International space station- a manned orbital station of the Earth, the fruit of the work of fifteen countries of the world, hundreds of billions of dollars and a dozen maintenance personnel in the form of astronauts and cosmonauts who regularly go aboard the ISS. The International Space Station is such a symbolic outpost of humanity in space, the farthest point of permanent residence of people in airless space (there are no colonies on Mars, of course). The ISS was launched in 1998 as a sign of reconciliation between countries that tried to develop their own orbital stations (and this was, but not for long) during the Cold War, and will work until 2024, if nothing changes. Experiments are regularly carried out on board the ISS, which yield results that are certainly significant for science and space exploration.

Scientists got the rare opportunity to see how conditions on the International Space Station affected gene expression by comparing identical twin astronauts: one of them spent about a year in space, the other stayed on Earth. the space station caused changes in gene expression through the process of epigenetics. NASA scientists already know that astronauts will experience physical stress in different ways.

Volunteers try to live on Earth as astronauts in preparation for manned missions on, but are faced with isolation, restrictions and terrible food. After spending nearly a year without fresh air in a cramped, zero gravity environment on the International Space Station, they looked remarkably good when they returned to Earth last spring. They completed a 340-day orbital mission, one of the longest in recent space exploration history.

Briefly about the article: The ISS is the most expensive and most ambitious project of mankind on the way to space exploration. However, the construction of the station is in full swing, and it is not yet known what will happen to it in a couple of years. We talk about the creation of the ISS and plans for its completion.

Space house

International space station

You remain in charge. But don't touch anything.

The joke of Russian cosmonauts against the American Shannon Lucid, which they repeated every time they left the Mir station in open space (1996).

Back in 1952, the German rocket scientist Wernher von Braun said that mankind would need space stations very soon: as soon as it went into space, there would be no stopping it. And for the systematic development of the Universe, orbital houses are needed. On April 19, 1971, the Soviet Union launched the Salyut 1 space station, the first in the history of mankind. It was only 15 meters long, and the volume of habitable space was 90 square meters. By today's standards, the pioneers flew into space on unreliable scrap metal stuffed with radio tubes, but then it seemed that there were no more obstacles for humans in space. Now, 30 years later, there is only one inhabited object hanging over the planet - International Space Station.

It is the largest, most advanced, but at the same time the most expensive station among all that has ever been launched. More and more questions are asked - do people need it? Like, what do we need in space, if there are so many problems left on Earth? Perhaps it is worth figuring out - what is this ambitious project?

The roar of the cosmodrome

The International Space Station (ISS) is a joint project of 6 space agencies: the Federal Space Agency (Russia), the National Aeronautics and Space Agency (USA), the Japan Aerospace Research Administration (JAXA), the Canadian Space Agency (CSA / ASC), the Brazilian the Space Agency (AEB) and the European Space Agency (ESA).

However, not all members of the latter took part in the ISS project - Great Britain, Ireland, Portugal, Austria and Finland refused this, and Greece and Luxembourg joined later. In fact, the ISS is based on a synthesis of failed projects - the Russian station "Mir-2" and the American "Svoboda".

Work on the creation of the ISS began in 1993. The Mir station was launched on February 19, 1986 and had a warranty period of 5 years. In fact, she spent 15 years in orbit - due to the fact that the country simply did not have the money to launch the Mir-2 project. The Americans had similar problems - the Cold War was over, and their Svoboda station, which had already spent about $ 20 billion on one design, was out of work.

Russia had a 25-year practice of working with orbital stations, unique methods of long-term (over a year) human stay in space. In addition, the USSR and the USA had good experience. working together on board the Mir station. In conditions when no country could independently pull an expensive orbital station, the ISS became the only alternative.

On March 15, 1993, representatives of the Russian Space Agency and the Energia Research and Production Association approached NASA with a proposal to create the ISS. On September 2, a corresponding government agreement was signed, and by November 1, a detailed work plan was prepared. Financial issues of interaction (supply of equipment) were resolved in the summer of 1994, and 16 countries joined the project.

What's in your name? The name “ISS” was born in controversy. The first crew of the station, at the suggestion of the Americans, gave it the name "Station Alpha" and used it for some time in communications. Russia did not agree with this option, since "Alpha" in a figurative sense meant "first", although the Soviet Union had already launched 8 space stations (7 "Salyut" and "Mir"), and the Americans were experimenting with their "Skylab". From our side, the name Atlantis was proposed, but the Americans rejected it for two reasons - firstly, it was too similar to the name of their shuttle Atlantis, and secondly, it was associated with the mythical Atlantis, which, as you know, drowned ... It was decided to dwell on the phrase "International Space Station" - not too sonorous, but a compromise option.

Go!

The deployment of the ISS was started by Russia on November 20, 1998. The Proton rocket launched the Zarya functional cargo block into orbit, which, along with the American NODE-1 docking module, delivered into space on December 5 of the same year by the Indever shuttle, formed the backbone of the ISS.

"Zarya"- the heir to the Soviet TKS (transport supply ship), developed to serve the combat stations "Almaz". At the first stage of the ISS assembly, it became a power source, equipment storage, navigation and orbit correction tool. All other ISS modules now have a more specific specialization, while Zarya is practically universal and in the future will serve as a storage facility (power, fuel, devices).

Officially, Zarya is owned by the United States - they paid for its creation - however, in fact, the module was assembled from 1994 to 1998 at the Khrunichev State Space Center. It was included in the ISS instead of the Bus-1 module, designed by the American corporation Lockheed, since it cost $ 450 million versus $ 220 million for Zarya.

Zarya has three docking locks - one at each end and one at the side. Its solar panels are 10.67 meters long and 3.35 meters wide. In addition, the module has six nickel-cadmium batteries capable of delivering about 3 kilowatts of power (at first there were problems with charging them).

Along the outer perimeter of the module there are 16 fuel tanks with a total volume of 6 cubic meters (5700 kilograms of fuel), 24 large rotary jet engines, 12 small ones, as well as 2 main engines for serious orbital maneuvers. Zarya is capable of autonomous (unmanned) flight for 6 months, but due to delays with the Russian service module Zvezda, it had to fly empty for 2 years.

Module "Unity"(created by Boeing Corporation) went into space after Zorya in December 1998. Equipped with six docking locks, it became the central connection point for subsequent modules of the station. Unity is vital to the ISS. The working resources of all modules of the station - oxygen, water and electricity - pass through it. Unity is also equipped with a basic radio communications system that allows Zarya's communications capabilities to be used to communicate with Earth.

Service module "Star"- the main Russian segment of the ISS - launched on July 12, 2000 and docked with Zorya 2 weeks later. Its frame was built back in the 1980s for the Mir-2 project (the design of the Zvezda is very similar to the first Salyut stations, and its design features are the Mir station).

To put it simply, this module is housing for astronauts. It is equipped with life support systems, communications, control, data processing, as well as a propulsion system. The total mass of the module is 19,050 kilograms, the length is 13.1 meters, the span of solar panels is 29.72 meters.

Zvezda has two sleeping places, an exercise bike, a treadmill, a toilet (and other hygiene facilities), and a refrigerator. Outward visibility is provided by 14 windows. The Russian electrolytic system "Electron" decomposes waste water. The hydrogen is removed overboard and the oxygen enters the life support system. Together with "Electron" the "Air" system works, which absorbs carbon dioxide.

In theory, the waste water can be purified and reused, but this is rarely practiced on the ISS - fresh water is delivered on board by cargo Progress. It must be said that the "Electron" system junked several times and the astronauts had to use chemical generators - the very "oxygen candles" that once caused a fire at the Mir station.

In February 2001, a laboratory module was connected to the ISS (to one of the “Unity” gateways) "Destiny"(“Destiny”) - an aluminum cylinder weighing 14.5 tons, 8.5 meters long and 4.3 meters in diameter. It is equipped with five mounting racks with life support systems (each weighs 540 kilograms and can generate electricity, cool water and control the composition of the air), as well as six racks with scientific equipment delivered a little later. The remaining 12 empty slots will be occupied over time.

In May 2001, the main airlock of the ISS, the Quest Joint Airlock, was added to Unity. This 5.5 x 4 meter six-ton ​​cylinder is equipped with four high-pressure cylinders (2 oxygen, 2 nitrogen) to compensate for the loss of vented air, and is relatively inexpensive at just $ 164 million.

Its 34 cubic meter working space is used for spacewalks, and the size of the airlock allows the use of any type of spacesuit. The fact is that the device of our "Orlans" involves their use only in the Russian transfer compartments, a similar situation with the American EMUs.

In this module, astronauts going into space can also rest and breathe pure oxygen in order to get rid of decompression sickness (with a sharp change in pressure, nitrogen, the amount of which in the tissues of our bodies reaches 1 liter, goes into a gaseous state).

The last of the assembled ISS modules is the Russian docking compartment Pirs (SO-1). The creation of SO-2 was discontinued due to funding problems, so the ISS now has only one module, to which the Soyuz-TMA and Progress spacecraft can be easily docked - three of which at once. In addition, astronauts dressed in our spacesuits can go outside from it.

And, finally, one cannot fail to name another ISS module - a multipurpose luggage support module. Strictly speaking, there are three of them - "Leonardo", "Rafaello" and "Donatello" (artists of the Renaissance, as well as three of the four ninja turtles). Each module is an almost equilateral cylinder (4.4 x 4.57 meters), transported by shuttles.

It can store up to 9 tons of cargo (its own weight is 4082 kilograms, with a maximum load of 13154 kilograms) - supplies delivered to the ISS and waste removed from it. All module luggage is in the normal air environment so astronauts can get to it without using spacesuits. The luggage modules were manufactured in Italy by order of NASA and belong to the US segments of the ISS. They are used alternately.

Useful little things

In addition to the main modules, the ISS contains a large number of additional equipment. It is inferior in size to the modules, but without it, the operation of the station is impossible.

The working “hands”, or rather, the “arm” of the station - the manipulator “Canadarm2”, mounted on the ISS in April 2001. This high-tech machine, worth 600 million dollars, is capable of moving objects weighing up to 116 tons - for example, helping in the installation of modules, docking and unloading shuttles (their own hands are very similar to Canadarm2, only smaller and weaker).

The own length of the manipulator is 17.6 meters, the diameter is 35 centimeters. It is operated by astronauts from the laboratory module. The most interesting thing is that "Canadarm2" is not fixed in one place and is able to move around the surface of the station, providing access to most of its parts.

Unfortunately, due to differences in connection ports located on the surface of the station, “Canadarm2” cannot navigate through our modules. In the near future (presumably 2007), it is planned to install an ERA (European Robotic Arm) on the Russian segment of the ISS - a shorter and weaker, but more accurate manipulator (positioning accuracy - 3 mm), capable of operating in a semi-automatic mode without constant control of astronauts.

In accordance with the safety requirements of the ISS project, a rescue vehicle is constantly on duty at the station, capable, if necessary, of delivering the crew to Earth. Now this function is performed by the good old "Soyuz" (TMA model) - it is able to take on board 3 people and ensure their livelihoods for 3.2 days. Soyuz have a short in-orbit warranty period, so they are changed every 6 months.

The workhorses of the ISS are currently the Russian Progress, the brothers of the Soyuz, operating in unmanned mode. The cosmonaut consumes about 30 kilograms of cargo (food, water, hygiene products, etc.) per day. Consequently, for a regular six-month duty at the station, one person needs 5.4 tons of supplies. It is impossible to carry that much on the Soyuz, therefore, the station is mainly supplied by shuttles (up to 28 tons of cargo).

After the termination of their flights, from February 1, 2003 to July 26, 2005, the entire load on the station's clothing was carried by Progress (2.5 tons of load). After unloading the ship, it was filled with waste, undocked automatically and burned up in the atmosphere somewhere over the Pacific Ocean.

Crew: 2 people (as of July 2005), maximum - 3

Orbital altitude: 347.9 km to 354.1 km

Orbit inclination: 51.64 degrees

Daily revolutions around the Earth: 15.73

Distance traveled: About 1.5 billion kilometers

average speed: 7.69 km / s

Current weight: 183.3 tons

Fuel weight: 3.9 tons

Living space: 425 square meters

Average temperature on board: 26.9 degrees Celsius

Estimated completion of construction: 2010

Planned term of work: 15 years

The complete assembly of the ISS will require 39 shuttle flights and 30 Progress flights. In its finished form, the station will look like this: the volume of airspace is 1200 cubic meters, the mass is 419 tons, the power-to-weight ratio is 110 kilowatts, the total length of the structure is 108.4 meters (in modules - 74 meters), the crew is 6 people.

At the crossroads

Until 2003, the construction of the ISS went on as usual. Some modules were canceled, others were delayed, sometimes there were problems with money, faulty equipment - in general, things were going badly, but nevertheless, over the 5 years of its existence, the station became habitable and scientific experiments were periodically carried out on it.

On February 1, 2003, while entering the dense layers of the atmosphere, the shuttle Columbia died. The American manned flight program was suspended for 2.5 years. Considering that the station modules awaiting their turn could only be put into orbit by shuttles, the very existence of the ISS was in jeopardy.

Fortunately, the US and Russia were able to agree on a reallocation of costs. We took it upon ourselves to provide the ISS with cargo, and the station itself was switched to standby mode - there were always two cosmonauts on board, who monitored the serviceability of the equipment.

Shuttle launches

After the successful flight of the shuttle "Discovery" in July-August 2005, there was hope that the construction of the station would continue. The first in line to launch is the twin of the "Unity" plug-in, "Node 2". The preliminary date of its launch is December 2006.

The European scientific module "Columbus" will be the second: the launch is scheduled for March 2007. This laboratory is already ready and waiting in the wings - it will need to be attached to "Node 2". It boasts good anti-meteorite protection, a unique apparatus for the study of the physics of liquids, as well as a European physiological module (a comprehensive medical examination right on board the station).

After Columbus, the Japanese laboratory Kibo (Hope) will follow - its launch is scheduled for September 2007. It is interesting because it has its own mechanical manipulator, as well as a closed “terrace” where you can conduct experiments in open space without actually leaving the ship.

The third connecting module - "Node 3" is to go to the ISS in May 2008. In July 2009, it is planned to launch a unique rotating centrifuge module CAM (Centrifuge Accommodations Module), on board which artificial gravity in the range from 0.01 to 2 g will be created. It is designed mainly for scientific research - the permanent residence of astronauts in conditions of gravity, so often described by science fiction writers, is not provided.

In March 2009, the ISS will fly "Cupola" ("Dome") - an Italian design, which, as its name implies, is an armored observation dome for visual control over the station manipulators. For safety, the windows will be equipped with external dampers to protect against meteorites.

The last module delivered to the ISS by American shuttles will be the Power Science Platform, a massive solar array on an openwork metal truss. It will provide the station with the energy necessary for the normal functioning of the new modules. It will also be equipped with an ERA mechanical arm.

Launches on "Protons"

The Russian Proton missiles are supposed to deliver three large modules to the ISS. So far, only a very approximate flight schedule is known. Thus, in 2007 it is planned to add to the station our spare functional cargo block (FGB-2 is the twin of Zarya), which will be turned into a multifunctional laboratory.

In the same year, the European arm ERA was to be deployed by Proton. And finally, in 2009 it will be necessary to put into operation a Russian research module, functionally similar to the American "Destiny".

It is interesting

Space stations are frequent guests in science fiction. The most famous two are “Babylon 5” from the TV series of the same name and “Deep Space 9” from the TV series “Star Trek”. Director Stanley Kubrick created the iconic look for the space station in NF. His film 2001: A Space Odyssey (screenplay and book by Arthur Clarke) showed a large ring station rotating on its axis and thus creating artificial gravity. The longest stay of a person on a space station is 437.7 days. The record was set by Valery Polyakov at the Mir station in 1994-1995. The Soviet Salyut stations were originally supposed to bear the name Zarya, but it was retained for the next similar project, which, in the end, became the ISS functional cargo block. In one of the expeditions to the ISS, there was a tradition to hang three bills on the wall of the living module - 50 rubles, a dollar and a euro. For luck. On the ISS, the first space marriage in the history of mankind was concluded - on August 10, 2003, cosmonaut Yuri Malenchenko, while on board the station (she flew over New Zealand), married Ekaterina Dmitrieva (the bride was on Earth, in the USA).

* * *

The ISS is the largest, most expensive and long-term space project in the history of mankind. While the station is not yet completed, its cost can be estimated only approximately - over $ 100 billion. Criticism of the ISS most often boils down to the fact that this money can be used to carry out hundreds of unmanned scientific expeditions to the planets of the solar system.

There is some truth in such accusations. However, this is a very limited approach. Firstly, it does not take into account the potential profit from the development of new technologies when creating each new ISS module - and after all, its instruments really stand on leading edge science. Their modifications can be used in everyday life and can generate huge income.

We must not forget that thanks to the ISS program, mankind is able to preserve and increase all the precious technologies and skills of manned space flights, which were obtained in the second half of the 20th century at an incredible price. A lot of money was spent in the "space race" of the USSR and the USA, many people died - all this may be in vain if we stop moving in the same direction.

2018 marks the 20th anniversary of one of the most significant international space projects, the largest man-made Earth satellite - the International Space Station (ISS). 20 years ago, on January 29, in Washington, an Agreement was signed on the creation of a space station, and already on November 20, 1998, construction of the station began - from the BAIKONUR cosmodrome, the Proton launch vehicle was successfully launched with the first module - the functional cargo block (FGB) Zarya ". In the same year, on December 7, the second element of the orbital station, the Unity connecting module, was docked with the Zarya FGB. Two years later, the station has a new addition - the Zvezda service module.

On November 2, 2000, the International Space Station (ISS) began its work in manned mode. The Soyuz TM-31 spacecraft with the crew of the first long-term expedition docked to the Zvezda service module.The spacecraft rendezvous with the station was carried out according to the scheme that was used during flights to the Mir station. Ninety minutes after docking, the hatch was opened, and the ISS-1 crew stepped on board the ISS for the first time.The ISS-1 crew included Russian cosmonauts Yuri GIDZENKO, Sergei KRIKALEV and American astronaut William SHEPERD.

Arriving at the ISS, the cosmonauts carried out the deactivation, retrofitting, launch and adjustment of the Zvezda, Unity and Zarya module systems and established communication with the mission control centers in Korolev, Moscow Region and Houston. Within four months, 143 sessions of geophysical, biomedical and technical research and experiments were performed. In addition, the ISS-1 team provided docking with the Progress M1-4 cargo spacecraft (November 2000), Progress M-44 (February 2001) and the American shuttles Endeavor (Endeavor, December 2000) , Atlantis (Atlantis; February 2001), Discovery (Discovery; March 2001) and their unloading. Also in February 2001, the expedition team integrated the Destiny laboratory module into the ISS.

On March 21, 2001, with the American space shuttle Discovery, which delivered the crew of the second expedition to the ISS, the team of the first long-term mission returned to Earth. The landing site was the JF Kennedy Space Center, Florida, USA.

In subsequent years, the Quest airlock, the Pirs docking bay, the Harmony connecting module, the Columbus laboratory module, the Kibo cargo and research module, the Search small research module, were docked to the International Space Station. residential module "Tranquility", viewing module "Domes", small research module "Dawn", multifunctional module "Leonardo", test transformable module "BEAM".

Today the ISS is the largest international project, a manned space station used as a multipurpose space research facility. The space agencies ROSCOSMOS, NASA (USA), JAXA (Japan), CSA (Canada), ESA (European countries) participate in this global project.

With the creation of the ISS, it became possible to carry out scientific experiments in the unique conditions of microgravity, in a vacuum and under the influence of cosmic radiation. The main areas of research are physical and chemical processes and materials in space, Earth exploration and space exploration technologies, man in space, space biology and biotechnology. Much attention in the work of astronauts on the International Space Station is paid to educational initiatives and the popularization of space research.

ISS is a unique experience of international cooperation, support and mutual assistance; construction and operation in a near-earth orbit of a large engineering structure, which is of paramount importance for the future of all mankind.

BASIC MODULES OF THE INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION	CONDITIONS. DESIGNATION	START	JOINT

International space station

International Space Station, abbr. (eng. International Space Station, abbr. ISS) - manned, used as a multipurpose space research complex. The ISS is a joint international project involving 14 countries (in alphabetical order): Belgium, Germany, Denmark, Spain, Italy, Canada, Netherlands, Norway, Russia, USA, France, Switzerland, Sweden, Japan. Initially, the participants included Brazil and the United Kingdom.

The ISS is controlled by: the Russian segment - from the Space Flight Control Center in Korolev, the American segment - from the Lyndon Johnson Mission Control Center in Houston. The laboratory modules - the European Columbus and the Japanese Kibo - are controlled by the Command Centers of the European Space Agency (Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany) and the Japan Aerospace Research Agency (Tsukuba, Japan). There is a constant exchange of information between the Centers.

History of creation

In 1984, US President Ronald Reagan announced the start of work on the creation of an American space station. In 1988 the projected station was named "Freedom". At the time, it was a joint project between the United States, ESA, Canada and Japan. A large-sized controlled station was planned, the modules of which would be delivered one by one to the Space Shuttle orbit. But by the beginning of the 1990s, it became clear that the cost of developing the project was too high and only international cooperation would make it possible to create such a station. The USSR, which already had experience in creating and launching into orbit the Salyut orbital stations, as well as the Mir station, planned to create the Mir-2 station in the early 1990s, but due to economic difficulties the project was suspended.

On June 17, 1992, Russia and the United States signed an agreement on cooperation in space exploration. In accordance with it, the Russian Space Agency (RSA) and NASA have developed a joint Mir-Shuttle program. This program included flights of the American reusable Space Shuttle spacecraft to the Russian space station Mir, the inclusion of Russian cosmonauts in the crews of American shuttles and American astronauts in the crews of the Soyuz spacecraft and the Mir station.

In the course of the implementation of the Mir-Shuttle program, the idea of ​​combining national programs for the creation of orbital stations was born.

In March 1993 general manager RSA Yuri Koptev and General Designer of NPO Energia Yuri Semyonov proposed to the head of NASA Daniel Goldin to create the International Space Station.

In 1993, in the United States, many politicians were against the construction of a space orbital station. In June 1993, the US Congress discussed a proposal to abandon the creation of the International Space Station. This proposal was not accepted by a margin of only one vote: 215 votes for rejection, 216 votes for the construction of the station.

On September 2, 1993, US Vice President Albert Gore and Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Russian Federation Viktor Chernomyrdin announced a new project for a "truly international space station." From that moment on, the official name of the station became "International Space Station", although the unofficial one - the "Alpha" space station was also used in parallel.

ISS, July 1999. Above is the Unity module, below, with deployed solar panels - Zarya

On November 1, 1993, the RSA and NASA signed a "Detailed Work Plan for the International Space Station."

On June 23, 1994, Yuri Koptev and Daniel Goldin signed in Washington the "Interim Agreement for Work Leading to a Russian Partnership in the Permanent Manned Civil Space Station", under which Russia officially joined the ISS.

November 1994 - the first consultations of the Russian and American space agencies took place in Moscow, contracts were signed with the companies participating in the project - Boeing and RSC Energia named after S. P. Koroleva.

March 1995 - at the Space Center. L. Johnson in Houston, the preliminary design of the station was approved.

1996 - the station configuration was approved. It consists of two segments - Russian (a modernized version of Mir-2) and American (with the participation of Canada, Japan, Italy, countries - members of the European Space Agency and Brazil).

November 20, 1998 - Russia launched the first element of the ISS - the Zarya functional cargo block, which was launched by the Proton-K rocket (FGB).

December 7, 1998 - the shuttle Endeavor docked the American module "Unity" ("Unity", "Node-1") to the Zarya module.

On December 10, 1998, the hatch to the Unity module was opened and Kabana and Krikalev, as representatives of the USA and Russia, entered the station.

July 26, 2000 - a service module (SM) Zvezda was docked to the Zarya functional cargo block.

November 2, 2000 - Soyuz TM-31 manned transport vehicle (TPK) delivered the crew of the first expedition to the ISS.

ISS, July 2000. Docked modules from top to bottom: Unity, Zarya, Star and Progress ship

February 7, 2001 - The crew of the Atlantis shuttle during the STS-98 mission attached the American scientific module Destiny to the Unity module.

April 18, 2005 - NASA head Michael Griffin at the hearings of the Senate Commission on Space and Science announced the need to temporarily reduce scientific research on the American segment of the station. This was required to free up funds for the accelerated development and construction of a new manned spacecraft (CEV). The new manned spacecraft was necessary to ensure independent US access to the station, since after the Columbia disaster on February 1, 2003, the US temporarily did not have such access to the station until July 2005, when shuttle flights resumed.

After the Columbia disaster, the number of ISS long-term crew members was reduced from three to two. This was due to the fact that the station was supplied with materials necessary for the life of the crew, carried out only by Russian cargo ships "Progress".

On July 26, 2005, shuttle flights resumed with the successful launch of the shuttle Discovery. Until the end of the shuttle operation, it was planned to make 17 flights until 2010, during these flights the equipment and modules necessary both for completing the station and for modernizing part of the equipment, in particular the Canadian manipulator, were delivered to the ISS.

The second shuttle flight after the Columbia disaster (Shuttle Discovery STS-121) took place in July 2006. On this shuttle the German cosmonaut Thomas Reiter arrived on the ISS and joined the crew of the long-term expedition ISS-13. Thus, after a three-year hiatus, three cosmonauts began to work on a long-term expedition to the ISS.

ISS, April 2002

Launched on September 9, 2006, the Atlantis shuttle delivered to the ISS two segments of the ISS truss structures, two solar panels, as well as radiators of the American segment's thermal control system.

On October 23, 2007, the American module Harmony arrived aboard the shuttle Discovery. It was temporarily docked to the Unity module. After redocking on November 14, 2007, the "Harmony" module was permanently connected to the "Destiny" module. Construction of the main US segment of the ISS has been completed.

ISS, August 2005

In 2008, the station was expanded by two laboratories. On February 11, the Columbus module, created by order of the European Space Agency, was docked, and on March 14 and June 4, two of the three main compartments of the Kibo laboratory module, developed by the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency, were docked - the pressurized section of the Experimental Cargo Bay (ELM PS) and sealed compartment (PM).

In 2008-2009, the operation of new transport vehicles began: the European Space Agency "ATV" (the first launch took place on March 9, 2008, payload - 7.7 tons, 1 flight per year) and the Japanese Aerospace Research Agency "H-II Transport Vehicle "(The first launch took place on September 10, 2009, payload - 6 tons, 1 flight per year).

On May 29, 2009, the ISS-20 long-term crew of six began to work, delivered in two stages: the first three people arrived on Soyuz TMA-14, then the Soyuz TMA-15 crew joined them. To a large extent, the increase in the crew was due to the fact that the possibilities of delivering cargo to the station increased.

ISS, September 2006

On November 12, 2009, a small research module MIM-2 was docked to the station, which was named "Search" shortly before launch. This is the fourth module of the Russian segment of the station, developed on the basis of the Pirs docking station. The capabilities of the module allow performing some scientific experiments on it, as well as simultaneously performing the function of a berth for Russian ships.

On May 18, 2010, the Russian small research module Rassvet (MIM-1) was successfully docked to the ISS. The operation to dock Rassvet to the Russian functional cargo block Zarya was carried out by the manipulator of the US space shuttle Atlantis, and then by the manipulator of the ISS.

ISS, August 2007

In February 2010, the International Space Station's Multilateral Management Board confirmed that there are no known technical restrictions at this stage for the continued operation of the ISS beyond 2015, and the US Administration has foreseen continued use of the ISS until at least 2020. NASA and Roscosmos are considering extending this deadline until at least 2024, and possibly extending it until 2027. In May 2014, Russian Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Rogozin said: "Russia does not intend to extend the operation of the International Space Station beyond 2020."

In 2011, flights of reusable spacecraft of the Space Shuttle type were completed.

ISS, June 2008

On May 22, 2012, a Falcon 9 launch vehicle was launched from the Cape Canaveral launch site with a private space cargo ship Dragon. This is the first ever test flight to the International Space Station by a private spacecraft.

On May 25, 2012, the Dragon spacecraft became the first commercial vehicle docked with the ISS.

September 18, 2013 for the first time approached the ISS and was docked with a private automatic cargo spaceship supply "Signus".

ISS, March 2011

Planned events

The plans include a significant modernization of the Russian spacecraft Soyuz and Progress.

In 2017, it is planned to dock the Russian 25-ton multifunctional laboratory module (MLM) "Science" to the ISS. It will replace the Pirs module, which will be undocked and flooded. Among other things, the new Russian module will fully take over the Pier's functions.

"NEM-1" (scientific and energy module) - the first module, delivery is planned in 2018;

"NEM-2" (scientific and energy module) - the second module.

UM (nodal module) for the Russian segment - with additional docking nodes. Delivery is planned for 2017.

Station device

The station is based on a modular principle. The ISS is assembled by sequentially adding to the complex the next module or block, which is connected to the one already delivered to orbit.

For 2013, the ISS includes 14 main modules, Russian ones - Zarya, Zvezda, Pirs, Poisk, Rassvet; American - Unity, Destiny, Quest, Tranquility, Domes, Leonardo, Harmony, European - Columbus and Japanese - Kibo.

• "Zarya"- the Zarya functional cargo module, the first of the ISS modules delivered to orbit. Module weight - 20 tons, length - 12.6 m, diameter - 4 m, volume - 80 m³. Equipped with jet engines to correct the station's orbit and large solar panels. The service life of the module is expected to be at least 15 years. The American financial contribution to the creation of Zarya is about $ 250 million, the Russian - over $ 150 million;
• P.M. panel- anti-meteorite panel or anti-micrometeor protection, which, at the insistence of the American side, is mounted on the Zvezda module;
• "Star"- service module "Zvezda", which houses flight control systems, life support systems, energy and information center, as well as cabins for cosmonauts. Module weight - 24 tons. The module is divided into five compartments and has four docking stations. All its systems and units are Russian, with the exception of the onboard computer complex, created with the participation of European and American specialists;
• MIME- small research modules, two Russian cargo modules "Poisk" and "Rassvet", designed to store equipment necessary for conducting scientific experiments. "Search" is docked to the anti-aircraft docking port of the Zvezda module, and the "Rassvet" - to the nadir port of the Zarya module;
• "The science"- Russian multifunctional laboratory module, which provides conditions for storing scientific equipment, conducting scientific experiments, and temporary accommodation for the crew. Also provides the functionality of a European manipulator;
• ERA- European remote manipulator designed to move equipment located outside the station. Will be fixed on the Russian scientific laboratory MLM;
• Hermoadapter- a sealed docking adapter designed to interconnect the ISS modules and to ensure docking of shuttles;
• "Calm"- ISS module performing life support functions. Contains systems for water processing, air regeneration, waste disposal, etc. Connected to the "Unity" module;
• "Unity"- the first of the three ISS connecting modules, which acts as a docking station and a power switch for the Quest and Nod-3 modules, the Z1 farm and transport ships docking to it through the Hermoadapter-3;
• "Pier"- port of berthing, intended for the implementation of docking of Russian Progress and Soyuz; installed on the Zvezda module;
• VSP- external storage platforms: three external unpressurized platforms designed exclusively for storing goods and equipment;
• Farms- an integrated truss structure, on the elements of which solar panels, radiator panels and remote manipulators are installed. Also designed for leaky storage of goods and various equipment;
• "Canadarm2", or "Mobile Service System" - a Canadian remote manipulator system serving as the primary tool for unloading transport ships and moving external equipment;
• "Dexter"- Canadian system of two remote manipulators, used to move equipment located outside the station;
• "Quest"- a specialized airlock module designed for space walks of cosmonauts and astronauts with the possibility of preliminary desaturation (washing out nitrogen from human blood);
• "Harmony"- a connecting module that acts as a docking station and an electrical switch for three scientific laboratories and transport ships docking to it through the Hermoadapter-2. Contains additional life support systems;
• Columbus- European laboratory module, in which, in addition to scientific equipment, network switches (hubs) are installed, providing communication between the station's computer equipment. Docked to the "Harmony" module;
• Destiny- American laboratory module docked with the Harmony module;
• "Kibo"- Japanese laboratory module, consisting of three compartments and one main remote manipulator. The largest module of the station. Designed for physical, biological, biotechnological and other scientific experiments in sealed and non-sealed conditions. In addition, thanks to its special design, it allows unplanned experiments. Docked to the "Harmony" module;

ISS observation dome.

• "Dome"- transparent observation dome. Its seven windows (the largest is 80 cm in diameter) are used for experiments, space observation and, when docking spacecraft, as well as a control panel for the station's main remote manipulator. Resting place for crew members. Designed and manufactured by the European Space Agency. Installed on the "Tranquility" nodal module;
• TSP- four non-hermetic platforms, fixed on trusses 3 and 4, designed to accommodate the equipment necessary for conducting scientific experiments in a vacuum. They provide processing and transmission of experimental results via high-speed channels to the station.
• Sealed multifunctional module- warehouse for storing cargo, docked to the nadir docking station of the Destiny module.

In addition to the components listed above, there are three cargo modules: Leonardo, Raphael and Donatello, which are periodically delivered into orbit to equip the ISS with the necessary scientific equipment and other cargo. Modules with a common name "Multipurpose supply module", were delivered in the cargo hold of the shuttles and docked with the Unity module. Since March 2011, the converted Leonardo module has been included in the station's modules called the Permanent Multipurpose Module (PMM).

Power supply to the station

ISS in 2001. The solar panels of the Zarya and Zvezda modules are visible, as well as the P6 truss structure with American solar panels.

The only source electrical energy for the ISS is, the light of which the solar panels of the station convert into electricity.

The Russian segment of the ISS uses a constant voltage of 28 volts, similar to that used on the Space Shuttle and Soyuz spacecraft. Electricity is generated directly by the solar panels of the Zarya and Zvezda modules, and can also be transmitted from the American segment to the Russian segment through the ARCU voltage converter ( American-to-Russian converter unit) and in the opposite direction through the RACU voltage converter ( Russian-to-American converter unit).

It was originally planned that the station would be powered by the Russian Science and Energy Platform (NEP) module. However, after the Columbia shuttle disaster, the station assembly program and the shuttle flight schedule were revised. Among other things, the delivery and installation of the NEP was also abandoned, so at the moment most of the electricity is produced by solar panels in the American sector.

In the American segment, solar panels are organized as follows: two flexible foldable solar panels form a so-called solar panel wing ( Solar Array Wing, SAW); in total, four pairs of such wings are placed on the station's truss structures. Each wing is 35 m long and 11.6 m wide, and its usable area is 298 m², while the total power generated by it can reach 32.8 kW. Solar panels generate a primary constant voltage of 115 to 173 Volts, which is then, using DDCU units (eng. Direct Current to Direct Current Converter Unit ), is transformed into a secondary stabilized constant voltage of 124 Volts. This stabilized voltage is directly used to power the electrical equipment of the American segment of the station.

Solar battery on the ISS

The station makes one revolution around the Earth in 90 minutes and spends about half of this time in the shadow of the Earth, where solar panels do not work. Then its power supply comes from buffer nickel-hydrogen storage batteries, which are recharged when the ISS again enters sunlight... The batteries have a lifespan of 6.5 years and are expected to be replaced several times over the lifetime of the station. The first battery replacement was carried out on the P6 segment during the spacewalk of the space shuttle Endeavor STS-127 in July 2009.

Under normal conditions, the solar panels in the American sector track the sun to maximize energy production. Solar panels are aimed at the Sun using Alpha and Beta actuators. The station has two Alpha drives, which rotate several sections with solar panels located on them around the longitudinal axis of truss structures: the first drive turns sections from P4 to P6, the second - from S4 to S6. Each wing of the solar battery has its own "Beta" drive, which rotates the wing about its longitudinal axis.

When the ISS is in the shadow of the Earth, the solar panels are switched to Night Glider mode ( English) ("Night gliding mode"), while they turn their edge in the direction of travel in order to reduce the resistance of the atmosphere, which is present at the station's flight altitude.

Means of communication

Telemetry transmission and scientific data exchange between the station and the Mission Control Center is carried out using radio communication. In addition, radio communications are used during rendezvous and docking operations, they are used for audio and video communication between crew members and with flight control specialists on Earth, as well as relatives and friends of astronauts. Thus, the ISS is equipped with internal and external multipurpose communication systems.

The Russian segment of the ISS maintains communication with the Earth directly using the Lira radio antenna installed on the Zvezda module. Lira makes it possible to use the Luch satellite data relay system. This system was used to communicate with the Mir station, but in the 1990s it fell into disrepair and is currently not used. In 2012, Luch-5A was launched to restore the system's performance. In May 2014, 3 Luch multifunctional space relay systems operate in orbit - Luch-5A, Luch-5B and Luch-5V. In 2014, it is planned to install specialized subscriber equipment on the Russian segment of the station.

Another Russian communication system, Voskhod-M, provides telephone communication between Zvezda, Zarya, Pirs, Poisk and the American segment, as well as VHF radio communication with ground centers control using external antennas of the Zvezda module.

In the American segment, for communication in the S-band (audio transmission) and K u-band (audio, video, data transmission), two separate systems are used, located on the Z1 truss. Radio signals from these systems are transmitted to the US geostationary satellites TDRSS, which allows for almost continuous contact with the mission control center in Houston. Data from Canadarm2, the European Columbus module and the Japanese Kibo are redirected through these two communication systems, however, the American TDRSS data transmission system will eventually be supplemented by the European satellite system (EDRS) and a similar Japanese one. Communication between the modules is carried out via an internal digital wireless network.

During spacewalks, astronauts use a UHF UHF transmitter. Soyuz, Progress, HTV, ATV and Space Shuttle satellites also use VHF radio communications during docking or undocking (however, shuttles also use S- and K u-band transmitters via TDRSS). With its help, these spaceships receive commands from the Mission Control Center or from the ISS crew members. Unmanned spacecraft are equipped with their own communication facilities. So, ATV ships use a specialized system during rendezvous and docking. Proximity Communication Equipment (PCE), the equipment of which is located on the ATV and on the Zvezda module. Communication is carried out via two completely independent S-band radio channels. The PCE begins to function starting at relative ranges of about 30 kilometers, and turns off after the ATV is docked to the ISS and switched to interaction via the MIL-STD-1553 onboard bus. To accurately determine the relative position of the ATV and ISS, a system of laser rangefinders installed on the ATV is used, making it possible to accurately dock with the station.

The station is equipped with approximately one hundred ThinkPads from IBM and Lenovo, Models A31 and T61P, running Debian GNU / Linux. These are ordinary serial computers, which, however, have been modified for use in the ISS, in particular, they have redesigned connectors, a cooling system, taken into account the 28 Volt voltage used at the station, and also fulfilled the safety requirements for working in zero gravity. Since January 2010, direct Internet access has been organized at the station for the American segment. The computers on board the ISS are connected to using Wi-Fi to a wireless network and connected to the Earth at a speed of 3 Mbps for uploads and 10 Mbps for downloading, which is comparable to a home ADSL connection.

Bathroom for astronauts

The toilet on the OS is designed for both men and women, looks exactly the same as on Earth, but has a number of design features. The toilet is equipped with leg braces and thigh holders, and powerful air pumps are built into it. The astronaut is fastened to the toilet seat with a special spring attachment, then turns on a powerful fan and opens the suction port, where the air flow carries all the waste.

On the ISS, air from toilets must be filtered before entering living quarters to remove bacteria and odors.

Greenhouse for astronauts

Fresh greens, grown in microgravity, are officially on the menu for the first time on the International Space Station. On August 10, 2015, astronauts will taste lettuce harvested from the orbiting Veggie plantation. Many media outlets reported that for the first time the cosmonauts tried their own grown food, but this experiment was carried out at the Mir station.

Scientific research

One of the main goals in the creation of the ISS was the possibility of conducting experiments at the station that require unique conditions for space flight: microgravity, vacuum, cosmic radiation, not weakened by the earth's atmosphere. Major research areas include biology (including biomedical research and biotechnology), physics (including fluid physics, materials science, and quantum physics), astronomy, cosmology, and meteorology. Research is carried out using scientific equipment, mainly located in specialized scientific modules-laboratories; some of the equipment for experiments requiring a vacuum is fixed outside the station, outside its pressurized volume.

ISS scientific modules

At the moment (January 2012), the station contains three special scientific modules - the American laboratory Destiny, launched in February 2001, the European research module Columbus, delivered to the station in February 2008, and the Japanese research module Kibo ". The European research module is equipped with 10 racks in which instruments for research in various fields of science are installed. Some of the racks are specialized and equipped for research in biology, biomedicine and fluid physics. The rest of the racks are universal, in which the equipment can change depending on the experiments being carried out.

The Japanese research module "Kibo" consists of several parts, which were sequentially delivered and assembled in orbit. The first compartment of the Kibo module is a sealed experimental transport compartment (eng. JEM Experiment Logistics Module - Pressurized Section ) was delivered to the station in March 2008, during the flight of the shuttle "Endeavor" STS-123. The last part of the Kibo module was attached to the station in July 2009, when the shuttle delivered a leaky experimental transport compartment to the ISS. Experiment Logistics Module, Unpressurized Section ).

Russia has two "Small Research Modules" (MIM) on the orbital station - "Poisk" and "Rassvet". It is also planned to deliver a multifunctional laboratory module "Science" (MLM) into orbit. Full-fledged scientific capabilities only the latter will have, the amount of scientific equipment located on two MIMs is minimal.

Collaborative experiments

The international nature of the ISS project encourages collaborative scientific experiments. Such cooperation is most widely developed by European and Russian scientific institutions under the auspices of ESA and the Federal Space Agency of Russia. Notable examples such cooperation was the Plasma Crystal experiment dedicated to the physics of dusty plasma, and conducted by the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, the Institute of High Temperatures and the Institute for Problems of Chemical Physics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, as well as a number of other scientific institutions in Russia and Germany, the biomedical experiment Matryoshka- R ", in which to determine the absorbed dose of ionizing radiation, mannequins are used - equivalents of biological objects created at the Institute of Biomedical Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Cologne Institute of Space Medicine.

The Russian side is also a contractor for contract experiments between ESA and the Japan Aerospace Research Agency. For example, Russian cosmonauts tested the ROKVISS robotic experimental system (eng. Robotic Components Verification on ISS- testing of robotic components on the ISS), developed at the Institute of Robotics and Mechatronics, located in Wesling, near Munich, Germany.

Russian studies

Comparison between burning a candle on Earth (left) and in microgravity on the ISS (right)

In 1995, a competition was announced among Russian scientific and educational institutions, industrial organizations to conduct scientific research on the Russian segment of the ISS. For eleven main areas of research, 406 applications were received from eighty organizations. After evaluating the technical feasibility of these applications by RSC Energia specialists, in 1999 the Long-Term Program of Scientific and Applied Research and Experiments Planned on the Russian Segment of the ISS was adopted. The program was approved by the President of the Russian Academy of Sciences Yu. S. Osipov and the General Director of the Russian Aviation and Space Agency (now FKA) Yu. N. Koptev. The first studies on the Russian segment of the ISS were started by the first manned expedition in 2000. According to the initial design of the ISS, it was planned to launch two large Russian research modules (MR). The energy needed for scientific experiments was to be provided by the Energy Science Platform (NEP). However, due to underfunding and delays in the construction of the ISS, all these plans were canceled in favor of the construction of a single scientific module, which did not require large costs and additional orbital infrastructure. A significant part of the research carried out by Russia on the ISS is contractual or joint with foreign partners.

Currently, the ISS is carrying out various medical, biological and physical research.

Research in the American segment

Epstein-Barr virus, shown by fluorescent antibody staining technique

The United States is conducting an extensive research program on the ISS. Many of these experiments are a continuation of the research carried out during the flights of shuttles with Spacelab modules and in the joint program with Russia “Mir-Shuttle”. An example is the study of the pathogenicity of one of the causative agents of herpes, the Epstein-Barr virus. According to statistics, 90% of the US adult population is carriers of the latent form of this virus. Under conditions of space flight, the immune system is weakened, the virus can become active and cause a member of the crew to become ill. Experiments to study the virus were launched during the flight of the STS-108 shuttle.

European studies

Solar observatory installed on the Columbus module

The European scientific module Columbus provides 10 unified payload racks (ISPR), although some of them, by agreement, will be used in NASA experiments. For the needs of ESA, the following scientific equipment was installed in the racks: Biolab laboratory for biological experiments, Fluid Science Laboratory for research in the field of fluid physics, installation for experiments in physiology European Physiology Modules, as well as a universal rack European Drawer Rack containing equipment for conducting experiments on protein crystallization (PCDF).

During STS-122, external experimental installations for the Columbus module were also installed: a portable platform for technological experiments EuTEF and the solar observatory SOLAR. It is planned to add an external laboratory for testing general relativity and string theory Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space.

Japanese studies

The research program carried out on the Kibo module includes the study of the processes of global warming on Earth, the ozone layer and surface desertification, and astronomical research in the X-ray range.

Experiments are planned to create large and identical protein crystals to help understand the mechanisms of disease and develop new therapies. In addition, the effect of microgravity and radiation on plants, animals and people will be studied, and experiments in robotics, communications and energy will be carried out.

In April 2009, Japanese astronaut Koichi Wakata on the ISS conducted a series of experiments that were selected from among those proposed by ordinary citizens. The astronaut tried to "swim" in zero gravity using a variety of styles, including crawl and butterfly. However, none of them allowed the astronaut to even budge. At the same time, the astronaut noted that “even large sheets of paper will not be able to correct the situation if they are taken in hand and used as fins”. In addition, the astronaut wanted to juggle a soccer ball, but this attempt was unsuccessful. Meanwhile, the Japanese managed to send the ball back overhead. After completing these difficult exercises in zero gravity, the Japanese astronaut tried to do push-ups from the floor and make rotations in place.

Security questions

Space debris

A hole in the radiator panel of the shuttle Endeavor STS-118, formed as a result of a collision with space debris

Since the ISS is moving in a relatively low orbit, there is a certain probability of collision of the station or astronauts going into outer space with the so-called space debris. This can include both large objects like rocket stages or out-of-order satellites, and small ones like slag from solid-propellant rocket engines, refrigerants from reactor plants of US-A satellites, and other substances and objects. In addition, natural objects such as micrometeorites pose an additional threat. Considering cosmic speeds in orbit, even small objects can cause serious damage to the station, and in the event of a possible hit in the cosmonaut's spacesuit, micrometeorites can pierce the skin and cause depressurization.

To avoid such collisions, remote monitoring of the movement of space debris is carried out from the Earth. If such a threat appears at a certain distance from the ISS, the station crew receives a corresponding warning. The astronauts will have enough time to activate the DAM system. Debris Avoidance Manoeuvre), which is a group of propulsion systems from the Russian segment of the station. Engaged engines are able to launch the station into a higher orbit and thus avoid a collision. In case of late detection of danger, the crew is evacuated from the ISS on board the Soyuz spacecraft. Partial evacuation took place on the ISS: April 6, 2003, March 13, 2009, June 29, 2011, and March 24, 2012.

Radiation

In the absence of the massive atmospheric layer that surrounds people on Earth, astronauts on the ISS are exposed to more intense radiation from constant streams of cosmic rays. On a day, crew members receive a dose of radiation in the amount of about 1 millisievert, which is approximately equivalent to a person's exposure on Earth for a year. This leads to an increased risk of malignant tumors in astronauts, as well as a weakening of the immune system. Weak immunity of astronauts can contribute to the spread of infectious diseases among the crew members, especially in the confined space of the station. Despite the attempts made to improve the radiation protection mechanisms, the level of radiation penetration has not changed much in comparison with the indicators of previous studies carried out, for example, at the Mir station.

Station body surface

During the inspection of the outer skin of the ISS, on the scrapings from the surface of the hull and windows, traces of marine plankton activity were found. It was also confirmed the need to clean the outer surface of the station due to pollution from the operation of spacecraft engines.

Legal side

Legal levels

The legal framework governing the legal aspects of the space station is diverse and consists of four levels:

• The first the level that establishes the rights and obligations of the parties is the "Intergovernmental Agreement on the Space Station" (eng. Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement - IGA ), signed on January 29, 1998 by fifteen governments of the countries participating in the project - Canada, Russia, USA, Japan, and eleven member states of the European Space Agency (Belgium, Great Britain, Germany, Denmark, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, France, Switzerland and Sweden). Article 1 of this document reflects the main principles of the project:
  This agreement is a long-term international structure based on sincere partnership for the comprehensive design, construction, development and long-term use of an inhabited civil space station for peaceful purposes, in accordance with international law.... When writing this agreement, it was based on the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, ratified by 98 countries, which borrowed the traditions of international maritime and air law.
• The first level of partnership is the basis second level called "Memorandums of Understanding" (eng. Memoranda of Understanding - MOU s ). These memorandums represent agreements between NASA and four national space agencies: FKA, ESA, KKA and JAXA. Memoranda are used for more detailed description roles and responsibilities of partners. Moreover, since NASA is the appointed manager of the ISS, there are no separate agreements directly between these organizations, only with NASA.
• TO the third This level includes barter agreements or agreements on the rights and obligations of the parties - for example, a 2005 commercial agreement between NASA and Roscosmos, which included one guaranteed place for an American astronaut in the crews of Soyuz spacecraft and part of the usable volume for American cargo on unmanned aerial vehicles. " Progress ”.
• Fourth the legal level complements the second ("Memorandums") and enforces certain provisions from it. An example of this is the ISS Code of Conduct, which was developed in pursuance of paragraph 2 of Article 11 of the Memorandum of Understanding - legal aspects of ensuring subordination, discipline, physical and information security, and other rules of conduct for crew members.

Ownership structure

The ownership structure of the project does not provide for a clearly established percentage for its members on the use of the space station as a whole. According to Article 5 (IGA), each partner only has jurisdiction over the plant component that is registered for it, and violations of the law by personnel, inside or outside the plant, are subject to proceedings under the laws of the country of which they are nationals.

The interior of the Zarya module

ISS resource agreements are more complex. Russian modules "Zvezda", "Pirs", "Poisk" and "Rassvet" are manufactured and belong to Russia, which retains the right to use them. The planned Nauka module will also be manufactured in Russia and will be included in the Russian segment of the station. The Zarya module was built and delivered to orbit by the Russian side, but this was done with US funds, therefore, the owner of this module is officially NASA today. For the use of Russian modules and other components of the station, partner countries use additional bilateral agreements (the aforementioned third and fourth legal levels).

The rest of the station (US modules, European and Japanese modules, trusses, solar panels and two robotic arms), as agreed by the parties, are used as follows (in% of the total time of use):

1. Columbus - 51% for ESA, 49% for NASA
2. Kibo - 51% for JAXA, 49% for NASA
3. Destiny - 100% for NASA

In addition to this:

• NASA can use 100% of the truss area;
• By agreement with NASA, the CSA can use 2.3% of any non-Russian components;
• Crew working time, solar power, use of ancillary services (loading / unloading, communication services) - 76.6% for NASA, 12.8% for JAXA, 8.3% for ESA and 2.3% for CSA.

Legal curiosities

Before the flight of the first space tourist, there was no regulatory framework governing private flights into space. But after Dennis Tito's flight, the countries participating in the project developed "Principles" that defined such a concept as "Space tourist" and all the necessary questions for his participation in the visiting expedition. In particular, such a flight is possible only if there are specific medical indicators, psychological fitness, language training, and a monetary contribution.

The participants in the first space wedding in 2003 found themselves in the same situation, since such a procedure was also not regulated by any laws.

In 2000, the Republican majority in the US Congress adopted a legislative act on the nonproliferation of missile and nuclear technologies in Iran, according to which, in particular, the United States could not purchase equipment and ships from Russia necessary for the construction of the ISS. However, after the Columbia disaster, when the fate of the project depended on Russian Soyuz and Progress, on October 26, 2005, Congress was forced to amend this bill, removing all restrictions on "any protocols, agreements, memorandums of understanding or contracts." , before January 1, 2012.

Costs

The costs of building and operating the ISS turned out to be much higher than it was originally planned. In 2005, ESA estimates that from the start of work on the ISS project from the late 1980s to its then expected completion in 2010, about 100 billion euros (157 billion dollars or 65.3 billion pounds sterling) would have been spent \. However, to date, the end of operation of the station is planned no earlier than 2024, due to the request of the United States, who are unable to undock their segment and continue to fly, the total costs of all countries are estimated at a larger amount.

It is very difficult to make an accurate estimate of the cost of the ISS. For example, it is not clear how the Russian contribution should be calculated, since Roscosmos uses significantly lower dollar rates than other partners.

NASA

Assessing the project as a whole, most of all NASA's expenses are the complex of flight support measures and the costs of managing the ISS. In other words, ongoing operating costs account for a much larger share of the money spent than the cost of building modules and other station devices, training crews, and delivery ships.

NASA's spending on the ISS, excluding Shuttle costs, from 1994 to 2005 was $ 25.6 billion. 2005 and 2006 accounted for approximately $ 1.8 billion. Annual expenditures are projected to increase and by 2010 will amount to $ 2.3 billion. Then, until the completion of the project in 2016, no increase is planned, only inflationary adjustments.

Distribution of budgetary funds

An itemized list of NASA costs can be estimated, for example, according to a document published by the space agency, which shows how the $ 1.8 billion spent by NASA on the ISS in 2005 was distributed:

• Research and development of new equipment- $ 70 million. This amount was, in particular, spent on the development of navigation systems, on information support, on technologies to reduce environmental pollution.
• Flight support- $ 800 million. This amount included: per ship, $ 125 million for software, spacewalks, supply and maintenance of shuttles; an additional $ 150 million was spent on the flights themselves, on-board electronic equipment and on systems for interaction between the crew and the ship; the remaining $ 250 million went to general management of the ISS.
• Ship launches and expeditions- $ 125 million for pre-launch operations at the cosmodrome; $ 25 million for medical care; $ 300 million spent on expedition management;
• Flight program- 350 million dollars were spent on the development of the flight program, on the maintenance of ground equipment and software, for guaranteed and uninterrupted access to the ISS.
• Cargo and crews- $ 140 million was spent on the purchase of consumables, as well as the ability to deliver cargo and crews on Russian Progress and Soyuz.

Cost of Shuttles as part of the cost of the ISS

Of the ten scheduled flights remaining until 2010, only one STS-125 flew not to the station, but to the Hubble telescope

As mentioned above, NASA does not include the cost of the Shuttle program in the main cost of the station, since it positions it as a separate project, independently of the ISS. However, from December 1998 to May 2008, only 5 of the 31 shuttle flights were not connected to the ISS, and of the eleven scheduled flights remaining until 2011, only one STS-125 flew not to the station, but to the Hubble telescope.

The approximate costs of the Shuttle program for the delivery of cargo and crews of astronauts to the ISS were:

• Excluding the first flight in 1998, from 1999 to 2005, the cost was $ 24 billion. Of these, 20% ($ 5 billion) did not belong to the ISS. Total - $ 19 billion.
• From 1996 to 2006, it was planned to spend 20.5 billion dollars on flights under the Shuttle program. If we subtract the flight to the Hubble from this amount, we end up with the same $ 19 billion.

That is, the total costs of NASA flights to the ISS for the entire period will amount to approximately $ 38 billion.

Total

Taking into account NASA's plans for the period from 2011 to 2017, as a first approximation, you can get an average annual consumption of $ 2.5 billion, which for the subsequent period from 2006 to 2017 will amount to $ 27.5 billion. Knowing the costs of the ISS from 1994 to 2005 ($ 25.6 billion) and adding these figures, we get the final official result - $ 53 billion.

It should also be noted that this figure does not include the significant costs of designing the Freedom space station in the 1980s and early 1990s, and participation in a joint program with Russia to use the Mir station in the 1990s. The developments of these two projects were used many times during the construction of the ISS. Considering this circumstance, and taking into account the situation with the Shuttles, we can talk about more than a twofold increase in the amount of expenses, compared to the official one - more than $ 100 billion for the United States alone.

ESA

ESA has calculated that its contribution over the 15 years of the project's existence will amount to 9 billion euros. Costs for the Columbus module exceed € 1.4 billion (approximately $ 2.1 billion), including costs for ground-based monitoring and control systems. The total cost of developing the ATV is approximately € 1.35 billion, with each launch of the Ariane 5 costing approximately € 150 million.

JAXA

The development of the Japanese Experimental Module, JAXA's main contribution to the ISS, cost approximately 325 billion yen (approximately $ 2.8 billion).

In 2005, JAXA allocated approximately 40 billion yen (350 million USD) to the ISS program. The Japanese experimental module has an annual operating cost of $ 350-400 million. In addition, JAXA has pledged to develop and launch the H-II transport ship, with a total development cost of $ 1 billion. JAXA's expenses for 24 years of participation in the ISS program will exceed $ 10 billion.

Roscosmos

A significant portion of the Russian Space Agency's budget is spent on the ISS. Since 1998, more than three dozen flights of the Soyuz and Progress spacecraft have been performed, which since 2003 have become the main means of delivering cargo and crews. However, the question of how much Russia is spending on a station (in US dollars) is not an easy one. The currently existing 2 modules in orbit are derivatives of the Mir program, and therefore the costs of their development are much lower than for other modules, but in this case, by analogy with American programs, one should also take into account the development costs of the corresponding modules of the Mir station. In addition, the exchange rate between the ruble and the dollar does not adequately assess the actual costs of Roscosmos.

A rough idea of ​​the expenses of the Russian space agency on the ISS can be obtained based on its total budget, which for 2005 amounted to 25.156 billion rubles, for 2006 - 31.806, for 2007 - 32.985 and for 2008 - 37.044 billion rubles. Thus, the plant consumes less than one and a half billion US dollars per year.

CSA

The Canadian Space Agency (CSA) is a permanent partner of NASA, therefore Canada has been participating in the ISS project from the very beginning. Canada's contribution to the ISS is a mobile maintenance system consisting of three parts: a mobile carriage that can move along the station truss, a Canadarm2 robotic arm that is mounted on a mobile cart, and a dedicated Dextre manipulator. ). CSA has invested an estimated $ 1.4 billion in the station over the past 20 years.

Criticism

In the entire history of astronautics, the ISS is the most expensive and, perhaps, the most criticized space project. Criticism can be considered constructive or short-sighted, you can agree with it or challenge it, but one thing remains unchanged: the station exists, by its existence it proves the possibility of international cooperation in space and multiplies the experience of mankind in space flights, spending enormous financial resources on this.

Criticism in the USA

The criticism of the American side is mainly directed at the cost of the project, which already exceeds $ 100 billion. This money, according to critics, could be more profitably spent on automatic (unmanned) flights to explore near space or on science projects on Earth. In response to some of these criticisms, advocates of manned space travel say that criticism of the ISS project is short-sighted and that the material payoffs from manned space and space exploration are in the billions of dollars. Jerome Schnee (eng. Jerome schnee) estimated the indirect economic component from additional revenues associated with space exploration, as many times higher than the initial public investment.

However, a statement from the Federation of American Scientists argues that NASA's profit margins on spin-offs are actually very low, with the exception of aeronautical developments that improve aircraft sales.

Critics also say that NASA often counts third-party development as its achievements, ideas and developments of which may have been used by NASA, but had other prerequisites, independent of astronautics. Unmanned navigation, meteorological and military satellites are really useful and profitable, according to critics. NASA has broad coverage additional income from the construction of the ISS and from the work performed on it, while official list NASA's spending is much more concise and secret.

Criticism of scientific aspects

According to Professor Robert Park (eng. Robert park), most of the planned research studies are not of high priority. He notes that the goal of most scientific research in the space laboratory is to conduct it in microgravity, which can be done much cheaper in artificial zero gravity (in a special plane that flies along a parabolic trajectory). reduced gravity aircraft).

The plans for the construction of the ISS included two high-tech components - a magnetic alpha spectrometer and a centrifuge module (eng. Centrifuge Accommodations Module) ... The first has been operating at the station since May 2011. The creation of the second was abandoned in 2005 as a result of the correction of plans to complete the construction of the station. The highly specialized experiments carried out on the ISS are limited by the lack of appropriate equipment. For example, in 2007, studies were carried out on the influence of space flight factors on the human body, affecting such aspects as kidney stones, circadian rhythm (the cyclical nature of biological processes in the human body), the effect of cosmic radiation on the human nervous system. Critics argue that this research has little practical value, since the realities of today's near-space exploration are unmanned robotic ships.

Criticism of technical aspects

American journalist Jeff Faust (eng. Jeff foust) argued that too many expensive and dangerous spacewalks are required to maintain the ISS. Pacific Astronomical Society (eng. The Astronomical Society of the Pacific) at the beginning of the design, the ISS drew attention to the too high inclination of the station's orbit. If for the Russian side this makes launches cheaper, for the American side it is unprofitable. The concession that NASA made for the RF because of geographic location Baikonur, in the end, may increase the total cost of building the ISS.

In general, the debate in American society boils down to a discussion of the expediency of the ISS, in the aspect of astronautics in a broader sense. Some advocates argue that, in addition to its scientific value, it is - important example international cooperation. Others argue that the ISS could potentially, with the right efforts and improvements, make flights to and from more economical. One way or another, the main essence of the statements of responses to criticism is that it is difficult to expect a serious financial return from the ISS, rather, its main purpose is to become part of the global expansion of space flight capabilities.

Criticism in Russia

In Russia, criticism of the ISS project is mainly aimed at the inactive position of the leadership of the Federal Space Agency (FKA) on defending Russian interests in comparison with the American side, which always closely monitors compliance with its national priorities.

For example, journalists ask questions about why Russia does not have its own space station project, and why money is spent on a project owned by the United States, while this money could be spent on a completely Russian development. According to the head of RSC Energia, Vitaly Lopota, the reason for this is contractual obligations and lack of funding.

At one time, the Mir station became a source of experience for the United States in construction and research on the ISS, and after the Columbia accident, the Russian side, acting in accordance with a partnership agreement with NASA and delivering equipment and astronauts to the station, practically single-handedly saved the project. These circumstances gave rise to criticism of the FCA about the underestimation of the role of Russia in the project. For example, cosmonaut Svetlana Savitskaya noted that Russia's scientific and technical contribution to the project is underestimated, and that a partnership agreement with NASA does not meet the national interests financially. However, it should be borne in mind that at the beginning of the construction of the ISS, the Russian segment of the station was paid for by the United States, providing loans, the repayment of which is provided only by the end of construction.

Speaking about the scientific and technical component, the journalists note the small number of new scientific experiments carried out at the station, explaining this by the fact that Russia cannot manufacture and supply the necessary equipment to the station due to lack of funds. According to Vitaly Lopota, the situation will change when the simultaneous presence of astronauts on the ISS will increase to 6 people. In addition, questions are raised about security measures in force majeure situations associated with a possible loss of control of the plant. Thus, according to cosmonaut Valery Ryumin, the danger is that if the ISS becomes uncontrollable, it will not be possible to flood it like the Mir station.

International cooperation, which is one of the main arguments in favor of the station, is also controversial, according to critics. As you know, under the terms of an international agreement, countries are not obliged to share their scientific developments at the station. In 2006-2007, there were no new large initiatives or major projects in the space sphere between Russia and the United States. In addition, many believe that a country investing 75% of its funds in its project is unlikely to want to have a full partner, which is also its main competitor in the struggle for a leading position in outer space.

It is also criticized that significant funds were spent on manned programs, and a number of satellite development programs have failed. In 2003, Yuri Koptev, in an interview with Izvestia, said that for the sake of the ISS, space science again remained on Earth.

In 2014-2015, experts from the Russian space industry formed the opinion that the practical benefits of orbital stations have already been exhausted - over the past decades, all practically important research and discoveries have been made:

The era of orbital stations that began in 1971 will be a thing of the past. Experts see no practical feasibility either in maintaining the ISS after 2020, or in creating an alternative station with similar functionality: “The scientific and practical output from the Russian segment of the ISS is significantly lower than from the Salyut-7 and Mir orbital complexes. Scientific organizations not interested in repeating what has already been done.

Expert Magazine 2015

Delivery ships

Crews of manned expeditions on the ISS are delivered to the station on the Soyuz TPK according to a "short" six-hour scheme. Until March 2013, all expeditions flew to the ISS on a two-day basis. Until July 2011, cargo delivery, installation of station elements, rotation of crews, in addition to TPK Soyuz, were carried out under the Space Shuttle program, until the program was completed.

Table of flights of all manned and transport spacecraft to the ISS:

Ship	Type of	Agency / country	First flight	Last flight	Total flights

The International Space Station ISS is the embodiment of the most ambitious and progressive technical achievement cosmic scale on our planet. This is a huge space research laboratory for studying, conducting experiments, observing both the surface of our planet Earth, and for astronomical observations of deep space without the influence of the earth's atmosphere. At the same time, it is a home for astronauts and astronauts working on it, where they live and work, and a port for berthing space cargo and transport ships. Raising his head and looking up at the sky, a person saw the endless expanses of space and always dreamed, if not to conquer, then as much as possible to learn about it and comprehend all its secrets. The flight of the first cosmonaut into Earth orbit and the launch of satellites gave a powerful impetus to the development of astronautics and further space flights. But just a manned flight into near space is no longer enough. The gaze is directed further, to other planets, and in order to achieve this, there is still much to explore, learn and understand. And the most important thing for long-term human space flights is the need to establish the nature and consequences of the long-term impact on health of long-term weightlessness during flights, the possibility of life support long stay on spaceships and the elimination of all negative factors affecting the health and life of people, both in near and far outer space, identifying dangerous collisions of spaceships with other space objects and ensuring security measures.

To this end, they began to build, first, simply long-term manned orbital stations of the Salyut series, then a more advanced MIR with a complex modular architecture. Such stations could be permanently in orbit of the Earth and receive cosmonauts and astronauts delivered by spacecraft. But, having achieved certain results in space studies, thanks to space stations, time inexorably demanded further, more and more improved methods of studying space and the possibility of human life during flights in it. The construction of a new space station required huge, even greater capital investments than the previous ones, and it was already economically difficult for one country to move space science and technology forward. It should be noted that the former USSR (now the Russian Federation) and the United States of America had the leading positions in space and technical achievements at the level of orbital stations. Despite the contradictions in political views, these two powers understood the need for cooperation in space issues, and in particular, in the construction of a new orbital station, especially since the previous experience of joint cooperation in the flights of American astronauts to the Russian space station Mir gave tangible positive results ... Therefore, since 1993, representatives of the Russian Federation and the United States have been negotiating the joint design, construction and operation of the new International Space Station. The planned "Detailed work plan for the ISS" was signed.

In 1995. in Houston, the basic concept design of the station was approved. The adopted project of the modular architecture of the orbital station makes it possible to carry out its phased construction in space, attaching more and more sections of modules to the main already operating module, making its construction more accessible, easy and flexible, makes it possible to change the architecture in connection with the emerging needs and capabilities of countries -participants.

The basic configuration of the station was approved and signed in 1996. It consisted of two main segments: Russian and American. Countries such as Japan, Canada and the countries of the European Space Union also participate, have their scientific space equipment and conduct research.

28.01.1998 in Washington, a final agreement was signed on the start of construction of a new long-term, modular architecture, the International Space Station, and already on November 2 of the same year, the first multifunctional module of the ISS was launched into orbit by a Russian launch vehicle. Zarya».

(FGB- functional cargo block) - launched into orbit by the "Proton-K" rocket on 02.11.1998. From the moment the Zarya module was launched into near-earth orbit, the construction of the ISS began, i.e. assembly of the entire station begins. At the very beginning of construction, this module was needed as a basic one for supplying electricity, maintaining temperature conditions, for establishing communication and controlling orientation in orbit, and as a docking module for other modules and ships. It is fundamental for further construction. At present, Zarya is used mainly as a warehouse, and its engines adjust the station's orbit height.

The ISS Zarya module consists of two main compartments: a large instrument and cargo compartment and a sealed adapter, separated by a partition with a hatch 0.8 m in diameter. for the passage. One part is sealed and contains an instrument-cargo compartment with a volume of 64.5 cubic meters, which, in turn, is divided into an instrument compartment with blocks of on-board systems and a living area for work. These zones are separated by an interior partition. The compartment of the sealed adapter is equipped with onboard systems for mechanical docking with the rest of the modules.

There are three docking gateways on the block: active and passive at the ends and one at the side, for connecting with other modules. There are also antennas for communications, fuel tanks, solar panels that generate power, and Earth orientation devices. It has 24 large engines, 12 small ones, as well as 2 engines for maneuvering and maintaining the desired height. This module can independently perform unmanned flights in space.

ISS module "Unity" (NODE 1 - connecting)

The Unity module is the first American connecting module, which was launched into orbit on 12/04/1998 by the Space Shuttle “Indever” and on 12/01/1998 docked with the Zorya. This module has 6 docking locks for further connection of ISS modules and berthing of spaceships. It is a corridor between the rest of the modules and their living and working premises and a place for communications: gas and water pipelines, different systems communications, electrical cables, data transmission and other life-supporting communications.

ISS Zvezda module (SM - service module)

The Zvezda module is a Russian module launched into orbit by the Proton spacecraft on July 12, 2000 and docked on July 26, 2000 to Zarya. Thanks to this module, already in July 2000, the ISS on board was able to receive the first space crew consisting of Sergei Krikalov, Yuri Gidzenko and American William Shepard.

The unit itself consists of 4 compartments: a sealed transitional, sealed working, sealed intermediate chamber and a leaky aggregate. The transition compartment with four windows serves as a corridor for the passage of astronauts from different modules and compartments and for exiting the station into open space thanks to the airlock with a pressure relief valve installed here. Docking assemblies are attached to the outer part of the compartment: one axial and two lateral. Axial node "Zvezda" joins with "Zarya", and axial upper and lower - with other modules. Brackets and handrails, new sets of Kurs-NA antennas, docking targets, television cameras, a refueling unit and other units are also installed on the outer surface of the compartment.

The working compartment with a total length of 7.7 m, has 8 windows and consists of two cylinders of different diameters, equipped with carefully designed means of ensuring work and life. In a cylinder with a larger diameter, there is a living area with a volume of 35.1 cubic meters. meters. There are two cabins, a sanitary compartment, a kitchen with a refrigerator and a table for fixing objects, medical equipment and exercise equipment.

In a cylinder of smaller diameter there is a working area in which instruments, equipment and the main station control station are located. There are also control systems, emergency and warning panels for manual control.

Intermediate chamber with a volume of 7.0 cubic meters meters with two portholes serves as a transition between the service block and spaceships that dock to the stern. The docking hub provides docking of the Russian spacecraft Soyuz TM, Soyuz TMA, Progress M, Progress M2, as well as the European automatic vehicle ATV.

In the "Zvezda" unit compartment, at the stern, there are two correction engines, and on the side there are four blocks of attitude control engines. Sensors and antennas are fixed on the outside. As you can see, the Zvezda module has taken over some of the functions of the Zarya block.

ISS module "Destiny" in translation "Destiny" (LAB - laboratory)

Module Destiny - 02/08/2001 Space Shuttle Atlantis launched into orbit, and on 02/10/2002 the American scientific module Destiny was docked to the ISS to the front docking station of the Unity module. Astronaut Marsha Ivin took the module out of the Atlantis spacecraft using a 15-meter "hand", although the gaps between the spacecraft and the module were only five centimeters. It was the space station's first laboratory and, at one time, its think tank and largest inhabited block. The module was manufactured by the well-known American company Boeing. It consists of three connected cylinders. The ends of the module are made in the form of trimmed cones with sealed hatches that serve as entrances for astronauts. The module itself is intended mainly for scientific research in medicine, materials science, biotechnology, physics, astronomy and many other fields of science. There are 23 instrumented units for this. They are located in six pieces on the sides, six on the ceiling and five blocks on the floor. The poles have routes for pipelines and cables, they connect different racks. The module also has such life support systems: power supply, a sensor system for monitoring humidity, temperature and air quality. Thanks to this module and the equipment located in it, it became possible to conduct unique research in space on board the ISS in various fields of science.

ISS module "Quest" (А / L - universal lock chamber)

Module "Quest" - launched into orbit by the Shuttle Atlantis on July 12, 2001 and docked to the "Unity" module on July 15, 2001 at the right docking port using the "Canadarm 2" manipulator. This unit, first of all, is designed to provide spacewalk in space suits, both Russian-made Orland with an oxygen pressure of 0.4 atm, and in the American EMU spacesuits with a pressure of 0.3 atm. The fact is that before that, representatives of space crews could use Russian spacesuits only for exiting the Zarya block and American spacesuits when leaving through the Shuttle. The reduced pressure in space suits is used for greater elasticity of the suits, which creates significant comfort when moving.

ISS module "Quest" consists of two rooms. These are the crew quarters and equipment quarters. Crew quarters with a hermetic volume of 4.25 cubic meters. designed for an exit into space with hatches provided with convenient handrails, lighting, and connectors for supplying oxygen, water, devices for reducing pressure before going out, etc.

The equipment room is much larger in volume and its size is 29.75 cubic meters. m. It is intended for the necessary equipment when putting on and taking off spacesuits, their storage and de-nitrogenation of the blood of the station employees going into space.

ISS module "Pirs" (CO1 - docking compartment)

The Pirs module was launched into orbit on September 15, 2001 and docked with the Zarya module on September 17, 2001. Pirs was launched into space for docking with the ISS as a component of the Progress M-S01 specialized truck. Basically, "Pirs" plays the role of an airlock for two people to go out into outer space in Russian spacesuits of the "Orlan-M" type. The second purpose of Pirs is additional berthing places for spacecraft of such types as Soyuz TM and Progress M trucks. The third purpose of Pirs is to refuel the tanks of the Russian segments of the ISS with fuel, oxidizer and other fuel components. The dimensions of this module are relatively small: the length with docking units is 4.91 m, the diameter is 2.55 m, and the volume of the sealed compartment is 13 cubic meters. m. In the center, on opposite sides of the sealed hull with two circular frames, there are 2 identical hatches with a diameter of 1.0 m with small windows. This makes it possible to enter space from different directions, depending on the need. Convenient handrails are provided inside and outside the hatches. Inside there are also equipment, control panels for sluicing, communications, power supplies, pipelines for the transit of fuel pass. Outside there are communication antennas, antenna protection screens, and a fuel pumping unit.

There are two docking nodes located along the axis: active and passive. The active node "Pirs" is docked with the "Zarya" module, and the passive node on the opposite side is used for docking of spaceships.

ISS module "Harmony", "Harmony" (Node 2 - connecting)

Module "Harmony" - launched into orbit on October 23, 2007 by the "Discovery" shuttle from Cape Canavey on launch pad 39 and docked on October 26, 2007 with the ISS. Harmony was made in Italy for NASA. The docking of the module with the ISS itself was phased: first, the astronauts of the 16th crew Tanya and Wilson temporarily docked the module with the ISS Unity module on the left using the Canadian manipulator Canadarm-2, and after the shuttle took off and the PMA-2 adapter was reinstalled, by the operator Tanya the module again was detached from the Unity and moved to its permanent place of deployment to the front docking station of the Destiny. The final installation of "Harmony" was completed on November 14, 2007.

The module has the main dimensions: dimensions length 7.3 m, diameter 4.4 m, its sealed volume 75 cubic meters. m. The most important feature of the module is 6 docking stations for further connections with other modules and the construction of the ISS. The nodes are located along the front and rear axes, nadir below, zenith above and left and right side. It should be noted that thanks to the additional pressurized volume created in the module, three additional berths were created for the crew, equipped with all life support systems.

The main purpose of the "Harmony" module is the role of a connecting node for the further expansion of the International Space Station and, in particular, for the creation of attachment points and attachment to it of the space laboratories of the European "Columbus" and the Japanese "Kibo".

ISS module "Columbus", "Columbus" (COL)

Module "Columbus" - the first European module was launched into orbit by the shuttle "Atlantis" 02/07/2008. and is installed on the right connector of the "Harmony" module 12.02008. Columbus was commissioned by the European Space Agency in Italy, whose space agency has extensive experience in building sealed modules for the space station.

"Columbus" is a cylinder 6.9 m long and 4.5 m in diameter, where a laboratory with a volume of 80 cubic meters is located. meters with 10 jobs. Each workplace is a rack with cells, where instruments and equipment for specific studies are located. Each rack is equipped with a separate power supply, computers with the necessary software, communications, air conditioning and all the equipment necessary for research. At each workplace, a group of studies and experiments are conducted in a certain direction. For example, a workstation with a Biolab rack is equipped for experiments in the field of space biotechnology, cell biology, developmental biology, skeletal disease, neurobiology, and human preparation for long interplanetary flights with life support. There is a device for diagnosing protein crystallization and others. In addition to 10 racks with workplaces in the pressurized compartment, there are four more places equipped for scientific space research on the outer open side of the module in space under vacuum conditions. This makes it possible to conduct experiments on the state of bacteria in very extreme conditions, to understand the possibility of the appearance of life on other planets, and to conduct astronomical observations. Thanks to the SOLAR solar instruments complex, solar activity and the degree of the sun's impact on our Earth are monitored, and solar radiation is monitored. The Diarad radiometer, along with other space radiometers, measures solar activity. The SOLSPEC spectrometer is used to study the solar spectrum and its light through the earth's atmosphere. The uniqueness of the research lies in the fact that they can be carried out simultaneously on the ISS and on Earth, immediately comparing the results. Columbus enables video conferencing and high-speed data exchange. The module is monitored and coordinated by the European Space Agency from the Center located in the city of Oberpfaffenhofen, 60 km from Munich.

ISS module "Kibo" Japanese, translated as "Hope" (JEM-Japanese Experiment Module)

Module "Kibo" - was launched into orbit by the shuttle "Endeavor", first with only one part of it on 03/11/2008 and docked with the ISS on 03/14/2008. Despite the fact that Japan has its own cosmodrome at Tanegashima, due to the lack of delivery ships, Kibo was launched in parts from the American cosmodrome at Cape Canaveral. Overall, Kibo is the largest laboratory module on the ISS to date. It is developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency and consists of four main parts: the PM Science Laboratory, the Experimental Cargo Module (which in turn has an ELM-PS sealed part and an ELM-ES leaky part), a JEMRMS Remote Manipulator, and an EF External Leaky Platform.

"Pressurized Compartment" or Kibo Module Science Laboratory JEM PM- delivered and docked on 02.07.2008 by the shuttle "Discovery" - this is one of the compartments of the "Kibo" module, in the form of a sealed cylindrical structure measuring 11.2 m * 4.4 m. with 10 universal racks adapted for scientific instruments ... Five racks belong to America in payment for delivery, but any astronauts or cosmonauts can conduct scientific experiments at the request of any country. Climate parameters: temperature and humidity, air composition and pressure correspond to terrestrial conditions, which makes it possible to work comfortably in ordinary, familiar clothes and conduct experiments without special conditions. Here, in the sealed compartment of the scientific laboratory, not only are experiments carried out, but control over the entire laboratory complex, especially over the devices of the External Experimental Platform, is established.

"Experimental Cargo Bay" ELM- one of the compartments of the "Kibo" module has a hermetic part ELM - PS and a leaky part ELM - ES. Its sealed part is docked with the upper hatch of the PM laboratory module and has the shape of a cylinder 4.2 m with a diameter of 4.4 m. The inhabitants of the station freely pass here from the laboratory, since the climate conditions are the same here. The sealed part is mainly used as an addition to the sealed laboratory and is intended for storing equipment, tools, and experimental results. There are 8 universal stands, which, if necessary, can be used for experiments. Initially, on March 14, 2008, the ELM-PS was docked with the "Harmony" module, and on June 6, 2008, by the astronauts of expedition No. 17, it was re-installed to a permanent place in the Sealed compartment of the laboratory.

The non-hermetic part is the outer section of the cargo module and at the same time a component of the "External Experimental Platform", since it is attached to its end. Its dimensions are 4.2 m long, 4.9 m wide and 2.2 m high. The purpose of this site is to store equipment, experimental results, samples and transport them. This part with the results of experiments and used equipment can be undocked, if necessary, from the unpressurized Kibo platform and delivered to Earth.

"External Experimental Platform"JEM EF or, as it is also called," Terrace "- delivered to the ISS on March 12, 2009. and is located immediately behind the laboratory module, representing the leaky part of the "Kibo", with platform dimensions: 5.6m length, 5.0m width and 4.0m height. Here, various numerous experiments are carried out directly in open space in various fields of science to study the external effects of space. The platform is located immediately behind the sealed laboratory compartment and is connected to it by an airtight hatch. The manipulator located at the end of the laboratory module can install the necessary equipment for experiments and remove unnecessary equipment from the experimental platform. The platform has 10 experimental compartments, it is well lit and there are video cameras recording everything that happens.

Remote manipulator(JEM RMS) - A manipulator or mechanical arm that is mounted in the bow of the pressurized compartment of a scientific laboratory and serves to move loads between the experimental cargo compartment and an external unpressurized platform. In general, the arm consists of two parts, a large ten-meter for heavy loads and a removable small 2.2 meter long for more precise work. Both types of hands have 6 rotating joints to perform different movements. The main manipulator was delivered in June 2008, and the second in July 2009.

This Japanese Kibo module is managed by the Control Center in Tsukuba city north of Tokyo. Scientific experiments and research carried out in the Kibo laboratory significantly expand the scope of scientific activities in space. The modular design of the laboratory itself and a large number of universal racks provide ample opportunities for building a variety of studies.

Racks for carrying out bioexperiments are equipped with ovens with the establishment of the required temperature regimes, which makes it possible to do experiments on the growth of various crystals, including biological ones. There are also incubators, aquariums and sterile rooms for animals, fish, amphibians and the cultivation of a variety of plant cells and organisms. The effect on them of various levels of radiation is being studied. The laboratory is equipped with dosimeters and other state-of-the-art devices.

ISS module "Search" (MIM2 small research module)

The Poisk module is a Russian module launched from the Baikonur cosmodrome by the Soyuz-U carrier rocket, delivered by a specially modernized cargo vehicle, the Progress M-MIM2 module on November 10, 2009, and was docked to the Zvezda module's upper anti-aircraft docking station Two days later, on November 12, 2009, the docking was carried out only by means of the Russian manipulator, abandoning Canadarm2, since financial issues were not resolved with the Americans. The Poisk was developed and built in Russia by RSC Energia on the basis of the previous Pirs module, with the completion of all the shortcomings and significant improvements. "Search" has a cylindrical shape with dimensions: 4.04 m in length and 2.5 m in diameter. It has two docking nodes, active and passive, located along the longitudinal axis, and on the left and right sides there are two hatches with small windows and handrails for going into outer space. In general, it is almost like the Pierce, but more advanced. In its space there are two workplaces for scientific tests, there are mechanical adapters with the help of which the necessary equipment is installed. Inside the pressurized compartment, a volume of 0.2 cubic meters is allocated. m. for devices, and a universal workplace has been created on the outside of the module.

In general, this multifunctional module is intended: for additional docking places with the Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, for providing additional spacewalks, for placing scientific equipment and conducting scientific tests inside and outside the module, for refueling from transport ships and, ultimately, this module should take over the functions of the Zvezda service module.

ISS module "Transquility" or "Tranquility" (NODE3)

Module "Transquility" - the American connecting living module was launched into orbit on 02/08/2010 from the LC-39 launch pad (Kennedy Space Center) by the Endeavor shuttle and docked with the ISS on 08/10/2010 to the Unity module. "Tranquility" was manufactured in Italy by order of NASA. The module was named after the Sea of ​​Tranquility on the Moon, where the first astronaut from Apollo 11 landed. With the advent of this module, life on the ISS has really become quieter and much more comfortable. First, the internal useful volume of 74 cubic meters was added, the length of the module is 6.7 m with a diameter of 4.4 m. The dimensions of the module made it possible to create the most modern system life support, from the toilet to the provision and control of the highest levels of inhaled air. There are 16 racks with various equipment for air circulation systems, cleaning, removing contaminants from it, systems for processing liquid waste into water, and other systems to create a comfortable ecological environment for life on the ISS. The module provides for everything to the smallest detail, equipped with simulators, all kinds of holders for objects, all conditions for work, training and rest. except high system life support, the design provides 6 docking nodes: two axial and 4 lateral for docking with spaceships and improving the ability to reinstall modules in various combinations. The Dome module is connected to one of the Tranquility docking stations for a wide panoramic view.

ISS module "Kupol" (cupola)

The Kupol module was delivered to the ISS together with the Tranquility module and, as mentioned above, docked with its lower connecting node. This is the smallest module of the ISS with dimensions of 1.5 m in height and 2 m in diameter. But there are 7 windows, which allow observing both the work on the ISS and the Earth. There are equipped workplaces for monitoring and control of the "Kanadarm-2" manipulator, as well as control systems for the station modes. The portholes made of 10 cm quartz glass are located in the form of a dome: in the center there is a large round one with a diameter of 80 cm and around it 6 trapezoidal ones. This place is also a favorite vacation spot.

ISS module "Rassvet" (MIM 1)

Module "Rassvet" - 05/14/2010 launched into orbit and delivered by the US space shuttle Atlantis and docked with the ISS with the Zarya nadir docking port on 05/18/2011. This is the first Russian module that was delivered to the ISS not by a Russian spacecraft, but by an American one. The docking of the module was carried out by American astronauts Garrett Reisman and Pierce Sellers for three hours. The module itself, like the previous modules of the Russian segment of the ISS, was manufactured in Russia by the Rocket and Space Corporation Energia. The module is very similar to the previous Russian modules, but with significant improvements. It has five workplaces: a glove box, low-temperature and high-temperature bio-thermostats, a vibration protection platform, and a universal workplace with the necessary equipment for scientific and applied research. The module has dimensions of 6.0m by 2.2m and is intended, in addition to carrying out research work in the fields of biotechnology and materials science, for additional storage of cargo, for the possibility of using it as a berthing port for spaceships and for additional refueling of the station with fuel. The Rassvet module also included an airlock, an additional radiator-heat exchanger, a portable workstation and a spare element of the ERA robotic arm for the future Russian scientific laboratory module.

Multifunctional module "Leonardo" (PMM-permanent multipurpose module)

Module "Leonardo" - launched into orbit and delivered by the shuttle "Discovery" on 05.24.10 and docked to the ISS on 03/01/2011. This module previously belonged to the three multipurpose logistics modules "Leonardo, Rafaello" and "Donatello" manufactured in Italy to deliver the necessary cargo to the ISS. They transported cargo and were delivered by shuttles "Discovery" and "Atlantis", docking with the module "Unity". But the Leonardo module was re-equipped with the installation of life support systems, power supply, thermal control, fire extinguishing, data transmission and processing, and, starting in March 2011, became part of the ISS as a baggage sealed multifunctional module for permanent placement of cargo. The module has the dimensions of a cylindrical part of 4.8 m by a diameter of 4.57 ms with an internal living volume of 30.1 cubic meters. meters and serves as a good additional volume for the American segment of the ISS.

ISS Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM)

The BEAM module is an American experimental inflatable module created by Bigelow Aerospace. The head of the company, Robber Bigelow, is a billionaire in the hotel system of hotels and at the same time a passionate fan of space. The company is engaged in space tourism. Robber Bigelow's dream is a hotel system in space, on the Moon and Mars. The creation of an inflatable housing and hotel complex in space turned out to be an excellent idea that has a number of advantages over modules made of iron heavy rigid structures. Inflatable modules of the BEAM type are much lighter, smaller in size for transportation and much more economical in financial terms. NASA deservedly appreciated this idea of ​​the company and in December 2012 signed a contract with the company for 17.8 million to create an inflatable module for the ISS, and in 2013 signed a contract with Sierra Nevada Corporatio to create a docking mechanism for Beam and the ISS. In 2015, the BEAM module was built and on April 16, 2016, the private company SpaceX's Dragon spacecraft in its container in the cargo hold delivered it to the ISS where it was successfully docked behind the Tranquility module. On the ISS, the cosmonauts deployed the module, inflated it with air, checked it for leaks, and on June 6, the American astronaut of the ISS Jeffrey Williams and the Russian cosmonaut Oleg Skripochka entered it and installed all the necessary equipment there. The BEAM module on the ISS, when unfolded, is an interior room without windows measuring up to 16 cubic meters. Its dimensions are 5.2 meters in diameter and 6.5 meters in length. Weight 1360 kg. The body of the module consists of 8 air tanks made of metal bulkheads, an aluminum folding structure and several layers of strong elastic fabric located at a certain distance from each other. Inside the module, as mentioned above, was equipped with the necessary research equipment. The pressure is set to the same as on the ISS. It is planned that BEAM will stay at the space station for 2 years and will be mostly closed; astronauts should visit it only to check for leaks and its general structural integrity in space conditions only 4 times a year. In 2 years I plan to undock the BEAM module from the ISS, after which it will burn up in the outer layers of the atmosphere. The main task of the BEAM module presence on the ISS is to test its structure for strength, tightness and operation in harsh space conditions. For 2 years, it is planned to carry out a check to ensure that it is protected from radiation and other types of cosmic radiation, and to resist small space debris. Since in the future it is planned to use inflatable modules for astronauts to live in them, the results of the conditions for maintaining comfortable conditions (temperature, pressure, air, tightness) will give an answer to the questions of further developments and the structure of such modules. At the moment, Bigelow Aerospace is already developing the next version of a similar, but already a residential inflatable module with windows and a much larger volume "B-330", which can be used on the Lunar space station and on Mars.

Today, anyone from Earth can look at the ISS in the night sky with the naked eye, like a luminous moving star moving at an angular velocity of about 4 degrees per minute. Its greatest magnitude is observed from 0m to -04m. The ISS moves around the Earth and at the same time makes one revolution in 90 minutes, or 16 revolutions per day. The ISS altitude above the Earth is about 410-430 km, but due to friction in the remnants of the atmosphere, due to the influence of the Earth's gravitational forces, in order to avoid a dangerous collision with space debris and for successful docking with delivery ships, the ISS height is constantly being adjusted. The altitude is corrected using the motors of the Zarya module. The originally planned lifetime of the station was 15 years, and has now been extended approximately until 2020.

Based on materials from http://www.mcc.rsa.ru