The kingdom of eukaryotes includes the kingdoms of plants, animals and fungi.

1. Plants are autotrophs, they make organic substances for themselves in the process of photosynthesis. Animals and fungi are heterotrophs; ready-made organic substances are obtained from food.

2. Animals are able to move, but grow only before the start of reproduction. Plants and fungi do not move, but grow indefinitely throughout life.

3. Differences in the structure and function of the cell

  • Only plants have plastids and a large central vacuole.
  • Only animals have a cell center (centrioles) and no cell wall.
  • The storage carbohydrate in plants is starch, while in animals and fungi it is glycogen. The cell wall of plants is made up of cellulose (fiber), while in fungi it is made of chitin.

Tests

1. Mushrooms differ from plants in that
A) have a cellular structure
B) incapable of active movement
B) unable to photosynthesis
D) grow throughout life

2. What features of the vital activity of fungi indicate their similarity with plants
A) the use of solar energy in photosynthesis


D) the release of oxygen into the atmosphere

3. Organisms with a heterotrophic mode of nutrition that cannot move belong to the kingdom
A) plants
B) animals
B) mushrooms
D) bacteria

4. What features of the vital activity of fungi bring them closer to plants
A) absorption of organic matter from the soil
B) unlimited growth throughout life
C) the synthesis of organic substances from inorganic
D) the use of ready-made organic substances in food

5. What is the similarity of fungi with multicellular animals
A) absorb nutrients from the entire surface of the body
B) feed on ready-made organic substances
B) are autotrophs in terms of nutrition
D) have unlimited growth

6. Reserve nutrients in mushrooms include
A) glycogen
B) proteins
B) fats
D) starch

7. Organisms whose cells have chloroplasts belong to the kingdom
A) animals
B) plants
B) mushrooms
D) bacteria

8. Both animal and plant cells have
A) core
B) vacuoles with cell sap
B) chloroplasts
D) fiber sheath

9. Eukaryotes with an autotrophic mode of nutrition belong to the kingdom
A) animals
B) plants
B) bacteria
D) mushrooms

10. In the process of life, plants use organic substances that they
A) absorb from the air
B) absorbed from the soil
B) obtained from other organisms
D) they create themselves in the process of photosynthesis

11. Mushrooms differ from plants in that they
A) grow throughout life
B) contain ribosomes in cells
B) according to the method of nutrition - heterotrophic organisms
D) absorb water and minerals from the soil

12. Select plant traits
A) autotrophs, can grow all their lives
B) autotrophs, grow only before the start of reproduction
B) heterotrophs, can grow all their lives
D) heterotrophs, grow only before the start of reproduction

13. Select animal signs



14. Choose signs of mushrooms
A) autotrophs, can grow all their lives
B) autotrophs, grow only before the start of reproduction
B) heterotrophs, can grow all their lives
D) heterotrophs, grow only before the start of reproduction

15. Choose signs of mushrooms



16) Select plant traits
A) there is a solid cell wall, a reserve substance glycogen
B) there is no solid cell wall, the reserve substance is glycogen
C) there is a solid cell wall, a reserve substance is starch
D) there is no solid cell wall, the reserve substance is starch

17. Select animal signs
A) there is a solid cell wall, a reserve substance glycogen
B) there is no solid cell wall, the reserve substance is glycogen
C) there is a solid cell wall, a reserve substance is starch
D) there is no solid cell wall, the reserve substance is starch

Mushrooms- one of the largest and most prosperous groups of organisms. These are eukaryotes that do not have chlorophyll, and therefore, they feed on ready-made organic substances, like animals, and glycogen is a reserve nutrient. However, they have a rigid cell wall, they are not able to move, like plants, so they were allocated to a special kingdom.

Mushroom reproduction happens in three ways:

Widely known hat mushrooms - chanterelles, fly agaric, white, milk mushrooms. Their fruit bodies represented by a stem and a cap, consist of tightly fitting mycelium filaments. Hats are dyed. There are tubular cap mushrooms, in which the lower layer of the cap is formed by tubules ( White mushroom, boletus) and lamellar, with a lower layer of plates (russula, chanterelles). Millions of spores are formed in tubules and plates.

mold mushrooms- mucor and penicillium, develop on food residues, in soil, manure, on fruits. Penicillium produces substances that have a detrimental effect on bacteria. They are isolated and used to treat inflammatory diseases. This group also includes yeast - which can form colonies, this is used in baking.

Useful value of mushrooms:

Saprophytic fungi, together with soil bacteria, have an impact on soil formation, as they decompose organic matter into inorganic.
Together with bacteria, saprophytic fungi are used to treat wastewater.
One of the most ancient uses of mushrooms is fermentation.
The most famous varieties of cheese are the product of the simultaneous work of bacteria and various kinds mushrooms.
Obtaining antibiotics - for example, penicillin.
Some mushrooms are the most convenient objects for research and genetic engineering.
They are a cheap source of feed protein.

Harmful value of mushrooms:

Saprophytic fungi, settling on food and various organic materials, can cause spoilage.
causative agents of various diseases.

Mushrooms ( Mycota)

Mushrooms are heterotrophic organisms, the body of which is called mycelium (mycelium), consisting of individual threads - hyphae with apical (apical) growth and lateral branching. The mycelium penetrates the substrate and absorbs nutrients from it with its entire surface (substrate mycelium), and is also located on its surface and can rise above the substrate (surface and aerial mycelium). Reproductive organs are usually formed on aerial mycelium.

There are non-cellular, or cenotic mycelium, devoid of partitions and representing, as it were, one giant cell with a large number of nuclei, and cellular, or septate mycelium, divided by partitions - septa into separate cells containing from one to many nuclei. For representatives of the classes of chytridiomycetes, oomycetes and zygomycetes, conventionally called lower mushrooms, non-cellular mycelium is characteristic. Everyone has higher mushrooms- ascomycetes, bisidiomycetes and deuteromycetes - cell mycelium.

The cell wall contains chitin. Spare nutrient glycogen (animal starch).

Fungi reproduce vegetatively, asexually and sexually.

According to the structure of the mycelium and the characteristics of sexual reproduction, six main classes of fungi are distinguished: Chytridiomycetes- chytridiomycetes, Zygomycetes- zygomycetes, Ascomycetes- ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes- basidiomycetes, Oomycetes- oomycetes and Deuteromycetes- deuteromycetes.

In medicine, from the class of ascomycetes, or marsupials, they use baker's yeast and ergot, from the class of basidiomycetes - chaga (tinder beveled or birch mushroom), from deuteromycetes - species of the genus Penicilli.

A revolutionary event in the history of medicine was the discovery of the first antibiotic penicillin, obtained from fungi of the genus Penicillium. Penicillin is active against all staphylococcal infections and gram-positive bacteria and is almost non-toxic to humans. Despite the fact that at present many synthetic derivatives of penicillin have been introduced into medical practice, the basis for obtaining this medicinal raw material is the industrial cultivation of penicillin.

Chaga preparations have a stimulating and tonic effect on the body, have antibiotic properties against many microorganisms, cure gastritis, promote the resorption of malignant tumors in early stages development.

Yeast used for a range of industries Food Industry(obtaining beer, wine, etc.), they are nutritious in themselves, as they contain proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins. The most important thing for a person is Saccharomyces cerevisiae(baker's yeast). Yeast biomass is well absorbed by the human body, so yeast is specially grown for medicinal purposes. They are used in liquid form and in tablets.

Ergot is used as a source of alkaloids that cause contraction of smooth muscles used in gynecological practice.

Many mushrooms have valuable food and medicinal properties. The science of treating various diseases with mushrooms is called fungotherapy.

Spare parts: in eumycetes, glucose is stored in the form of alpha-glucan (close to glycogen), and in oomycetes in the form of beta-glucan (close to laminarin); trehalose oxaccharide; sugar alcohols; lipids (in the form of droplets of fat). Nutrition(osmotrophic) is largely associated with plants, so fungi secrete enzymes for the destruction of pignin (pectinase, xylonase, cellobiase, amylase, lignase) and the destruction of ether bonds in cutin wax (cutylase).

Cleavage products enter the cells in three ways: 1. In a dissolved form (due to the turgor pressure of hyphae) 2. Passively (along the substance concentration gradient) 3. Actively (with the help of special protein transporter molecules) Environmental groups . According to trophic and topical features.

Topically: soil (red boletus (Leccinum aurantiacum), real camelina (Lactarius deliciosus)) and water (mukor - on the surface, camposporium - underwater structures)

The role of fungi in nature.

Destruction of polymers, Fixation of biophilic elements in the mushroom mass, Soil formation, Transformation of N, P, K, S and others into substances available for minimal plant nutrition, Creation of enzymes in the soil and biologically active substances, Destruction rocks and minerals, Formation of minerals, Participation in trophic chains, Regulation of the structure of the community and its abundance, Detoxification of pollutants (substances that can harm human health or environment), symbiosis with plants and animals.

The value of mushrooms for humans.

Usage: Biotechnology, antibiotic producers, immunomodulator producers, anti-cancer, hormonal, anti-sclerotic, chitin - burn and wound healing, high adsorption, biopolymer destruction (enzymes), food industry (juice clarification), production of organic acids, phytohormone release, food and feed (yeast , basidium), biological pesticides, plant mycorrhization.

This group of organisms was previously classified as plants. At present, mushrooms, numbering about 120 thousand species, have been identified as an independent kingdom, since according to a number biological properties they are different from bacteria, plants and animals.

Fungal cells, unlike bacteria, are eukaryotes. They are distinguished from plants by the absence of chlorophyll and the use of ready-made food for nutrition. organic matter, i.e., according to the type of nutrition, they are heterotrophs. The reserve nutrient in mushrooms is glycogen, and not starch, which is characteristic of most plants. According to the method of nutrition (absorption) and unlimited growth, fungi approach plants. With animals they are brought together by the fact that urea is involved in the metabolism. Mushrooms are also characterized by the formation of a pronounced cell wall, reproduction by spores, immobility in the vegetative state, etc.

The classification of fungi is based on the methods of reproduction and morphological features.

The fungi kingdom Mycetalia, Fungi, Mycota is divided into two half-kingdoms: lower fungi (Myxobionta) and higher fungi (Mycobionta).

Lower fungi are characterized by the presence of rudimentary as well as unicellular mycelium. These include mushrooms of the department Myxomycota with the subdivision Myxomycotina, which unites the class Phycomycetes (phycomycetes) - aquatic fungi.

Phycomycetes class includes about 700 species of fungi. Phycomycetes have a well-developed unicellular non-septate (having no partitions) multinuclear mycelium. Mushrooms of this class are subdivided into the order of Mucorales Mucorales, the Mysogasaeae family, which unites the main genera Mucor, Rhizopus and Thamnidium, which are the causative agents of defects (spoilage) of dairy and other products.

Higher mushrooms include spore-forming yeasts, as well as fungi characterized by multicellular mycelium. Cells have one nucleus, many have two or more.

The sub-kingdom of higher fungi includes the department true (real) fungi (Eumycota), the subdivision true fungi (Eumycotina), which combines three classes: Ascomycetes - ascomycetes, or marsupial fungi, Basidiomycetes - basidiomycetes, or basidiomycetes, and the class of imperfect fungi (Deuteromycetes - deuteromycetes, fungi imperfecti).

Ascomycete class (from lat. ascus- bag + Greek. myces- mushroom) unites more than 30 thousand species. characteristic feature for the whole class is sexual sporulation and the presence in cells (bags) usually 8 endogenous spores (ascospores), sometimes 4 or 2. The class Ascomycetes includes the order Endomycetales, which includes the family Endomycetaceae, which includes non-mycelial unicellular spore-forming fungi called yeasts, in particular yeasts of the genus Saccharomyces. These yeasts are used in the manufacture of bread, wine, beer, alcohol, etc. Spore-forming yeasts also include lactic yeasts of the species Saccharomyces lactis and S. casei.

Class Basidiomycetes (from the Greek. basidion- small base, foundation + myces- mushroom) combines more than 20 thousand species of fungi with a developed septate mycelium. The main organ of sporulation in them are club-like structures - basidia (homolog of asca). From the basidiospores, the primary (haploid) mycelium develops, which, as a result of the fusion of hyphae, gives the secondary (diploid) mycelium with the fusion of the nuclei, that is, sexual reproduction begins.

The class of imperfect fungi includes more than 25 thousand fungi that do not have sexual sporulation. They have a developed multicellular mycelium. Non-spore-forming yeasts are also included in this class.

The absence of a sexual cycle in imperfect fungi forces researchers to classify fungi into orders, families, and genera only on the basis of morphology. Therefore, several classifications have been proposed for mushrooms of this class.

According to the nature of conidial sporulation, the class of deuteromycetes is divided into several orders, among which highest value have hyphomycelial (Hyphomycetales) fungi (from the Greek. hype- fabric + myces- mushroom) and Protoascales (protoasco fungi). The order of hyphomycelial fungi includes the Moniliaceae family, which includes the mold genera Aspergillus, Penicillium, Cladosporium, Alternaria, Catenularia, as well as the milk mold Geotrichum (Oidium, Endomyces) lactis, which are frequent causative agents of defects in dairy products.