from two rectangular pieces of woolen fabric about 1.5 × 1.3 m, sewn on the sides and at the neck. The cutout for the head and neck remained wide enough so that during field work, for greater freedom of movement, soldiers could lower one of her sleeves, completely exposing the right shoulder and arm. At the waist, the tunic was gathered in folds and girdled with a belt. A high-belted tunic that opened the knees was considered a sign of the military.
In the cold season, some soldiers wore two tunics, while the lower one was made of linen or fine wool. The Romans did not know any specific statutory color of clothing. Most of the soldiers wore tunics made of undyed wool. Those who were richer could wear tunics of red, green or blue. In ceremonial conditions, officers and centurions dressed in brightly colored tunics. white color. To decorate tunics, two strips of bright color were sewn on their sides - the so-called claves. The usual cost of tunics was 25 drachmas, and this amount was deducted from the soldier's salary.
Trousers
The Romans, like the Greeks, considered trousers an attribute of barbarism. In the cold season, they wore woolen windings on their legs. Short pants to protect the skin of the thighs from horse sweat were worn by Gallic and German horsemen, who had served in the Roman army en masse since the time of Caesar and Augustus. In the cold season, they were also worn by the foot soldiers of the auxiliary troops, also recruited from among the non-Romanized subjects of the empire.
The legionnaires depicted on Trajan's Column still do not wear trousers, but Emperor Trajan himself and senior officers who rode for a long time are depicted wearing narrow and short breeches. During the first half of the 2nd century, the fashion for these clothes spread among all categories of troops, and on the reliefs of the Column of Marcus Aurelius, short trousers are already worn by all categories of troops.
Tie
On the reliefs of Trajan's Column, soldiers are depicted with ties. Their function is to protect the upper part of the tunic from friction and damage caused by armor. Another purpose of the tie is clarified by its late name "sudarion", which comes from the Latin sudor - "sweat".
Penula
In inclement weather or in the cold season, soldiers wore raincoats over their clothes and armor. Penula was one of the most common raincoat models. It was woven from coarse sheep or even goat wool. The civilian version of the cloak, called lacerna, had a finer dressing. The shape of the penula resembled a half oval, the straight sides of which closed in front and were fastened with two pairs of buttons.
On some sculptural images, the incision is missing. In this case, the penula, like a modern poncho, had the shape of an oval with a central hole and was worn over the head. To protect against the weather, she was supplied with a deep hood. In a civilian lacerne, such a hood, as a rule, was attached. The length of the penula reached the knees. Being wide enough, it allowed the soldiers to freely operate with their hands without removing their cloak. On frescoes and color images, the military cloak is usually brown.
Kaligi
The soldier's shoes were heavy boots of the Kaliga. The shoe blank was cut from one piece of thick bovine leather. The toes in the shoe remained open, and the straps covering the sides of the foot and ankle were cut through, which provided good ventilation to the legs.
The sole consisted of 3 layers stitched with each other. For greater strength, it was nailed from below with iron nails. It took 80–90 nails to tamp one shoe, while the weight of a pair of caligas reached 1.3–1.5 kg. The nails on the sole were located in a certain pattern, reinforcing those parts of it that wore out more during the campaign.
According to the observations of modern reenactors, nailed shoes were worn well on dirt roads and in the field, but in the mountains and on the cobblestones of city streets they slid over stones. In addition, the nails on the sole gradually wore out and required constant replacement. One pair of caligas was enough for about 500-1000 km of the march, while every 100 km of the way, 10 percent of the nails had to be changed. Thus, in two or three weeks of march, the Roman legion lost about 10 thousand nails.
Belt
The belt was an important part of the men's clothing of the Romans. Boys wore a belt as a sign of coming of age. The military wore wide leather belts that distinguished them from the faces civil professions. The belt was worn over the armor and richly decorated with bronze relief or engraved overlays. For a decorative effect, the lining was sometimes covered with silver and provided with enamel inserts.
Roman belts of the late 1st century BC - early 2nd century AD had a kind of apron of 4-8 belts, covered with bronze overlays and ending with terminal ornaments. Apparently, this detail performed a purely decorative function and was worn for the sake of the sound effect it created. A dagger was hung from the belt, sometimes a purse with small money. The Romans usually wore a sword on a shoulder harness.
Leggings
Leggings were part of the protective armor that covered the legs from the knee to the instep of the foot, that is, they covered that part of them that was not usually covered by a shield. Officers and centurions on the monuments of the 1st-2nd centuries were often depicted in greaves, the wearing of which was something like a symbol of their rank. Their greaves were decorated with chasing with the image of the head of Medusa in the knee part, the side surface was decorated with tufts of lightning and floral ornaments. On the contrary, ordinary soldiers were usually depicted without greaves at this time.
During the era of the Dacian Wars, greaves returned to military equipment to protect the legs of soldiers from the blows of the Dacian scythes. Although the soldiers in the reliefs of Trajan's Column do not wear greaves, they are present in the depictions of Trajan's Trophy at Adamclisi. Roman soldiers in reliefs wear one or two greaves. This detail of military equipment is also present in the sculptures and frescoes of a later period. Archaeological finds of leggings are simple iron plates 35 cm long, with a longitudinal stiffener, devoid of any decor. They cover the leg only up to the knee; perhaps a separate piece of armor was used to protect the knee itself. For fastening on the leg, the leggings are equipped with four pairs of rings through which a belt was passed.
Judging by the fact that the armor of the officer depicted on the altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus (second half of the 1st century BC) is similar to the one that appears on the column of Trajan (beginning of the 2nd century AD), the “fashion” on armor of the late Hellenistic type was preserved in the Roman army during the first two centuries of our era. It can be assumed that the officers wore a short “muscular” cuirass, imitating the relief of the male “ideal” muscles (sometimes such armor is called “anatomical”), leggings (osgeae) and a helmet also of the late Hellenistic type.
The officer's armament consisted of a sword, a spear and a round shield. Tribunus laticlavius wore a wide white scarf over his cuirass, tied under the chest, showing that the tribune was considered a candidate for senators. The other five tribunes of the legion wore a narrower scarf. purple.
High commanders wore a sword on a belt belt. Since they did not have to use a shield, they could also carry a sword on the left. But there is no exact data on this, since the emperors and high dignitaries in the images are shown without swords. Of course, they had swords, but they played a symbolic role, like the swords of European military leaders of the 17th-19th centuries.
The centurions were distinguished by their silver-plated scaly carapace and the fact that they often wore greaves that had fallen out of common use. The crest on the helmet of the centurions was attached transversely. The insignia of the centurions and at the same time the instrument of punishment was a vine - a cane (vitis). One of the ancient authors mentions that for the addiction to the use of this attribute, one of the centurions of the German legions was nicknamed "Give another", since the vine often could not withstand contact with the backs of his wards. The centurions wore a sword on the left, a dagger on the right.
Legionnaires
Before the reform of Marius, the legionnaires were divided into categories, differing in age and weapons. First two lines order of battle the legion consisted of principes and hastati, young warriors armed with pilums, the third line consisted of triarii, veterans armed with simple spears. After the reform, all legionnaires were armed in the same way.
At the beginning of the 1st century V different parts empire, the first state workshops arose, engaged in the production of weapons and armor for the army. Strict uniformity in their products, of course, did not exist. By the beginning of the 1st century on the territory of the Roman state, several types of weapons and armor were produced, which had become traditional by this time.
The defensive equipment (arma) of a legionnaire consisted of a helmet, shell and shield. At the beginning of the new era, Gallic workshops began to produce two new types of helmets with a tangible local influence of Gallic traditions in the manufacture of helmets. The first type (coolus) included round bronze helmets with a small rear visor, the second - iron helmets with a large rear visor ("Port" - after the name of the place in Switzerland where one of them was found), subsequently modified into the classic "imperial-Gallic " type. Old bronze type helmets
"Montefortino" of the time of Julius Caesar at the beginning of the new millennium was still quite widely used, along with new samples. As for helmets of the "coolus" type, they ceased to be used in the middle of the 1st century BC.
Modification of the Roman helmet in the first half of the 1st century. characterized by a gradual increase in the rear visor. In the same period, a horizontal stiffening rib appeared, attached to the suprafrontal part of the helmet (like a modern visor), protecting the face from a downward blow of the sword. By the second quarter of the 1st c. inflatable semicircular protrusions appear on the helmets. All these details remained a characteristic feature of Roman infantry helmets in the 2nd century BC.
To attach the crest to the helmets, two holes were provided, in which special holders were fixed. Crests, most likely, were worn only for parades, and were rarely used in battles. The helmet itself was put on only before the battle, while on the march it was hung on leather straps on the warrior's chest.
The shell (lorica) takes its name from the leather straps (lorum) that it once consisted of. Roman soldiers used several types of this armor.
Lorica squamata (scaly shell) was a canvas or leather shirt covered with rows of metal scales.
Until the middle of the 1st century, judging by the images on tombstones, the legionnaires continued to wear lorica hamata (or hamis serta) - chain mail that weighed about 12–15 kg. In the eastern provinces of the empire, their use was perhaps longer than in the western, where the shells were made in Gallic workshops, in 30-40 years. 1st century who switched to the production of a completely new type of lamellar shell lorica segmentate, which consisted of metal strips fastened from the inside with leather straps. Modified, with simplified details, the lorica segmentata was used by Roman soldiers until the 3rd century BC. and later. It is worth noting that the tendency to simplify details, not only of the shell, but also of other elements of military equipment, did not stop during the 2nd and 3rd centuries.
From time immemorial, the shield of a legionnaire was an oval curved scutum (scutum). Its origin is not entirely known, some researchers attributed its appearance to the Sabines, others to the Samnites. Be that as it may, at the beginning of the 1st c. the outlines of the scutum change somewhat: it becomes rectangular, but with rounded corners. Later, apparently, in the last quarter of the 1st century, the corners of the shield become straight.
The scutum was made from light aspen or poplar boards and covered first with linen and then with cowhide, upholstered with copper or iron along the edges, and in the middle on the outside it had a metal convex overlay - umbo. In the recess of this overlay with inside shield, a warrior could store small items, such as money, etc. The outer side of the lining could be decorated with chasing or applied silver. Sometimes it depicted a personal emblem (amulet) of the owner of the shield. On the inside, there were records concerning the identity of the owner of the shield: his name, the number of the legion, perhaps centuria, etc. The weight of the shield was at least 5.5 kg.
A group of Roman commanders and warriors (a fragment of a bas-relief of Trajan's column)
The surface of the shield was decorated with drawings. Among the images there could be signs of the zodiac. Most likely, this sign denoted the astrological cycle in which the legion or auxiliary cohort was formed or the emperor who created them was born. The most famous image is lightning and spindles.
Jupiter - most likely belongs to the Praetorian cohorts.
During the campaign and in the camp, in order to cover the shields from moisture, which had a destructive effect on the skin and wood, leather covers were used, which were removed before the battle. Flavius Josephus describes how, under the walls of besieged Jerusalem, the future emperor Titus arranged a ceremony for distributing salaries and food to the soldiers: fully armed. The surroundings of the city sparkled with a bright brilliance of gold and silver. The ceremony lasted for four whole days and made a rather strong impression on the besieged.
It must be said that the shield was used not only as a cover from enemy attacks, but also as an offensive weapon. During the training of soldiers, direct blows were practiced with the central convex lining of the shield, designed to unbalance the enemy, as well as blows with the edge of the shield.
The offensive weapons of the infantry included the sword, pilums, and throwing spears.
The Roman sword of the imperial period (gladius) is descended from a slightly longer Spanish sword (gladius hispaniensis) than the Roman sword. After the Punic Wars, when the Iberian Peninsula was conquered, the Romans took advantage of the secrets of local gunsmiths, as a result of which their legions received this excellent weapon.
The gladius sword, whose name in our time has passed to the gladiolus flower similar to it, in the first half of the 1st century still had a long (50–56 cm) tapering blade. Later, the shape of the sword underwent some changes: both edges of its blade became parallel, and its pointed part became shorter. The total length of the blade has decreased to 44–55 cm.
At the beginning of the 1st century Legionnaires wore a baldric (balteus) over their left shoulder, on which the scabbard (vagina) of the sword was attached. Thus, the sword was located on the right, and the legionnaire could draw it without changing the position of the shield, which always had to cover it as completely as possible.
In addition to the sword, the legionnaire had a combat dagger (pugio). It was worn on the belt (cingulum) on the left side. Judging by the figures depicted on Trajan's column, by the end of the 1st century. the dagger was most likely not used by the legionnaires. But officers could wear it.
Around the 4th century BC e. Throwing weapons of the legionnaires were pilums (pilum) - a kind of throwing spear. Each legionnaire had two of them. Initially, one of them was lighter and was intended for throwing over a longer distance. After the 80s. 1st century n. e. only heavy pilums were used.
The impact force of a skillfully thrown heavy pilum was large enough: it could break through the enemy's shield. Therefore, the tactics of the legionnaires was based on the fact that they threw pilums at the enemy's shields. The heavy tip got stuck, bent from the force of the blow (soft metal was used), the shaft pulled the enemy's shield down. Then the Romans, with swords in their hands, attacked the opponents, who could no longer take full advantage of the shields with the pilums pierced into them and most often threw the shield to the side, remaining without cover.
Auxiliary infantry
During the period of the empire, the weapons and armor of the auxiliary infantry became monotonous, and judging by the bas-relief on Trajan's column, already at the beginning of the 2nd century. they are not much different from legionnaires.
Infantrymen wore chain mail or linen-based scale armor and a helmet resembling that of a legionnaire, but more simplified. Chain mail and scaly shells eventually changed to lamellar armor - loriks.
The main external difference between the “oxylarii” and the legionnaires was a flat oval or hexagonal shield, similar to that used by the Germanic tribes, although some cohorts had shields of legionnaires (scutums). The "oxilaria" were armed with two spears (lancea) and a sword (gladius). They could also use a heavy spear (gaesum).
Traditional throwing weapons: a sling, a bow, a dart - were the weapons of foreign warriors who served Rome.
The slingers (funditores), usually recruited in the Balearic Islands, had prash (funda) - a double-folded belt - as a weapon. Stones (lapides missiles) or acorn-shaped lead bullets (glandes) were used for throwing. On Trajan's column, these warriors are shown without armor at all and even without any shoes.
Archers (sagittarii) were usually recruited in the eastern provinces. They wore chain mail that was longer than those worn by cavalrymen or infantrymen, and were armed with a complex (composite) bow (arcus) with 12-24 arrows (sagitta).
Cavalry
The Roman cavalryman was protected by chain mail or scaly armor, and wore an iron or bronze helmet. The helmet resembled a legionnaire's helmet in almost every detail. Shoulder pads of cavalry chain mail in the 1st century. very reminiscent of Celtic shoulder pads. The chain mail had cuts on the hips so as not to hamper the movements of the rider when he mounted the horse. Another, lighter type of chain mail, depicted on Trajan's Column, has scalloped edges on the sleeves and hem. Defensive equipment was complemented by a flat oval or hexagonal shield. On the campaign, the shield was either attached to the saddle, or thrown over the back. Of course, there were variations in equipment, sometimes very significant, especially helmets and their decorations.
The cavalrymen were armed with a sword (spatha) longer than in the infantry, similar to the Celtic swords (glaives celtiques), as well as a long (tragula, hasta) or light throwing (lancea) spear. The long blade of the sword was necessary for striking from a horse. Before the advent of cataphracts, Roman cavalrymen did not use spears as a striking weapon. This is quite understandable, since without stirrups, and the Ancient World did not know them, a blow with a spear could simply throw the rider himself out of the saddle. On the other hand, they wore spurs (calcaria) attached to the "caligs" (shoes) with leather straps.
Flavius Josephus, describing the eastern hired cavalrymen of Vespasian, also mentions quivers with 3-4 darts attached to the saddle.
The cavalry armor underwent an evolution opposite to the one that the armor of the infantryman experienced. If the equipment of the legionnaire continued to be simplified and lightened, then the cavalry was strengthened and heavier until the cavalrymen turned into clibanarii (clibanarii), heavily armed mounted warriors.
At the beginning of the empire, horse armor was not used, but the harness was decorated with bronze pendants and discs (phalerae), also of Celtic origin.
The infantrymen of the mixed cohorts had the same equipment as the soldiers of the infantry cohorts, however, all its details were simplified to the limit, which indicated a lower position of these infantry in the military hierarchy.
Clothing and footwear
Legionary clothing consisted of a woolen shirt (tunica) with or without short sleeves, over which armor was worn. A scarf was tied around the neck so that the shell plates would not rub it. The soldiers of the auxiliary troops also had the same scarf, even if they wore chain mail as a shell. The color of the tunic is most often depicted in books and historical films as red (the color of Mars), but due to the high cost of this dye, only Praetorian cohorts could afford this color of clothing.
hallmark musicians and standard-bearers was that they usually wore an animal skin draped over their shoulders over helmets. By tradition, lion skins were used in the eastern legions and praetorian cohorts, and bear skins in the German ones.
Roman soldiers wore a cloak (sagum) which was removed before battle. In later times, paenula, a long cloak with a hood, was worn to protect against cold and rain. The military cloak of the commander (paludamentum), made of the best material, was purple in color, with gold embroidery.
Shoes for ordinary soldiers and centurions were (since Republican times) low boots (caligae) laced with straps, leaving the fingers free.
Trousers (bgassae) were borrowed from the Gauls. They were worn in the northern regions. In general, bandages (fasciae) were wrapped around the shins to protect them from the cold.
1. Bulgarian slinger.
2. "Barbarian" in the Roman service.
3. Legionnaire in lorica hamata chainmail armor (1st half of the 1st century) and a bronze helmet of the “coolus” type.
1. Legionnaire in lamellar armor lorica segmentata (about 100).
2. Legionnaire on the march. In the left hand is a pole for carrying luggage, in the right hand are throwing spears - pilums. The shield is protected by a leather case.
3. Legionnaire (about 200).
All three legionnaires various modifications iron helmets of the "imperial-Gallic" type, the characteristic details of which were wide cheek plates and a rear visor.
1. Sarmatian mercenary of the auxiliary cavalry (II century). Judging by the image on Trajan's column, the horses of noble warriors could be protected by scaly armor.
2. Rider of the legionary cavalry (2nd half of the 1st century).
3. The sign-bearer (signifer) of the auxiliary cavalry ala (2nd half of the 1st century).
1. Middle Eastern foot archer (depicted on Trajan's Column).
2. An infantryman of a mixed cohort (about 100).
3. Cavalryman of a mixed cohort (about 100).
Warriors of mixed cohorts wore "cavalry" helmets with characteristic stiffening ribs crossing at the top. The helmets of the auxiliary cohorts and al were made of bronze, but could be iron, and did not have decorations, unlike the helmets of the legionary cavalry.
1. Signifer with the sign of the maniple.
2. Eagle bearer of the legion.
3. Praetorian with a standard (vexillum) in ceremonial attire.
1. Soldier of auxiliary foot cohorts (2nd half of the 1st century - 2nd century),
2. Soldier of the Spanish auxiliary cohort - cohors Hispanorum scutata (about 100).
3. Helvetian auxiliary infantryman in winter clothes, armed with a heavy throwing spear (gaesum). Beginning of the 3rd century
1. "Optio" Praetorian cohort in combat ceremonial outfit. The crest on the helmet was fixed with special holders, which could easily be detached when the crest was removed. In the left hand is a ceremonial staff.
2. Warlord V rank tribunus laticlavius. As a mark of distinction - a white scarf with gold tassels.
3. Centurion(2nd half i c.).
1. Standard bearer (vexilary) of the Praetorian cavalry.
2. A soldier of the Praetorian cohort in ceremonial dress.
3. Musician (cornicin) of the Praetorian cohort. Unlike the soldiers who wore plate armor (lorica segmentata), the musicians wore chain mail.
Notes:
The name clibanarii comes from the word clibanus - a small iron stove.
At the beginning of the Imperial era, around 1 AD, a Roman legion consisted of about 5,000 heavy infantry and a small cavalry unit of 120 cavalry. Typically, Roman legions also had an equal number of archers, cavalry, or light infantry attached as support troops, recruited from among the populations of the Roman provinces. In contrast, legionnaire recruitment took place exclusively among the citizens of Rome. The legions also accompanied the convoys with food and tools for the construction of protected camps, and thus the total number of the legion reached about 11,000 people.
Weapon
The equipment of the legionnaires included not only a variety of weapons and armor, but also tools and everyday utensils. The soldiers mainly had two types of attacking weapons: numerous spears, the so-called pilums, and a gladius, a short sword.
Pilum
The length of the Imperial era pilum was approximately 2.10 meters, 90 cm of which is an iron tip. In battle, pilums were thrown towards the enemy's battle formations from a fairly short distance. Caesar describes the effect of the use of pilums as follows: “... One spear often pierced two overlapping shields, binding them together, (...). Since their hands were now so heavy that they could not fight normally, (…) they got rid of their shields and preferred to fight without protection.
“Gladius, Roman short sword (original find and copy)”
The sword of the legionnaires, the gladius, was a double-edged weapon, approximately 60 cm long and 5 cm wide. It was usually used to strike at close range. Later, during the heyday of the Empire, the legions began to use the spatu, the long sword, primarily as a club.
Roman shield in action
The scutum, a large Roman shield with curved edges for better protection of the body, was used as protective equipment. It was made of thin wood fitted and joined together, reinforced with an iron or bronze frame. In the center of the shield was a cone, and on the opposite side - a handle. The front part was covered with leather and decorated with silver and bronze ornaments in the form of lightnings of Jupiter.
The shields of the cohorts had different colors to make it easier to distinguish them on the battlefield. In addition, the names of the owner and centurion of the cohort were applied to the shields. During forced marches, the shield was carried on a belt over the shoulder.
Cloth
The soldiers wore a linen tunic (underwear) and a short-sleeved woolen tunic that went down to the knees in front. The legs of the men were left bare, here protection was sacrificed for greater mobility. The wearing of trousers (lat. bracae) was considered alien and inappropriate for Roman men, although in cold regions legionnaires were allowed to wear long underpants made of wool or leather that ended just below the knee.
Legionnaires' shoes were of high quality and skillful work, mainly heavy sandals with multi-layered soles were used. Sandals were tied with straps in the center of the tibia, and legionnaires could put wool or fur in cold clothes.
Armor
Armor has changed over the years. Different types of armor could be used at the same time. At the turn of the 1st-2nd centuries, legionnaires mostly wore chain mail. Later, they also protected themselves in battle with the "lorica segmentata" - this was an elaborate armor consisting of many overlapping metal plates that were connected to each other by leather straps from the inside so as not to affect mobility. The shoulders were also protected by various kinds of curved plates, and the back and chest were covered with a connected breastplate. The armor could be assembled in one piece and laced up in front, and at the same time it was still easy to disassemble into separate segments for cleaning and repair.
“Legionnaires circa 70 AD.”
From the year 100, scale armor appears, which at first was used only by elite soldiers from the Praetorian Guard. Legionnaires received similar equipment much later. All three types of armor were still in use during the reign of Emperor Constantine the Great.
The head was protected by a specially designed helmet, which consisted of a metal dome with attached neck and face protection. On both sides of the helmet there was protection for the cheeks. Legionnaires wound a scarf around the neck so that the iron elements of the helmet do not damage the skin.
Helmet of the Centurion
Around the waist they wore a wide belt, in some cases exquisitely decorated with metal plates. An apron made of leather straps with riveted plates was attached in front. It dangled freely when moving, and was presumably used mainly as a decorative element, although in certain circumstances it could provide a little additional protection to the lower abdomen and genitals. A dagger, the so-called “pugio”, was attached to the side of the belt.
“Works on the construction of fortifications on Trajan’s Column”
Roman Hatchet
Field inventory
In addition to weapons and armor, each legionnaire had an ax on his belt, the sharp blade of which was protected by a leather sheath. The legionnaire's standard equipment also included a saw, a wicker basket for dredging, a piece of rope or a long leather belt, and a sickle. In the campaign, the legionnaire carried these items on a special stick, which was called “pilum murale”. In the later years of the existence of the Empire, part of this inventory was loaded onto wagons in carts and accompanied by troops. The heaviest and bulkiest items of equipment for legionnaires were the so-called "papilio" - leather tents. They were transported on horsebacks along with two millstones for grinding grain.
Centurion gear
As a rule, the centurion had a bright extraordinary appearance, allowing him to stand out from the crowd. ordinary people. He wore a shirt with leather, mail, or scale armor and metal pauldrons, as well as an ornate belt. Below the waist, the centurions wore a double-pleated kilt-like skirt, and metal greaves were attached to their legs. A cloak with elegant folds hung from the left shoulder. The sword also hung on the left.
The Roman soldiers of Septimius Severus outwardly differed little from the soldiers of Augustus, who lived two centuries earlier.
In the 3rd century, the Roman Empire experienced a period of political, military and financial turmoil. In the fifty years that have passed since the assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 and before Diocletian came to power in 284, almost thirty emperors have been replaced on the throne, of which only three died a natural death.
The straightforwardness of the "soldier emperors", many of whom came from the ranks, was reflected in the military uniform Roman army, which in this period for the first time achieved a noticeable uniformity.
In the 3rd century, a long-sleeve tunic became widespread. Such a tunic spread due to the influence of numerous German mercenaries who served in the Roman army.
| 1 |
German scout, early 3rd century. |
| 2 |
German warrior, Thorsberg, 3rd century. |
| 3 |
Palmyra scout. III century. |
| Information | |
On Roman icons of the 3rd century and later, Roman soldiers were depicted in a tunic with long narrow sleeves, a cloak and trousers.
It can be assumed that the wearing of northern European clothing in the Roman army first spread among the soldiers of the auxiliary units, then the imperial bodyguards began to dress like this, and, finally, all the legionnaires who served on the northern border of the empire began to wear barbarian clothes.
| 1 |
Constantius II was the third son of Constantine the Great (306-337). At first he ruled the Eastern Empire, but by 358 he had concentrated power over both parts of the Roman Empire in his hands. |
| 2 |
Protector Sacri Lateris, imperial guard, mid-4th century. |
| 3 |
Horseman, Equites Catafractarii, mid-4th century. |
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Information: « military clothing Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 AD ne" |
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Emperor Caracalla (Marcus Aurelius Anonius Bassianus) reportedly continued to wear Germanic clothing even in Syria and Mesopotamia.
The Roman army had a large number of irregular units, whose soldiers were called numerii and cuneii.
The latter were federates (foederati) - German settlers who received land on the territory of the Empire in exchange for an obligation to perform military service.
All irregular units were led by national commanders, usually chiefs, and wore traditional clothing for their tribe. As a result, such detachments often became trendsetters and trendsetters in the imperial army.
| 1 |
Emperor Alexander Severus, (222-235). |
| 2 |
Emperor Caracalla (211-217) |
| 3 |
Emperor Probus (276-282) |
| Information: “Military clothes of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 AD ne" | |
When the Danubian army of Septimius Severus moved to Rome, civilians, which saw these legionnaires only on the column of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius, was horrified at what the soldiers looked like (Dion, LXXV.2.6).
Indeed, the soldiers looked like real barbarians: long-sleeved tunics and trousers (bgasae), which for centuries were considered completely unacceptable clothing for the Romans.
Among other complaints against unpopular emperors like Elagabalus or Commodus was their fondness for long-sleeved tunics.
Documents from Egypt written in Greek(the official language of the Eastern Empire) indicate the wearing of various tunics.
The military tunic, known as the sticharion, was decorated with colored stripes (clavi). In addition, the dalmatica tunic had long sleeves, although, judging by the documents, it was worn less often than the sticharion. The name Dalmatic leaves no doubt that this tunic comes from Dalmatia. The soldier emperors who ruled Rome in the 3rd century preferred to wear just such a tunic.
The vast majority of tunics in the illustrations of the manuscripts are red or white. Green and blue tunics are much less common. It is generally accepted that the tunics of ordinary legionnaires were white, and the centurions wore red tunics.
| Army of the Severes | |
| 1 |
Legionnaire, 193. |
| 2 |
Praetorian Guard, 193. |
| 3 |
Roman phalangist, 21 |
| Information: “Military clothes of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 AD ne" | |
Mention should also be made of such a garment as camisia. Apparently, this was the name of a tight-fitting linen shirt. The name of this shirt came into Latin from the Germanic language through the Gallic language.
Later, kamisiya was often worn by priests, but before that it was very popular among soldiers.
On the eastern frontiers of the Roman Empire, clothing embellished with embroidery, often made with gold or silver thread, was popular. Initially, the Romans despised such fashion as barbaric, but gradually this style of clothing became common for emperors, their courts and bodyguards.
Some samples of military uniforms were very richly decorated. For example, Claudius Herculan, the imperial horse guard under Aurelian (270-275), is depicted on his tombstone dressed in a tunic or cloak, decorated with an image in the form of a sun with rays. Apparently, this decoration is somehow connected with the cult of the sun god implanted by Aurelian. The pattern was obviously embroidered with gold thread, which gave it an effect.
| 1 |
Auxiliary tribune, middle of the 3rd century. |
| 2 |
Vexillary of the auxiliary detachment, middle of the 3rd century. The reconstruction was carried out based on the results of the finds in Dura-Europos. The vexillum is depicted in accordance with the one found in Egypt and currently in the collection of the Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow. |
| 3 |
Auxiliary centurion, middle of the 3rd century. |
| Information: “Military clothes of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 AD ne" | |
Such a pattern could be worn by all the guards of Aurelian. In general, the custom of that time was for the emperor to present expensive clothes to his supporters in order to emphasize his favor in particular and the greatness of the regime as a whole.
The rectangular cloak (sagum) was the most popular type of cloak among Roman legionaries for centuries. The image of this cloak is often found in fine arts that time.
But there were other variants of the cloak, some of which were used in the army. Of the alternatives, a cloak with a hood (paenula) should be mentioned. This cloak was distributed in early period, but by the end of the 2nd century, his image almost completely disappears on military tombstones, although it continues to be found on the tombstones of civilians.
In addition, soldiers in pencil cases are depicted on the wooden door of the Cathedral of St. Sabina in Rome, dating from the 5th century. It is possible that the penula was the cloak of the Praetorian Guard, since it is very often found on the monuments dedicated to the Guard. The temporary disappearance of these cloaks may be due to the disbanding of the Praetorian Guard by Septimius Severus, who replaced the guard with a detachment of bodyguards recruited from among the provincial soldiers.
Later authors mention another cloak with a hood, the so-called birrus or byrus. In Diocletian's price edict, this cloak appears as byrus Britannicus. Probably, the birrus also looked like a penula, but had an additional valve covering the neck, which favorably differed from the penula, which had to be worn with a scarf.
| 1 |
Centurion, 3rd century. |
| 2 |
Mithraist, Hadrian's Wall, 3rd century. |
| 3 |
Sailor of the British Navy, 3rd century. |
| Information: “Military clothes of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 AD ne" | |
It is known that different raincoats were used on different occasions, and some of them were defined as only "military". For example, the soldiers of Saturninus wore heavy military cloaks in winter, but wore light cloaks in summer. Saturninus insisted that the soldiers not take off their cloaks even during dinner, so as not to put their legs out ...
Emperor Aurelian (270-275) opposed silk and gold-trimmed clothing, he owns an aphorism: "The gods forbid a fabric that costs as much as gold." But at the same time, Aurelian did not forbid his soldiers to wear beautiful clothes, and his guard wore especially beautiful golden armor and dress.
From the 3rd century onward, it is very difficult to determine whether a bare-footed person or a person in tight-fitting trousers is depicted. The paint on the sculptures has long faded and washed off, but the surviving frescoes and mosaics make it possible to determine that tight-fitting trousers were worn tucked into boots.
Pants were mostly dark in color: gray or chocolate brown. In the biographies of Augustov, it is said that Emperor Alexander Severus wore white trousers instead of the scarlet trousers common at that time.
In addition, the legs could be protected by different kind hammock On mosaics and frescoes, leggings are often worn by hunters and those who work outdoors.
Among the list of obligatory equipment and the usual rations for Gaius Messiah (probably an equestrian warrior) found at Masada, as well as a similar list for Quintus Julius Proclus, an equestrian warrior from Alexandria, mentions such a garment as a fascia, that is, a winding. In both cases, the windings are mentioned after the boots, which suggests that these are windings or footcloths.
| 1, 2 |
Soldiers, IV century. |
| 3 |
Senior military leader, IV century. |
| Information: “Military clothes of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 AD ne" | |
Gaiters were rectangular in shape and made of cloth or felt. Most of the images show a fastening below the knee and at the ankle.
In the 2nd century, the wearing of boots spread. Socks came along with the boots. A 3rd-century tombstone from Apamea shows a soldier with socks rolled up over the tops of his boots.
There were some kind of tights in which the legs turned into socks.
Very popular shoes in the 3rd century were boots with lacing on the instep.
Until the end of the 3rd century, Roman soldiers were rarely depicted in headdresses. Therefore, the words of Vegetia, written at the end of the 4th century, that in former times they always wore headdresses, are surprising. This was done for training, so that the helmet worn on the head before the fight did not seem too heavy.
| Cavalry from Luxor | |
| 1, 2 |
Commanders, III-IX centuries. |
| 3 |
Heavily armed equestrian warrior, III-IV centuries. |
| Information: “Military clothes of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 AD ne" | |
Such a headdress was called pillei and apparently it existed in two main versions.
Outwardly, the pill was a low, borderless cylinder with a smooth or rough texture. The smooth texture obviously corresponded to leather or felt pills, and the rough texture corresponded to sheepskin.
Diocletian's edict speaks of pillae. made from sheepskin. Probably, the Roman pilli goes back to the Persian tiara.
Many warriors wore balaclavas that softened blows to the head.
The Romans also used armored clothing - thoracomachus, which was an analogue of the medieval aketon.
According to modern reenactors, thoracomakhs were made of linen stuffed with wool. If the thoracomach got wet, wearing it became unpleasant, and it took a long time to dry.
MUNICIPAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
"POLITOTDELSKY SECONDARY SCHOOL"
NIKOLAEVSKY MUNICIPAL DISTRICT OF VOLGOGRAD REGION
Research
on this topic:"Clothes and weapons of the Roman legionnaire"
Ancient world history
Completed:
5th grade student
Volkov Evgeny
Supervisor:
Volkova L.N.,
teacher of history and social studies
With. Politotdelskoye - 2016
Content
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..2
1. The concept of "Roman legionnaire"……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Composition of the Roman army…………………………………………………….....5
2.1. Legionnaires……………………………………………………………………….5
2.2. Command staff…………………………………………………………....8
3. Clothing of Roman legionnaires…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. Types of weapons used in the Roman army……………………………...16
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….20
List of sources and literature…………………………………………………22
Appendix…………………………………………………………………………24
Introduction
In the lessons of the history of the Ancient World, we got acquainted with the conquests of the Roman state. Thanks to these conquests, the state inIV. BC. and earlyIAD turned into a huge Roman Empire, which included the entire Mediterranean coast, modern territory Western Europe, North Africa, Asia Minor. There is evidence that the Romans more than once tried to conquer the first Slavs, whom they called "Wends".
The fame and status of the “great” empire could only be achieved thanks to loyal and brave warriors who carried on their shoulders all the burdens of long, distant and dangerous campaigns.
Camping trips are families left for a long time, living in the field, eating what grew and lived in these territories. What about clothes? After all, according to the territory, the climate also changed, which means that the clothes of a Roman soldier should be:
Convenient for long hikes;
Have protective equipment in case of cold weather or, falling under the rays of the hot sun, protect from scorching heat;
- and the most important thing - Reliable protection from enemy attacks.
In addition, I was interested in the question of arming the legionnaires. The ancient world knew the possibilities of metal processing, but did not know firearms. So the weapons of the Romans are iron products.
Relevance of the work: the moments that interested me in the organization of the Roman army made me want to learn more about the clothes and weapons of the Roman legionnaires, since the history textbook only tells about campaigns and conquests. After collecting information, I can introduce my classmates to these interesting facts, to visualize what a Roman legionnaire looked like.
Research problem lies in the opportunity to get acquainted not only with the conquests of the Roman army, but also with the appearance of the Roman soldiers and with the types of weapons with which they obtained victories for the empire.
An object this work: Roman legionnaire, his appearance.
Item this work: clothes and weapons of a Roman legionnaire.
Purpose of the study: learn about the appearance of the Roman legionnaire and his weapons.
To achieve the goal, a number oftasks:
Define the concept of "Roman legionnaire";
Consider the composition of the Roman army;
Study the clothes and weapons of a Roman legionnaire.
Research methods:
theoretical: literature analysisand sourceson research issue;
practical: collection andregistration of the received information in a folder - portfolio.
Stages of work on the project:
Studying the literature and collecting the necessary information on the chosen topic;
Analysis and structuring;
Folder design - portfolio;
Presentation of the finished work.
Practical significance: this work can be presented as additional information at the lessons of the history of the Ancient World, as well as at the competition of school design works.
Project product: newspaper "Roman legionnaire".
1. The concept of "Roman legionnaire"
The Roman legionary has its name from the name of the military branch in Ancient Rome.
Legion (lat. legio, genus p. legionis), (lat. legio, genus case legionis, from lego - I collect, recruit) - the main organizational unit in the army . Legion strength in different time was about 3-8 thousand people. Initially, the legion was called the entire Roman army, which was a collection of armed citizens of Rome. This Roman "militia" (such is the original meaning of the word) was assembled only in time of war and for military training. The legion was assembled according to the curate principle, each clan ( ) fielded 100 warriors ( ) and 10 horsemen, thus the total number of the legion was 3300 people. A warrior who joined the ranks of the army was called -legionnaire (Fig. 1).
Fig.1
Roman horseman, 1st century AD e.
He sits in the saddle without stirrups, as they have not yet been invented.
2. The composition of the Roman army
2.1. Legionnaires
At the beginning of its existence, Rome was a city in which every man was a warrior. Citizens served either in the infantry or in the cavalry. Everything depended on the financial situation. Wealthier people mounted horses, and the poor became heavily armed soldiers on foot.
Subsequently military organization republics began to be based on universal conscription. Citizens from 17 to 46 years old were obliged, according to their list of centuries, to attend reviews or go on a campaign; sometimes, in war time and for senior officers, service was extended to 50 years. After 45 to 60 - served in the fortresses. Persons who participated in 20 campaigns in the infantry and 10 in the cavalry were exempted from service. Service life also changed over time.
Physical defects, as well as the performance of magistrate and priestly positions, were exempted from military service. An attempt to avoid military service without legal reasons entailed early sale into slavery, and later large fines and confiscation of property. Desertion, flight from the battlefield, etc., were already special military crimes and were almost always punished by exile or death.
At the beginning of the conquests, Rome gathered an army according to ranks on the basis of the qualifications presented (ie, the availability of property and financial condition).
But, pafter the victorious wars of the 4th-3rd centuries. BC. All the peoples of Italy fell under the rule of Rome. To keep them in obedience, the Romans gave some nations more rights, others less, sowing mutual distrust and hatred between them. It was the Romans who formulated the law of divide and conquer.
And for this, numerous troops were needed. Thus, the Roman army consisted of:
a) legions in which the Romans themselves served, consisting of heavy and light infantry and cavalry attached to them;
b) Italian allies and allied cavalry (after granting citizenship rights to Italians who joined the legion);
c) auxiliary troops recruited from the inhabitants of the provinces.
The main tactical unit was the legion.
The legion was divided into maniples (in Latin - a handful), centuriae (hundreds) and decuria (tens), which resembled modern companies, platoons, squads (Fig. 2).
Fig.2
Maniple structure:
Rice. 3
Light infantry -velites (literally - fast, mobile) walked ahead of the legion in loose formation and started a fight. In case of failure, she retreated to the rear and to the flanks of the legion. In total there were 1200 people.
The first line of the legion -hastati (from the Latin "gasta" - a spear) - spearmen, 120 people in a maniple.
Second line -principles (first) - 120 people in the maniple.
Third line -triarii (third) - 60 people in the maniple. The triarii were the most experienced and experienced fighters. When the ancients wanted to say that the decisive moment had come, they said: "It came to the triarii."
Rice. 4
1 - Roman triarii, 2 - Roman hast, 3 - Roman velite.
Each maniple had two centuries. There were 60 people in the centurion of hastati or principes, and there were 30 people in the centurion of triarii.
The legion was given 300 horsemen, which amounted to 10 tours. The cavalry covered the flanks of the legion.
2.2. Command staff
In the days of the republic, the consuls commanded, dividing the troops in half, but when it was necessary to unite, they commanded in turn (Fig. 5). If there was a serious threat, then a dictator was chosen, to whom the head of the cavalry was subordinate, in contrast to the consuls. The dictator had unlimited rights. Each commander had assistants who were entrusted with individual parts of the army.
Separate legions were commanded by tribunes (Fig. 5). There were six of them per legion. Each pair commanded for two months, replacing each other every day, then giving up their place to the second pair, and so on. The centurions were subordinate to the tribunes. Each centuria was commanded by a centurion. The commander of the first hundred was the commander of the maniple. The centurions had the right to punish a soldier for misconduct.
In tsarist times, the king was the commander.
Fig.5
1 - Roman tribune, 2 - Roman standard-bearer, 3 - Roman consul.
So, having examined the composition of the Roman army, I learned that the Roman army was numerous with a complex military organization. Each category of troops had its own specific type of activity. And having become acquainted with the illustration, we can confidently assume that the type of their clothes and weapons also differed. We will study this in the next chapter.
3. Clothing of Roman legionnaires
The military affiliation of the soldiers was determined not by the uniform - the soldier's tunic and cloak differed little from civilian clothes - but by the military belt ("balteus") and shoes ("kaligi").
"Balteus" could take the form of a simple belt worn at the waist and decorated with silver or bronze plates, or two crossed belts tied at the hips. The time of appearance of such crossed belts is unknown. They could appear closer to the reign of Augustus, when additional protection appeared in the form of leather stripes on the sleeves and waist (“pterugs”) (metal lining for such stripes was found near Kalkrize, where Var was defeated). Probably, during the reign of Tiberius, blackening on silver, lead or copper began to be widely used in the manufacture of decorative belt overlays with a complex mosaic pattern. Such a belt was evidence of military status. In the sources there is a description of the soldiers as "armed and belted people." The deprivation of the "Balteus" meant for the soldier an exclusion from the military class. The belt was taken away from a soldier who dishonored himself. In Rome in 69 AD. there was a case when some pranksters, using sharply ground knives, cut off the belts from several soldiers in the crowd. When the soldiers realized what had happened, they flew into an indescribable rage and killed several peaceful people, including the father of one of the legionnaires.
Military shoes"kaligi" was another important attribute of belonging to the soldier class (Fig. 6). The exact time of their introduction is unknown. They were the standard footwear for Roman soldiers from the reign of Augustus until the beginning of the 2nd century BC. AD These were sturdy sandals. The creak of nailed soles spoke of the presence of the soldiers as well as the tinkle of their belts. Archaeological finds throughout the empire testify to a great degree of standardization in the form of "kalig". This suggests that the models for them, and possibly other items of military equipment, were approved by the emperors themselves.
About the color of the militarytunic there was a lot of controversy (Fig. 7). References to centurions parading in white robes may indicate the use of linen tunics. It is also likely that in this case the color of the crests and “pterugs” was indicated. It is likely that centurions also wore woolen tunics dyed red, while lower-ranking officers wore white tunics.
Most of the legionnaires of the Empire period wore heavyarmor , although some types of troops did not use armor at all. Caesar used unarmoured legionaries ("expediti") fighting as "anti-signani". These were lightly armed legionnaires who started skirmishes at the start of a battle or served as reinforcements for the cavalry. On the relief from the building of the headquarters of the legionnaires (principles) in Mainz, two legionnaires are depicted fighting in close formation. They are armed with shields and spears, but do not have protective armor - even heavily armed legionaries could fight "expediti".
Rice. 6 "Caligi" and greaves (greaves)Fig.7 Roman toga and tunic.
There was no toe on the sandals, the skin was red.
Having considered Fig. 9 where showncenturion, we see him wearing what at first glance appears to be a tunic. However, cuts at the arms and thighs indicate that this is a chain mail shirt (“lorika hamata”), the cuts of which are necessary in order to facilitate the movement of a warrior. Many of these monuments depict details in the form of rings. Mail was probably the kind of armor that was widely used by the Romans. In the period we are considering, chain mail shirts were with short sleeves or without sleeves at all and could fall much lower than the hips. Most of the legionnaires wore chain mail with additional chain mail pads on the shoulders. Depending on the length and number of rings (up to 30,000), such chain mail weighed 9-15 kg. Chain mail with shoulder pads could weigh up to 16 kg. Usually chain mail was made of iron, but there are cases when bronze was used to make rings. Scale armor ("lorica squamata") was another common type, cheaper and easier to manufacture, but inferior to chain mail in strength and elasticity.
Such scaly armor was worn over a shirt with sleeves, probably made of canvas lined with wool. Such clothing helped soften blows and prevented metal armor from being pressed into the body of a legionnaire. “Pterugs” were often added to such attire - canvas or leather protective strips that covered the upper parts of the arms and legs. Such stripes could not protect from serious injuries. Until the end of the 1st century AD centurions could wear greaves, and even then, probably not in all cases (Fig. 6).
Rice. 8 Fig.9
Helmet
Legionnaires used various types of helmets. During the time of the Republic, bronze, and sometimes iron, helmets of the Montefortino type became widespread, which became the traditional helmets of legionnaires from the 4th century. BC. They consisted of a single bowl-shaped piece with a very small rear visor and side plates that covered the ears and sides of the face. Later versions of helmets, including the so-called "Culus" type, were used until the end of the 1st century BC. AD They were equipped with large plates to protect the neck.
Legionnaires' helmets were quite massive. The wall thickness reached 1.5 - 2 mm, and the weight was about 2 - 2.3 kg. Helmets and their side plates had felt pads, and the design of some helmets left a small space between the head and the canopy, which made it possible to soften the blow. Montefortino helmets were equipped with wide side plates that completely covered the ears, but the new Gallic Imperial helmets already had cutouts for the ears. True, with the exception of those cases when helmets were made for a soldier to order, the side plates could partially cover the ears of a legionnaire. The side plates covered the sides of the face well, but could limit peripheral vision, and the open front of the face became a target for the enemy.
Fig.10 
Fig.11
To attach the crest to the helmets, two holes were provided, in which special holders were fixed. Crests, most likely, were worn only for parades, and were rarely used in battles. The helmet itself was put on only before the battle, while on the march it was hung on leather straps on the warrior's chest.
Fig.12
Of all the uniforms of Roman soldiers, I would like to highlight the clothes of the Roman velite (Fig. 12). These warriors went ahead of the entire Roman army and caused a fight for themselves. The purpose of the velites was to throw darts at the enemy and quickly retreat behind the backs of well-protected infantry. They did not wear armor and chain mail, as protection they had a simple helmet and a round light . Some sources mention velites wearing wolf skins over their helmets so that their centurions could distinguish their soldiers when they retreated.Probably, from the head of a wolf was a symbol of reverence for the god Mars. This god in ancient Rome was not only the god of war, but was also considered the guardian of fields and herds from pests and wolves.
As for long campaigns with climate change, in cold weather the legionnaire put on a cape with a hood.It is known that different raincoats were used on different occasions, and some of them were defined as only "military". For example, soldiers wore heavy military cloaks in winter, but wore light cloaks in summer. The soldiers did not take off their raincoats even during dinner, so as not to put their legs out. INAll legionnaires wore red cloaks. Only the dictator and high commanders were allowed to wear purple cloaks.
There were also pants.They were worn tucked into boots.Pants were mostly dark in color: gray or chocolate brown.
In the 2nd century, the wearing of boots spread. Socks came along with the boots.
There were some kind of tights in which the legs turned into socks.
Very popular shoes in the 3rd century were boots with lacing on the instep.
Thus, having examined the clothes of a Roman legionnaire, we can conclude that the clothes of a warrior on a campaign consisted of a tunic, armor or chain mail, a special belt and leather sandals. In winter, a cloak with a hood was thrown over, trousers or gaiters were put on, boots were put on their feet. The legionnaire's head was protected by a helmet during the battle. Such a few attire was of strategic importance - a warrior must move quickly and easily during the battle. But still, the bulk was made up of weapons, they were always with the soldiers.
4. Types of weapons used in the Roman army
From time immemorialshield the legionnaire had an oval curved scutum (scutum). Its origin is not entirely known, some researchers attributed its appearance to the Sabines, others to the Samnites. Be that as it may, at the beginning of the 1st c. the outlines of the scutum change somewhat: it becomes rectangular, but with rounded corners. Later, apparently, in the last quarter of the 1st century, the corners of the shield become straight.
The scutum was made from light aspen or poplar boards and covered first with linen and then with cowhide, upholstered with copper or iron along the edges, and in the middle on the outside it had a metal convex overlay - umbo. In the deepening of this lining on the inside of the shield, the warrior could store small items, such as money, etc. The outer side of the lining could be decorated with chasing or applied silver. Sometimes it depicted a personal emblem (amulet) of the owner of the shield. On the inside, there are records concerning the identity of the owner of the shield: his name, the number of the legion, perhaps the centuria, etc.The weight of the shield was not less than 5.5 kg.
The surface of the shield was decorated with drawings. Among the images there could be signs of the zodiac. Most likely, this sign denoted the astrological cycle in which the legion or auxiliary cohort was formed or the emperor who created them was born. The most famous depiction, the thunderbolts and spindles of Jupiter, most likely belongs to the Praetorian cohorts.
During the campaign and in the camp, in order to cover the shields from moisture, which had a destructive effect on the skin and wood, leather covers were used, which were removed before the battle. Flavius Josephus describes how, under the walls of besieged Jerusalem, the future emperor Titus arranged a ceremony for distributing salaries and food to the soldiers: “According to the custom adopted in such cases, the army set out with open shields, which were usually covered with covers and fully armed. The surroundings of the city sparkled with a bright brilliance of gold and silver. The ceremony lasted for four whole days and made a rather strong impression on the besieged.
It must be said that the shield was used not only as a cover from enemy attacks, but also as an offensive weapon. During the training of soldiers, direct blows were practiced with the central convex lining of the shield, designed to unbalance the enemy, as well as blows with the edge of the shield.
TOoffensive weapons infantry included the sword, pilums and javelins.
Roman sword of the imperial period (gladius) is descended from a slightly longer than Roman, Spanish sword (gladius hispaniensis). After the Punic Wars, when the Iberian Peninsula was conquered, the Romans took advantage of the secrets of local gunsmiths, as a result of which their legions received this excellent weapon.
Gladius sword , whose name in our time has passed to a gladiolus flower similar in shape, in the first half of the 1st century it still had a long (50–56 cm) tapering blade. Later, the shape of the sword underwent some changes: both edges of its blade became parallel, and its pointed part became shorter. The total length of the blade has decreased to 44–55 cm.
At the beginning of the 1st century Legionnaires wore a baldric over the left shoulder, on which the scabbard of the sword was attached. Thus, the sword was located on the right, and the legionnaire could draw it without changing the position of the shield, which always had to cover it as completely as possible.
In addition to the sword, the legionnaire hadcombat dagger (pugio). It was worn on the belt on the left side. Judging by the figures depicted on Trajan's column, by the end of the 1st century. the dagger was most likely not used by the legionnaires. But officers could wear it.
Around the 4th century BC e. legionnaires' throwing weapons werepilums (pilum) - a type of throwing spear. Each legionnaire had two of them. Initially, one of them was lighter and was intended for throwing over a longer distance. After the 80s. 1st century n. e. only heavy pilums were used.
The impact force of a skillfully thrown heavy pilum was large enough: it could break through the enemy's shield. Therefore, the tactics of the legionnaires were based on the fact that they threw pilums at the enemy's shields. The heavy tip got stuck, bent from the force of the blow (soft metal was used), the shaft pulled the enemy's shield down. Then the Romans, with swords in their hands, attacked the opponents, who could no longer take full advantage of the shields with the pilums pierced into them and most often threw the shield to the side, remaining without cover.
Traditionalthrowing weapon : sling, bow, dart - was the weapon of foreign warriors who served Rome.
The slingers, usually recruited in the Balearic Islands, had weaponsprash - double folded belt. For throwing, stones or lead bullets cast in the shape of an acorn were used.
The armament of the triarii, hastati and principes was the same: a shield, a sword, and only instead of pilums they used long spears - gasta.
Velites had a sword, darts and a round shield (parma, parma) about 90 cm in diameter. Darts, "gasta velitaris", were a smaller copy of the pilum; their iron part was 25 - 30 cm, and the wooden shaft was two cubits (about 90 cm) long and about a finger thick.
Thus, one can imagine what weight of combat equipment a Roman legionnaire had to carry.
On the march, this weight also increased due to his luggage, which included cooking utensils, a bag of provisions, spare clothes. All this property, the weight of which could exceed 13 kg, was placed in a leather bag with ropes and carried with the help of a T-shaped pole on the shoulder. If necessary, the legionnaire also had to carry all the equipment for earthworks. This included a pickaxe, an axe, a saw, a chain, a leather belt, and a basket for carrying earth. During the time of Julius Caesar, he made sure that a certain part of the legionnaires during the campaign was not burdened with cargo and could quickly react in the event of an enemy attack.So, the armament of a Roman soldier is not only a military weapon, but also everything a warrior needs to protect his body, and everything he needs to survive on a long, distant campaign (Appendix).
Conclusion
For many centuries, the Roman army was rightfully considered one of the strongest in the world. Moreover, its combat effectiveness did not fall, despite any political conflicts. main role, of course, warriors played - legionnaires, ready to sacrifice themselves in the interests of the state. But a good warrior must correspond to his position, i.e. his military organization, weapons and clothing should be his assistants in military affairs.
problem this study there was an acquaintance not only with the Roman warrior as a conqueror, but also an acquaintance with his appearance and weapons, with which he won victory for the empire.
Based on the purpose and objectives, it was determined that the legionnaire received his name from the name of the organization of the Roman army - the legion.
The legion was divided into maniples (a handful), centuries (hundreds), decuria (tens). And also divided into warriors - legionnaires and command staff. The troops of the legionnaires consisted of velites, who went first and caused a fight on themselves, hastati - spearmen, principles and, the most experienced warriors, triarii.
But the main task of the study was to study the clothes and weapons of the Roman legionnaire. Expanding this problem, it was found that:
The main everyday wear was a tunic;
A military belt was put on the waist - "balteus";
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